2020 3 DRUG SUPPLY - United Nations ...
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
3 DRUG SUPPLY 2020
© United Nations, June 2020. All rights reserved worldwide. ISBN: 978-92-1-148345-1 eISBN: 978-92-1-005047-0 United Nations publication, Sales No. E.20.XI.6 This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source. Suggested citation: World Drug Report 2020 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.20.XI.6). No use of this publication may be made for resale or any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission in writing from UNODC. Applications for such permission, with a statement of purpose and intent of the reproduction, should be addressed to the Research and Trend Analysis Branch of UNODC. DISCLAIMER The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of UNODC or contributory organizations, nor does it imply any endorsement. Comments on the report are welcome and can be sent to: Division for Policy Analysis and Public Affairs United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime PO Box 500 1400 Vienna Austria Tel: (+43) 1 26060 0 Fax: (+43) 1 26060 5827 E-mail: wdr@un.org Website: www.unodc.org/wdr2020
PREFACE
This is a time for science and solidarity, as United countries, are deprived of access to controlled drugs
Nations Secretary-General António Guterres has said, for pain relief and other essential medical uses.
highlighting the importance of trust in science and Governments have repeatedly pledged to work
of working together to respond to the global COVID- together to address the many challenges posed by the
19 pandemic. world drug problem, as part of commitments to
The same holds true for our responses to the world achieve the Sustainable Development Goals, and most
drug problem. To be effective, balanced solutions to recently in the 2019 Ministerial Declaration adopted
drug demand and supply must be rooted in evidence by the Commission on Narcotic Drugs (CND). But
and shared responsibility. This is more important data indicates that development assistance to address
than ever, as illicit drug challenges become increas- drug control has actually fallen over time.
ingly complex, and the COVID-19 crisis and Balanced, comprehensive and effective responses to
economic downturn threaten to worsen their impacts, drugs depend on governments to live up to their
on the poor, marginalized and vulnerable most of all. promises, and provide support to leave no one behind.
Some 35.6 million people suffer from drug use dis- Health-centred, rights-based and gender-responsive
orders globally. While more people use drugs in approaches to drug use and related diseases deliver
developed countries than in developing countries, better public health outcomes. We need to do more
and wealthier segments of society have a higher preva- to share this learning and support implementation,
lence of drug use, people who are socially and most of all in developing countries, including by
economically disadvantaged are more likely to develop strengthening cooperation with civil society and
drug use disorders. youth organizations.
Only one out of eight people who need drug-related The international community has an agreed legal
treatment receive it. While one out of three drug users framework and the commitments outlined in the
is a woman, only one out of five people in treatment 2019 CND Ministerial Declaration. The United
is a woman. People in prison settings, minorities, Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) pro-
immigrants and displaced people also face barriers to vides integrated support to build national capacities
treatment due to discrimination and stigma. Of the and strengthen international cooperation to turn
11 million people who inject drugs, half of them are pledges into effective action on the ground.
living with hepatitis C, and 1.4 million with HIV. The theme for this year’s International Day against
Around 269 million people used drugs in 2018, up Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking, “Better Knowledge
30 per cent from 2009, with adolescents and young for Better Care”, highlights the importance of scien-
adults accounting for the largest share of users. More tific evidence to strengthen responses to the world
people are using drugs, and there are more drugs, and drug problem and support the people who need us.
more types of drugs, than ever. It also speaks to the ultimate goal of drug control,
Seizures of amphetamines quadrupled between 2009 namely the health and welfare of humankind.
and 2018. Even as precursor control improves glob- Through learning and understanding we find com-
ally, traffickers and manufacturers are using designer passion and seek solutions in solidarity.
chemicals, devised to circumvent international con- It is in this spirit that I present the UNODC World
trols, to synthesize amphetamine, methamphetamine Drug Report 2020, and I urge governments and all
and ecstasy. Production of heroin and cocaine remain stakeholders to make the best use of this resource.
among the highest levels recorded in modern times.
The growth in global drug supply and demand poses
challenges to law enforcement, compounds health
risks and complicates efforts to prevent and treat drug
use disorders. Ghada Waly
At the same time, more than 80% of the world’s Executive Director
population, mostly living in low- and middle-income United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
1Acknowledgements
The World Drug Report 2020 was prepared by the Research and Trend Analysis Branch, Division for
Policy Analysis and Public Affairs, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), under the
supervision of Jean-Luc Lemahieu, Director of the Division, and Angela Me, Chief of the Research and
Trend Analysis Branch, and the coordination of Chloé Carpentier, Chief of the Drug Research Section.
Content overview Editing
Chloé Carpentier Jonathan Gibbons
Angela Me
Graphic design and production
Analysis and drafting Anja Korenblik
Thomas Pietschmann Suzanne Kunnen
Kristina Kuttnig
Data management and estimate production
Federica Martinelli
Enrico Bisogno
Hernan Epstein Data support
Andrea Oterová Natalia Ivanova
Umidjon Rakhmonberdiev Lisa Weijler
Francesca Rosa
Administrative support
Ali Saadeddin
Andrada-Maria Filip
Antoine Vella
Iulia Lazar
Mapping
Antero Keskinen
Francesca Massanello
Irina Tsoy
Lorenzo Vita
Review and comments
The World Drug Report 2020 benefited from the expertise of and invaluable contributions from
UNODC colleagues in all divisions.
The Research and Trend Analysis Branch acknowledges the invaluable contributions and advice
provided by the World Drug Report Scientific Advisory Committee:
Jonathan Caulkins Afarin Rahimi-Movaghar
Paul Griffiths Peter Reuter
Marya Hynes Alison Ritter
Vicknasingam B. Kasinather Francisco Thoumi
Charles ParryCONTENTS
BOOKLET 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY, IMPACT OF COVID-19, POLICY IMPLICATIONS
BOOKLET 2 DRUG USE AND HEALTH CONSEQUENCES
BOOKLET 3 DRUG SUPPLY
PREFACE...................................................................................................................... 1
EXPLANATORY NOTES............................................................................................... 5
SCOPE OF THE BOOKLET........................................................................................... 7
OPIATES....................................................................................................................... 9
Opium poppy cultivation and opiate production........................................................................... 9
Opium production has been fluctuating greatly but global opiate seizures
have increased steadily over the past two decades.......................................................................... 11
Opiate trafficking............................................................................................................................ 15
COCAINE................................................................................................................... 21
Cultivation of coca bush and manufacture of cocaine................................................................ 21
Quantities of cocaine seized show early signs of stabilization at a high level.......................... 26
Cocaine trafficking.......................................................................................................................... 29
AMPHETAMINE-TYPE STIMULANTS......................................................................... 37
Manufacture of amphetamine-type stimulants continues to be dominated
by methamphetamine.................................................................................................................................. 37
Quantity of amphetamine-type stimulants seized globally has increased
over the past two decades............................................................................................................. 37
Supply of methamphetamine........................................................................................................ 39
Supply of amphetamine................................................................................................................. 53
Supply of “ecstasy” ........................................................................................................................ 60
CANNABIS................................................................................................................. 67
Cannabis cultivation....................................................................................................................... 67
Trafficking in cannabis.................................................................................................................... 70
ANNEX....................................................................................................................... 75
GLOSSARY................................................................................................................. 91
REGIONAL GROUPINGS............................................................................................ 93
BOOKLET 4 CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES: EVOLVING TRENDS AND NEW CHALLENGES
BOOKLET 5 SOCIOECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS AND DRUG USE DISORDERS
BOOKLET 6 OTHER DRUG POLICY ISSUES
3EXPLANATORY NOTES
The designations employed and the presentation of The following abbreviations have been used in the
the material in the World Drug Report do not imply present booklet:
the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the
part of the Secretariat of the United Nations con- AIDS acquired immunodeficiency
cerning the legal status of any country, territory, city syndrome
or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delim-
ATS amphetamine-type stimulants
itation of its frontiers or boundaries.
Countries and areas are referred to by the names APAAN alpha-phenylacetoacetonitrile
that were in official use at the time the relevant data
were collected. ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian
Since there is some scientific and legal ambiguity Nations
about the distinctions between “drug use”, “drug
misuse” and “drug abuse”, the neutral term “drug COVID-19 coronavirus disease
use” is used in the World Drug Report. The term
“misuse” is used only to denote the non-medical use Europol European Union Agency for Law
of prescription drugs. Enforcement Cooperation
All uses of the word “drug” and the term “drug use” DEA Drug Enforcement
in the World Drug Report refer to substances con- Administration
trolled under the international drug control
conventions, and their non-medical use. EMCDDA European Monitoring Centre for
All analysis contained in the World Drug Report is Drugs and Drug Addiction
based on the official data submitted by Member
States to the UNODC through the annual report FARC Revolutionary Armed Forces of
questionnaire unless indicated otherwise. Colombia
The data on population used in the World Drug ha hectares
Report are taken from: World Population Prospects:
The 2019 Revision (United Nations, Department of INCB International Narcotics Control
Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division). Board
References to dollars ($) are to United States dollars,
unless otherwise stated. MDMA 3,4-methylenedioxymeth-
amphetamine
References to tons are to metric tons, unless other-
wise stated. 3,4-MDP-2-P 3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2-
propanone
MDPV methylenedioxypyrovalerone
P-2-P 1-phenyl-2-propanone
PMK piperonyl methyl ketone
UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs
and Crime
5SCOPE OF THE BOOKLET
This, the third booklet of the World Drug Report The booklet provides an overview of the extent of
2020, contributes evidence to support the inter- illicit crop cultivation and trends in drug trafficking
national community in implementing operational at the global and regional levels. The analysis is pre-
recommendations dedicated to supply reduction sented by drug type and, using the latest estimates
and related measures, effective law enforcement as a basis, the booklet reviews the general situation
and responses to drug-related crime, including and trends in the supply of opiates, cocaine, amphet-
the recommendations contained in the outcome amine-type stimulants and cannabis. In addition,
document of the special session of the General some issues emerging in these markets are discussed,
Assembly, held in 2016. such as the impact of changes in illicit crop cultiva-
tion and production along the drug supply chain to
the main consumption markets, and emerging mar-
kets along the drug trafficking routes and beyond
in other regions.
Global seizures
2018
5,610 1,131 704 228
tons tons tons tons
cannabis cocaine opium methamphetamine
139 73 21 12
tons tons tons tons
heroin and pharmaceu�cal amphetamine ecstasy
morphine opioids
7Opiates
3
OPIATES
Global cul�va�on Change from Global number of users
2019 previous year
2019
-30% rs
0 ha u se
80
d
o p i oi
,
58 million
240
337,325 x rs
se
=
u
opiate
30 million
Global produc�on Change from Global seizures
2019 previous year
2018
-0.1%
6,126–6,426
472–722 tons 43 73 96 704
tons processed
into heroin
tons tons tons tons
of heroin morphine pharmaceu�cal heroin opium
produced opioids
7,610 tons Change from previous year
of opium
1,180–1,480 tons -50% -51% -6% +2%
consumed as opium
Opium poppy cultivation and in Latin America – mostly Mexico (6 per cent of
global opium production) and, to a far lesser extent,
opiate production
Colombia and Guatemala (less than 1 per cent of
Opium is illicitly produced in some 50 countries the global total) – account for most of the heroin
worldwide, although the three countries where most supply to the United States and supply the com-
opium is produced have accounted for about 97 per paratively small heroin markets of South America.
cent of global opium production over the past five
years. Global area under opium poppy
cultivation declined for the second
Afghanistan, the country where most opium is pro- year in a row in 2019
duced, which has accounted for approximately 84
per cent of global opium production over the past Despite a long-term upward trend, the global area
five years, supplies markets in neighbouring coun- under opium poppy cultivation declined by 17 per
tries, Europe, the Near and Middle East, South Asia cent in 2018 and then by 30 per cent in 2019, fall-
and Africa and to a small degree North America ing to an estimated 240,800 ha. Declines in the area
(notably Canada) and Oceania. Countries in South- under cultivation were reported in both Afghanistan
East Asia – mostly Myanmar (some 7 per cent of and Myanmar in 2018 and 2019. Despite the recent
global opium production) and, to a lesser extent, declines, the global area under opium poppy culti-
the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (about 1 per vation is nevertheless still substantially larger than
cent of global opium production) – supply markets a decade ago and at similar level of the global area
in East and South-East Asia and Oceania. Countries under coca cultivation.
9WORLD DRUG REPORT 2020 DRUG SUPPLY
Fig. 1 Opium poppy cultivation and production of opium, 1998–2019
10,000 400,000
350,000
Cultivation (hectares)
8,000
Production (tons) 300,000
6,000 250,000
200,000
4,000 150,000
100,000
2,000
50,000
0 0
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
Area under poppy cultivation Afghanistan, opium production
Myanmar, opium production Mexico, opium production
Lao People's Dem. Rep., opium production Other countries, opium production
Source: UNODC calculations based on illicit crop monitoring surveys; and UNODC, responses to the annual report questionnaire.
Note: Data for 2019 are preliminary. For countries for which no estimates for 2019 are as yet available, the 2018 estimates have been
used as a proxy and those countries are included in the category of “other countries”.
Global opium production remained year (7,620 tons in 2018) and was 26 per cent lower
largely stable in 2019 than the peak reported in 2017 (10,270 tons).
Global illicit opium production has also shown a Despite the decline in the area under opium poppy
long-term upward trend, although it remained stable cultivation in 2019, opium production remained
at 7,610 tons in 2019 compared with the previous stable in 2019, with higher yields reported in the
main opium production areas for 2019, as neither
disease nor drought – as occurred in previous years
Fig. 2 Average dry opium farm-gate prices and high- – reduced opium output in 2019.
quality heroin prices in Afghanistan, January
2017–March 2020 Taking opium consumption into account, estimated
Farm-gate price of dry opium (dollars per kilogram)
global opium production in 2019 would have been
Price of high-quality heroin (dollars per kilogram)
200 4,000
sufficient to manufacture 472–722 tons of heroin
(expressed at export purities) – in other words, quan-
150 3,000 tities similar to the previous year.
Despite global opium production in 2018 being less
than in 2017, there have been no indications to date
100 2,000 of a shortage in the supply of heroin to the respec-
tive consumer markets. In 2018 and 2019, both
opium and heroin prices declined in the main opium
50 1,000
production areas in Afghanistan, with opium farm-
gate prices falling by an average of 37 per cent (on
0 0 a year earlier) in 2018 and by 24 per cent in 2019,
while high-quality heroin prices fell by an average
Oct
Oct
Oct
Apr
Apr
Apr
Jul
Jul
Jul
Jan
Jan
Jan
Jan
2017 2018 2019 2020
of 11 per cent in 2018 and by 27 per cent in 2019
in Afghanistan.1 Due to the bumper opium harvest
Opium prices Heroin prices
1 Afghanistan, Ministry of Counter-Narcotics and UNDOC,
Source: Afghanistan, Ministry of Counter-Narcotics, Afghanistan drug price Afghanistan drug price monitoring monthly report (April
monitoring monthly report (April 2020), and previous years. 2020), and previous years.
10Opiates
3
of 2017, opium prices showed significant declines in the quantities of opiates seized than in the esti-
at an earlier stage (starting in 2017) than did heroin mated quantities of opium produced. This suggests
prices (basically starting in 2018), suggesting that that law enforcement authorities may have become
it may have taken some time for clandestine heroin more efficient in intercepting trafficked opiates
manufacture to adjust to the overall greater availabil- worldwide. An alternative explanation is that a sig-
ity of opium before expanding, as later reflected in nificant decline in heroin purity over the past two
lower heroin prices. At the same time, data also show decades has led to less-pure heroin being seized; but
that, following two years of decreased opium pro- this is not backed up by available data on the devel-
duction as compared with 2017, the downward opment of heroin purity over time.
trend in drug prices came to a halt, in the case of
At the same time, annual opium production has
opium, in June 2019, and a few months later, in
been fluctuating more than the quantity of opiates
August 2019, in the case of heroin as well. Prior to
seized and even more so than the annual quantity
the expected opium harvest in April/May 2020,
of heroin seized, suggesting the existence of opiate
however, opium prices started falling again in
inventories. To offset fluctuations in opium produc-
Afghanistan in March 2020 and the temporary
tion, opium may be temporarily stocked along the
increase in heroin prices at the beginning of 2020
supply chain, thus ensuring a smooth supply of
also came to a halt, both for high-quality and
heroin to the main consumer markets.
medium-quality heroin.
Despite a decline in 2018, the quantity
Opium production has been fluc- of opiates seized globally remains at a
tuating greatly but global opiate high level
seizures have increased steadily
Despite a 19 per cent decline in the quantity of opi-
over the past two decades ates seized globally from 2017 to 2018 (calculated
Both opium production and opiate seizures have on the basis of converting those seizures into heroin
shown an upward trend over the past two decades, equivalents), dropping to 210 tons, that was still the
although the increase has been more pronounced third highest amount ever reported and continued
Fig. 3 Global opium production and quantities of opioids seized, 1998–2019
10,000 300
9,000 270
8,000 240
Production (tons)
Seizures (tons)
7,000 210
6,000 180
5,000 150
4,000 120
3,000 90
2,000 60
1,000 30
0 0
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
Opium production Seizures of opium (in heroin equivalents)
Seizures of heroin Seizures of morphine
Seizures of pharmaceutical opioids Trend, opium production
Trend, opiate seizures
Sources: UNODC calculations based on illicit crop monitoring surveys; and UNODC, responses to the annual report questionnaire.
Note: A ratio of 10:1 was used to convert quantities of opium into heroin equivalents, and a ratio of 1:1 was used to convert quantities of
morphine into heroin equivalents.
11WORLD DRUG REPORT 2020 DRUG SUPPLY
Fig. 4 Countries reporting the largest quantities of opiates seized, 2018
Opium Morphine Heroin
Iran (Islamic Iran (Islamic Iran (Islamic
644 21 25
Republic of) Republic of) Republic of)
Afghanistan 27 Afghanistan 18 Turkey 19
United
Pakistan 19 Pakistan 4 9.0
States
India 4 Oman 1 China 6.3
Myanmar 3 Turkey 0.4 Pakistan 5.7
Tajikistan 2 China 0.3 Afghanistan 5.1
China 1.3 India 0.02 Belgium 4.5
Oman 0.8 Canada 0.01 Viet Nam 1.8
Hong Kong,
Turkey 0.7 0.01 Kenya 1.5
China
Uzbekistan 0.5 United States 0.01 Malaysia 1.4
Azerbaijan 0.4 Switzerland 0.001 Sudan 1.3
Mexico 0.3 New Zealand 0.001 India 1.3
Other
Other Other
Other Other
Other
countries 1.2 countries 0.004 14.3
countries countries countries
countries
0 200 400 600 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
Tons Tons Tons
Source: UNODC, responses to the annual report questionnaire.
to exceed the quantity of pharmaceutical opioids The opiate seized in the largest quantity in 2018
seized.2 The overall decline in the quantity of opi- continued to be opium (704 tons), followed by
ates seized in 2018 was mostly due to a decrease by heroin (97 tons) and morphine (43 tons). Expressed
half in the quantity of morphine seized. The quantity in heroin equivalents, however, heroin continued
of opium and heroin seized, by contrast, remained to be seized in larger quantities than opium or mor-
rather stable in 2018 (+2 per cent for opium; and phine. Globally, 47 countries reported opium
-6 per cent for heroin on a year earlier). seizures, 30 countries reported morphine seizures
and 103 countries reported heroin seizures in 2018,
2 A direct comparison between seizures of opiates and suggesting that trafficking in heroin continues to
pharmaceutical opioids is made difficult by variations in be more widespread in geographical terms than traf-
potency between different substances. The largest quantity
of the pharmaceutical opioids seized, i.e., tramadol and
ficking in opium or morphine.
codeine, accounting for more than 95 per cent of all phar- The quantities of opium and morphine seized con-
maceutical opioids seized in 2018, are clearly less potent
than heroin, while fentanyl, accounting for 4 per cent of tinued to be concentrated in just a few countries in
the quantity of all pharmaceutical opioids seized is, in 2018, with three countries accounting for 98 per
principle, 50 to 100 times more potent than heroin. How- cent of the global quantity of opium seized and 97
ever, the bulk of the fentanyl seized can be highly adulter-
ated; for example, seized fentanyl substances contain, on per cent of the global quantity of morphine seized.
average, 5 per cent of fentanyl in seizures analysed in the By contrast, seizures of heroin continue to be more
United States (Department of Justice, DEA, 2019 National widespread, with 54 per cent of the global quantity
Drug Threat Assessment (December 2019)), the country
responsible for most of the fentanyl seized at the global of heroin seized in 2018 accounted for by the three
level. countries with greatest seizures.
12Opiates
3
Quantities of opiates seized remain The largest quantities of both opium and morphine
concentrated in Asia, notably in South- seized were reported by the Islamic Republic of Iran,
West Asia followed by Afghanistan and Pakistan, while seizures
reported by other countries remained comparatively
Most opiates seized are reported in or close to the modest. The largest total quantity of heroin seized
main opium production areas. Thus Asia, host to by a country in 2018 was that seized by the Islamic
more than 90 per cent of global illicit opium pro- Republic of Iran (for the first time since 2014), fol-
duction and the world’s largest consumption market lowed by Turkey, the United States, China, Pakistan,
for opiates, accounted for almost 80 per cent of all Afghanistan and Belgium.
opiates seized worldwide, as expressed in heroin
equivalents, in 2018. Almost 70 per cent of the global quantities of heroin
and morphine (the two main internationally traf-
The largest quantities of opiates continued to be ficked opiates) seized in 2018 were intercepted in
seized in South-West Asia in 2018, accounting for Asia, mostly in South-West Asia. The two subre-
98 per cent of the global quantity of opium seized, gions surrounding Afghanistan, South-West Asia
97 per cent of the global quantity of morphine seized and Central Asia, together accounted for more than
and 38 per cent of the global quantity of heroin 56 per cent of the global quantity of heroin and
seized that year (i.e., equivalent to 70 per cent of all morphine seized.
opiates seized globally as expressed in heroin equiva-
lents). Overall, 690 tons of opium, 42 tons of Quantities of heroin and morphine
morphine and 37 tons of heroin were seized in seized declined in South-West Asia
South-West Asia in 2018.
In parallel to the decrease in opium production,
Expressed in common heroin equivalents, the coun- quantities of heroin and morphine seized in South-
try where the overall largest quantity of opiates was West Asia declined by 42 per cent in 2018, to 79
seized in 2018 was once again the Islamic Republic tons, from the record high reported in 2017. Despite
of Iran, which accounted for more than half (53 per the decline in 2018, the overall trend in seizures of
cent) of the global total, followed by Afghanistan heroin and morphine in that subregion continued
(12 per cent), Turkey (9 per cent), Pakistan (5 per to be an upward one over the period 2008–2018.
cent), the United States (4 per cent) and China (3 South-West Asia continued to account for the major-
per cent). ity of the global quantities of heroin and morphine
Fig. 5 Distribution of global quantities of heroin and morphine seized, 2018
Oceania Asia
0.2% 69%
Africa
2%
Americas
7% Near and
Middle
East/South-
Oceania Asia
West Asia
0.2% 69%
Africa 57%
2% Europe East and South-
22% East Asia
Americas 9%
7% Near and
Middle
Other Asia
East/South-
3%
Source: UNODC, responses to the annual report questionnaire. West Asia
Note: Based on global quantities of opiates seized of 139 tons. 57%
Europe East and South-
22% East Asia 13
9%WORLD DRUG REPORT 2020 DRUG SUPPLY
seized globally in 2018 (close to 56 per cent), with it is manufactured into the heroin that ends up on
the largest quantities seized being reported by the the streets of Western and Central Europe. There
Islamic Republic of Iran, followed by Afghanistan were increases in heroin and morphine seizures in
and Pakistan. Europe in the countries along the Balkan route in
Accounting for 9 per cent of the global total in 2018, 2018, although most of the increase was due to an
the quantities of heroin and morphine seized in East increase in the quantities of heroin and morphine
and South-East Asia declined slightly in 2018. Most seized in Belgium and, to a lesser extent, in France
heroin and morphine seizures in that subregion in and Italy.
2018 were again reported by China, accounting for In contrast to Western and Central Europe as a
more than half (53 per cent) of all such seizures, whole, which continues to be supplied mainly by
followed by Viet Nam, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thai- heroin trafficked along the Balkan route by land,
land and the Lao People’s Democratic Republic. trafficking to Belgium in 2018 to a large extent (98
Quantities of heroin and morphine seized in other per cent) took the form of maritime shipments
subregions of Asia appear to have remained quite departing from the Islamic Republic of Iran or
stable in 2018. That overall stable level obscures, Turkey. Similarly, trafficking to Italy was character-
however, the partial climb in heroin and morphine ized by maritime shipments in 2018 (61 per cent
seizures reported in Central Asia and Transcaucasia of the total quantity seized by customs authorities),
following years of ongoing declines, and the decline with the bulk of seizures in 2018 having departed
in 2018 of seizures in South Asia, which follows a from the Islamic Republic of Iran in containers, fol-
series of strong increases up to 2017. lowed by shipments by air (37 per cent), often
departing from the Middle East (Qatar) or Africa
Quantities of heroin and morphine (South Africa), while heroin shipments destined for
seized have reached record levels in France typically transited the Netherlands and Bel-
Europe gium in 2018.3 The overall largest quantities of
heroin and morphine seized in Western and Central
The largest total quantity of heroin and morphine
Europe in 2018 were reported by Belgium, followed
seized in a region outside Asia is that reported for
by France, Italy, the United Kingdom and the
Europe (22 per cent of the global total in 2018),
Netherlands.
which is an important market for the consumption
of heroin. Heroin and morphine seized in Eastern Seizures of heroin and morphine in Eastern and
and South-Eastern Europe continued to account South-Eastern Europe, which had tripled in 2017,
for the bulk (66 per cent) of all such quantities seized rose by a further 6 per cent in 2018. Turkey contin-
in Europe in 2018, with most of the heroin and ued to account for the bulk of heroin and morphine
morphine seized in the region continuing to be seized in that subregion (95 per cent). Quantities
reported by Turkey (62 per cent), followed by West- of heroin and morphine seized in Eastern Europe
ern and Central Europe (31 per cent) and Eastern rose by 60 per cent in 2018, partly reversing the
Europe (3 per cent) in 2018. long-term downward trend in such seizures. Most
of these seizures were reported by the Russian
The quantities of heroin and morphine seized in
Federation.
Europe more than doubled in 2017 and rose by a
further 24 per cent in 2018 to reach a record level Quantities of heroin and morphine
of 30 tons, thus exceeding the previous record level seized are on the rise in the Americas
of 29 tons in 2008. While the strongest increase in
the quantities of heroin and morphine seized in Quantities of heroin and morphine seized in the
2017 was reported in Eastern and South-Eastern Americas rose by 9 per cent in 2017 and by a further
Europe (the same year as the bumper opium harvest 8 per cent in 2018 to reach 10 tons.
reported in Afghanistan), the strongest increase in Heroin trafficking in the Americas remains concen-
2018 was reported in Western and Central Europe trated in North America. The subregion accounted
(89 per cent). This suggests that it may take a year
from when opium is harvested in Afghanistan until 3 UNODC, responses to the annual report questionnaire.
14140,000
140,000 120,000
100,000
Opiates
3
Seizures in Asia
120,000
(kilograms)
40,000 Fig. 6 Quantities of heroin and morphine 80,0002008–2018
seized, by region,
100,000 35,000
2012 Americas, Africa
Seizures in Asia
(kilograms)
2018 Americas, Africa
20,000 140,000 80,000 60,000 30,000 35,000
(kilograms)
00,000 120,000 40,000 25,000 30,000
Oceania (kilograms)
60,000
Seizures in Asia
(kilograms)
100,000 20,000 25,000
80,000 40,000 20,000
80,000 20,000
0
in Europe,
60,000 15,000
Oceania
20,000
60,000 15,000
2008
2009
2010
2011
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Europe,
40,000 0 10,000
40,000 10,000
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2008
2009
2010
2011
and2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
20,000 5,000 Asia Europe, Americas
and
20,000 5,000
Seizures
Seizures in
0 0 Asia 0 Near and
0 Middle
Europe, East/South-West
Americas, Asia
Africa and Ocean
East and South-East Asia
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
Other, Asia
Near and Middle East/South-West Asia
Asia Europe, Americas, Africa
Asia East
andAmericas,
Europe, and Europe
South-East
Oceania Africa and Oceania Asia
Other, Asia Americas
Near and Middle East/South-WestNear Europe
Asiaand Middle East/South-West Asia Africa
East and South-East Asia East and South-East AsiaAmericas Oceania
Other, Asia Other, Asia Africa
Europe Europe Oceania
Source: UNODC, responses to the annual report questionnaire.
Americas Americas
Africa Africa
Oceania
for 94 per cent of all quantities of heroin and mor- Oceania now at the lowest level since 2009. More than 99
phine seized in the Americas in 2018, when seizures per cent of all reported heroin and morphine seizures
reported in North America were almost four times in Oceania took place in Australia.
as high as a decade earlier. Seizures made in the
United States accounted for 87 per cent of all heroin Opiate trafficking
and morphine seized in the Americas in 2018, fol- The main opiate trafficking flows depart from the
lowed by Mexico (the country where most opium three key production areas:
is produced in the region), Colombia, Ecuador,
Brazil, Canada and Guatemala. • Afghanistan: supplying markets in neighbour-
ing countries (notably in Iran (Islamic Repub-
Heroin and morphine seizures are also lic of ), Pakistan, countries in Central Asia/
on the rise in Africa Transcaucasia and India), Europe, the Near
and Middle East, South Asia and Africa, with
Heroin and morphine seizures reported in Africa,
smaller amounts supplied to South-East Asia,
which account for approximately 2 per cent of the
North America (mostly Canada) and Oceania;
global total, rose by some 30 per cent in 2017 and
doubled in 2018 to 3.1 tons. The quantity seized • South-East Asia (Myanmar and, to a lesser
in 2018 was thus 10 times that seized 2008. extent the Lao People’s Democratic Republic):
supplying markets in East and South-East Asia
Most of the heroin and morphine seized in Africa and Oceania;
in 2018 was reported in East Africa (52 per cent of
all heroin and morphine seized in Africa in 2018), • Latin America (most notably Mexico, and, to
followed by seizures reported in North Africa (42 a far lesser extent, Colombia and Guatemala):
per cent), while seizures remained more modest in accounting for most of the heroin supply to
West and Central Africa (4 per cent of the total) North America (most notably the United
and Southern Africa (2 per cent of the total). States), while also suppling the still small hero-
in markets of South America.
Quantities of heroin and morphine seized
are declining in Oceania
Heroin and morphine seizures in Oceania, by con-
trast, declined for the third year in a row and are
15A
SOUTH-EAST
ASIA
EAST WORLD DRUG REPORT 2020
16
AFRICA
Map 1 Main heroin trafficking routes as described in reported seizures, 2014–2018
SOUTHERN
AFRICA
DRUG SUPPLY
Main heroin trafficking routes as OCEANIA
described by reported seizures, 2014-2018
EASTERN
EUROPE
NORTH
annual report questionnaire, individual drug seizures and otherAMERICA
official documents, over the 2014-2018 period. The routes are determined on theWESTERN
basis
tes while several secondary routes may not be reflected. Route arrows represent the direction of trafficking: origins of the arrows indicate eitherAND
the CENTRAL
area TRANS- CENTRAL
fore, the trafficking origin does not reflect the country in which the substance was produced. EUROPE SOUTH-EASTERN CAUCASIA ASIA NORTH
s as departure/transit or destination of seizures, and the annual average amount that these seizures represent during the 2014-2018 period. For more EUROPE AMERICA
EAST
ASIA
d line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has
SOUTH-WEST
ASIA
NORTH
AFRICA
GULF AREA SOUTH
AND ASIA
MIDDLE EAST
MEXICO & WEST AND
CENTRAL CENTRAL AFRICA
SOUTH AMERICA
ASIA
SOUTH-EAST
ASIA
SOUTH EAST
AMERICA AFRICA
Main countries mentioned as source
Main countries mentioned as transit*
Main countries mentioned as destination*
Main countries mentioned with more than
one trafficking role*
Not main countries of source/transit or destination
SOUTHERN
AFRICA
Global heroin trafficking routes by amounts
seized estimated on the basis of reported seizures,
OCEANIA
2014–2018
Low volume flow
High volume flow
Sources: UNODC.
Source: UNODC, responses to the annual report questionnaire, and individual drug seizure database.
* A darker shade indicates a larger amount of heroin being seized with the country as source/transit/destination.
* AThe size of the
darker shade based on the total
route isindicates amount seized
a larger amount route,
on thatof according
heroin to the information
being seized withon trafficking routes provided
the country Member States in the annual report questionnaire,
asbysource/transit/destination. The sizeindividual
of the drugroute and
seizuresis other official
based on documents, the 2014-2018
the totaloveramount seized
period.on routes are
The that determined
route, on the basis
according
of reported country of departure/transit and destination in these sources. As such, they need to be considered as broadly indicative of existing trafficking routes while several secondary routes may not be reflected. Route arrows represent the direction of trafficking: origins of the arrows indicate either the area
the
to of information
departure or the one ofon trafficking
last provenance, routes
end points provided
of arrows by Member
indicate either States in
the area of consumption the
or the oneannual
of next destination
reportofquestionnaire, individual
trafficking. Therefore, the drug
trafficking origin doesseizures and
not reflect the other
country official
in which documents,
the substance was produced.over the 2014‒2018 period. The
The main countries mentioned as transit or destination were identified on the basis of both the number of times they were identified by other Member States as departure/transit or destination of seizures, and the annual average amount that these seizures represent during the 2014-2018 period. For more
routes are determined on the basis of reported country of departure/transit and destination in these sources. As such, they need to be considered as broadly indicative of existing trafficking routes
details on the criteria used, please see the Methodology section of this document.
while several secondary routes may not be reflected. Route arrows represent the direction of trafficking: origins of the arrows indicate either the area of departure or the one of last provenance,
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. The dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has
endnotpoints of arrows
yet been agreed indicate
upon by the parties. either the area of consumption or the one of next destination of trafficking. Therefore, the trafficking origin does not reflect the country in which the substance was
produced. The main countries mentioned as transit or destination were identified on the basis of both the number of times they were identified by other Member States as departure/transit or
destination of seizures, and the annual average amount that these seizures represent during the 2014‒2018 period. For more details on the criteria used, please see the Methodology section of
the present report.
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. The dotted line represents approximately the
Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties.Opiates
3
Trafficking in opiates continues to there along the Balkan route to Western and Central
be dominated by those originating Europe, either via the western branch of the route
in Afghanistan via Bulgaria to various western Balkan countries or,
to a lesser extent, via the eastern branch of the route
In line with the dominance of the opium produc- via Bulgaria and then to Romania and Hungary,
tion in Afghanistan, quantities of heroin and before reaching the main consumer markets in West-
morphine seized related to Afghan opiate produc- ern and Central Europe.
tion accounted for some 84 per cent of the global
total in 2018, a slight decrease from 88 per cent in Heroin trafficking along the Balkan route was
2017, the year of the bumper harvest in the country. referred to in roughly 80 per cent of mentions of
Most of the heroin found in Europe, Central Asia/ countries of origin, departure and transit in responses
Transcaucasia and Africa is derived from opium of to the annual report questionnaire by countries in
Afghan origin, accounting for 100 per cent of all Western and Central European over the period
2014–2018. A further 3 per cent referred to ship-
mentions in the responses to the annual report ques-
ments via the Islamic Republic of Iran and 7 per
tionnaire by countries in Central Asia/Transcaucasia,
cent mentioned shipments via Pakistan, in both
96 per cent in Europe and 87 per cent in Africa over
cases with subsequent smuggling along the Balkan
the period 2014–2018.
route to consumer markets in Western and Central
Most opiates originating in Afghanistan Europe. However, heroin is also smuggled to West-
are trafficked along the Balkan route and ern and Central Europe either via direct shipments
its various branches from the Islamic Republic of Iran and Pakistan or
The world’s single largest heroin trafficking route via the southern route to Western Europe.
continues to be the so-called “Balkan route”, along Opiate trafficking via the countries of the
which opiates from Afghanistan are shipped to Iran Caucasus is increasing
(Islamic Republic of ), Turkey, the Balkan countries In 2018, the Islamic Republic of Iran saw an increase
and to various destinations in Western and Central in heroin seized in transit to the Caucasus coun-
Europe. Not counting seizures made in Afghanistan tries.4, 5 In parallel, seizures of heroin and morphine
itself, countries along the Balkan route accounted reported in the Caucasus region also increased, from
for 58 per cent of the global quantities of heroin 0.3 tons in 2017 to 1.3 tons in 2018. From the two
and morphine seized in 2018. A further 8 per cent countries in the Caucasus bordering the Islamic
of those global seizures were reported by countries Republic of Iran, heroin is trafficked either to Geor-
in Western and Central Europe, whose markets are gia (with 70 per cent transiting Azerbaijan and 20
supplied to a great degree by heroin and morphine per cent Armenia in 2018) and from there across
that is trafficked along the Balkan route. the Black Sea to other countries in Europe, or from
Azerbaijan to the Russian Federation. The increas-
Most heroin and morphine seized along the Balkan
ing importance of the Caucasus region has also been
route in 2018 continued to be that reported by the
identified by the Russian Federation, which reported
Islamic Republic of Iran (46 tons), followed by
that by 2018 some 40 per cent of the heroin found
Turkey (19 tons) and the Balkan countries (3 tons). on its market had transited Azerbaijan, up from 30
By comparison, the countries of Western and Cen- per cent in 2017.
tral Europe seized 9 tons that year.
Opiate trafficking along the northern route
The Islamic Republic of Iran reported that 75 per to the Russian Federation is on the decrease,
cent of the morphine and 75 per cent of the heroin but is on the increase to Western Europe
seized on its territory in 2018 had been trafficked
Trafficking in heroin via the traditional northern
via Pakistan, while the remainder had been smug-
route, i.e., via Central Asia, declined over the past
gled directly into the country from Afghanistan.
Typically, heroin is then smuggled to Turkey (70
per cent of all the heroin seized in the Islamic 4 UNODC, responses to the annual report questionnaire.
Republic of Iran in both 2016 and 2017) and from 5 UNODC, Drugs Monitoring Platform.
17WORLD DRUG REPORT 2020 DRUG SUPPLY
Fig. 7 Distribution of the quantities of heroin and morphine seized, by main trafficking route,
2008–2018
100 100
4 44 74 47 54 55 95 9 612 56 75 7
6 86 77 7 12
78 7
Proportion of global seizures
8 78
Proportion of global seizures
31 8
31 11 11 8 9
3 12 1 1 31 193
10 610 66 86 3
28 42 12
4 614 6 15 15
80 380 3
43 33
4 3 211 52
14
5
10 11 11 17 717 7
(percentage) 10 11 13 913 59 195 19
(percentage)
25 25 3 3
60 60 8 8
25 25 19 19
4 4 31 31
58 58 33 33 25 25 48 48
40 52 52 4 4
40 55 55 39 39
2 32 3
4 4 37 37
20 20 41 41 735 7
927 339 33
35
7
8 67 6 27
5 16
8 510 16
10 6
6
0 0
2008 2008 2010
2009 2009 2011
2010 2012
2011 2013
2012 2014
2013 2015
2014 2016
2015 2017
2016 2018
2017 2018
AmericasAmericas South-East
South-East Asia andAsia and Oceania
Oceania
NorthernNorthern
route route SouthernSouthern
route route
PakistanPakistan Balkan route
Balkan route
WesternWestern andEurope
and Central Central Europe Afghanistan
Afghanistan
Seizures Seizures related
related to tofrom
opiates opiates from Afghanistan
Afghanistan
Source: UNODC, responses to the annual report questionnaire.
Note: The Balkan route: Islamic Republic of Iran, half of Transcaucasia, South-Eastern Europe; the southern route: South Asia, Gulf coun-
tries and other countries in the Near and Middle East and Africa; the northern route: Central Asia, Eastern Europe and half of Transcauca-
sia. Heroin seized in Transcaucasia was partly attributed to the Balkan route and partly to the northern route as it may supply both routes.
decade. Accounting for just 1 per cent of the global – a trafficking operation that involved people from
quantities of heroin and morphine seized in 2018, Iran (Islamic Republic of ), Turkey, Serbia, Poland,
such trafficking was down from 10 per cent in 2008, Germany and the Netherlands; and the seizure of
with declines in heroin (and morphine) seizures some 550 kg of heroin in Minsk, in November 2019,
reported by the countries of Central Asia and by the which had been trafficked via the northern route to
Russian Federation. Belarus for onward trafficking to the European
Union, involving a number of foreign nationals.6, 7
At the same time, trafficking groups from outside
the region – making use of citizens from various Small quantities of heroin continue to be
countries in the region – may have begun to exploit trafficked along the southern route
the northern route by trafficking heroin in trucks Trafficking along the southern route includes heroin
via the Islamic Republic of Iran to countries in Cen- trafficking via Pakistan or the Islamic Republic of
tral Asia and then countries of the Eurasian Customs Iran to India (for domestic consumption and re-
Union, including Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, the Rus- export to countries in the region) and to Africa (for
sian Federation and Belarus, to final destinations in local consumption and re-export to Europe). Beyond
Western and Central Europe. Pakistan, countries along the southern route
Examples of this newly emerging pattern include accounted for 6 per cent of the global quantities of
the seizure of 670 kg of heroin from Afghanistan heroin and morphine seized (excluding seizures
intercepted in Frankfurt an der Oder, Germany, in made in Afghanistan) in 2018, up from 3 per cent
May 2019 on a truck travelling from Kyrgyzstan to in 2015.
Belgium driven by a Turkish national living in Kyr-
6 Ibid.
gyzstan; the seizure of 1.1 tons of heroin seized in
7 UNODC meeting on the recent developments of the opiate
Kazakhstan on a truck that had departed the Islamic market in Central Asia, the Russian Federation and the
Republic of Iran with a final destination in Germany Caucasus, Vienna, 29–30 January 2020.
18Opiates
3
Overall, 11 per cent of mentions of countries of Fig. 8 Origin of heroin seized at the wholesale level in
origin, departure and transit of heroin by countries the United States, 1998–2018
in Western and Central Europe were linked to traf- 100
ficking along the southern route over the period
2014–2018. The main countries identified in which 80
Percentage
heroin was trafficked along the southern route to
60
Western and Central Europe over the period 2014–
2018 included India, the Gulf countries (notably 40
Qatar and United Arab Emirates) and a number of
Southern and East African countries (notably South 20
Africa, Kenya, Ethiopia, Mozambique, the United
0
Republic of Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
and Madagascar). The European countries report-
ing most trafficking along the southern route over Inconclusive, attibuted to South America
the period 2014–2018 were Belgium (mostly via South America
Kenya, Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, South Africa, South-West Asia
Ethiopia and the United Republic of Tanzania) and South-East Asia
Mexico
Italy (mostly via Qatar, the United Arab Emirates,
South Africa, Ethiopia, Madagascar and Oman). Source: United States Department of Justice, DEA, 2019 National Drug
Threat Assessment (December 2019), p. 24.
Decline in heroin trafficking in East Note: Regarding the very high proportions shown for South America at the
and South-East Asia while supply to beginning of the twenty-first century, which were not in line with United
States opium production estimates for South America (or United Nations esti-
Oceania continues mates), some questions were raised. It was argued that the sampling used may
not have been representative and that the high proportions for South America
The most significant trafficking activities worldwide may have also been the result of some heroin manufacturers in Mexico using
of opiates not of Afghan origin concern opiates pro- “Colombian manufacturing methods”, resulting in such heroin being classified
as South American heroin in United States statistics in the past. In fact, South
duced in South-East Asia (mostly Myanmar), which American and South American-like heroin manufactured in Mexico are cur-
are trafficked to other markets in East and South- rently the most challenging to differentiate in terms of geographical origin
through the analysis of their organic composition.9, 10, 11, 12, 13
East Asia (mostly China and Thailand) and to
Oceania (mostly Australia). Seizures made in those
countries accounted for 11 per cent of the global year 2017/18 than in 2014/15. The main embarka-
quantities of heroin and morphine seized (excluding tion point for heroin seized at the Australian border
seizures made by Afghanistan) in 2018, down from in 2017/18 was, by weight, Thailand, followed by
15 per cent in 2015. This went in parallel with the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia,
reported reductions in opium production in Myan- Cambodia and Viet Nam – all countries located in
mar of 20 per cent over the period 2005–2018. South-East Asia.9 10 11 12 13
Despite the recent declines in opium production in
Myanmar, based on a detailed analysis of bulk
9 United States General Accounting Office, “Review of the
weight border seizures, Australian authorities Drug Enforcement Administration’s Heroin Signature and
reported that the proportion of heroin seized that domestic monitor programs” (February 2001).
was of South-East Asian origin increased from a low 10 United States General Accounting Office, “Drug Control:
of 26 per cent in 2008 to almost 100 per cent over DEA could improve its heroin signature and domestic
monitor programs’ geographic source data” (March 2002).
the period January–June 2018.8 Nonetheless, in line
11 Steven Dudley and David Gagne, “What US heroin seizures
with the reported declines in opium production in tell us about the market”, InSight Crime, 8 December 2014.
Myanmar, the quantities of heroin seized at Aus- 12 United States, Drug Enforcement Agency, Intelligence Pro-
tralia’s borders turned out to be lower in the fiscal grams Section, The Heroin Signature Program and Heroin
Domestic Monitor Program: 2014 Reports (September 2016).
13 Joshua DeBoard and others, “Profiling of heroin and assign-
ment of provenance by87 Sr/86 Sr isotope ratio analysis”,
8 Australian Criminal Intelligence Commission, Illicit Drug Inorganica Chimica Acta, vol. 468, November 2017, pp.
Data Report 2017–18 (Canberra, 2019). 294–299.
19WORLD DRUG REPORT 2020 DRUG SUPPLY
Most heroin trafficked in the
Americas continues to originate
within the region
On the basis of seizure data, heroin trafficking
within the Americas, in particular to the United
States, appears to have increased over the past
decade. Quantities of heroin and morphine seized
reported in the Americas rose from 4 per cent of the
global total (excluding seizures made in Afghanistan)
in 2008 to 9 per cent in 2018.
Most heroin (and morphine) trafficking in the
Americas continues to take place within North
America, i.e., from Mexico to the United States and,
to a far lesser extent, from Colombia and from Gua-
temala (typically via Mexico) to the United States.
Based on forensic profiling, United States authori-
ties estimated in 2017 that over 90 per cent of the
heroin samples analysed originated in Mexico and
4 per cent in South America, while around 1 per
cent originated in South-West Asia. This stands in
stark contrast to a decade earlier (2007), when only
25 per cent was sourced from Mexico and 70 per
cent was imported from South America.14
14 United States Department of Justice, DEA, 2019 National
Drug Threat Assessment (December 2019), p. 24.
20Cocaine
3
COCAINE
Global cul�va�on Global produc�on Global seizures
2018 2018 2018
,200 ha
44 342,017 x
1,723 tons 1,311
2
at 100% purity tons
= pure of varying purity
cocaine
Global number of users
Change from
-0.5% Change from
+4.6%
2018
previous year previous year
19 million
Cultivation of coca bush and (expressed at 100 per cent purity). While cocaine
manufacture of cocaine manufacture is estimated to have almost doubled
between 2014 and 2018, growth in manufacture
A trend towards stabilization in 2018, has slowed over the years, pointing to a potential
following years of increase stabilization in 2018. Global cocaine manufacture
increased by 37 per cent between 2015 and 2016,
Following a massive upward trend over the period
by 23 per cent between 2016 and 2017, and by 4.6
2013–2017, during which the area under coca bush
cultivation at the global level more than doubled, per cent between 2017 and 2018.
the size of that area seems to have stabilized and Precursors and essential chemicals in
remained, in 2018, at a historically high level. the manufacture of cocaine
According to preliminary estimates, the global area
under coca cultivation may have even declined mar- The cocaine manufacturing process is generally well
ginally in 2018 compared with a year earlier due to understood. However, it varies by region and accord-
declines reported by Colombia (1.2 per cent) and ing to the availability of precursors and essential
Bolivia (Plurinational State of ) (5.7 per cent), while chemicals. The manufacture of cocaine hydrochlo-
comparable estimates for Peru are not available. ride, the most common cocaine retail product
distributed across drug consumption markets, relies
Even though final global estimates for 2018 are not
yet available, preliminary results indicate that on a number of precursor substances and essential
Colombia remains the country where most coca leaf chemicals, including potassium permanganate,
is produced. In 2017, the latest year for which com- sodium metabisulfite, calcium chloride, ammonia,
parable estimates are available, Colombia accounted ethyl ether and diethyl ether, toluene, dichlorometh-
for 70 per cent of the global area under coca culti- ane (methylene chloride), methyl ethyl ketone
vation, Peru for 20 per cent and Bolivia (Plurinational (MEK), hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid and
State of ) for 10 per cent.15 gasoline.
On the basis of preliminary estimates, the global Most of these substances are diverted from legal
manufacture of cocaine hydrochloride may have supply in the chemical industry. However, cocaine
reached its highest level ever in 2018, at 1,723 tons manufacturers, especially in Colombia, are
increasingly aiming to achieve self-sufficiency by
15 World Drug Report 2019 (United Nations publication, Sales producing certain crucial substances themselves,
No. E.19.XI.8). including potassium permanganate. Thus, after
21You can also read
