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8 Fishing Resources - rioccadapt
8
Fishing Resources
Jaime Mendo (Peru), Guillermo Caille (Argentina), Enric Massutí (Spain),
Antonio Punzón (Spain), Jorge Tam (Peru), Sebastián Villasante (Spain),
and Dimitri Gutiérrez (Peru).

This chapter should be cited as:

Mendo, J., G. Caille, E. Massutí, A. Punzón, J. Tam, S. Villasante, and D. Gutiérrez,
2020: Fishing Resources. In: Adaptation to Climate Change Risks in Ibero-American
Countries — RIOCCADAPT Report. [Moreno, J.M., C. Laguna-Defior, V. Barros, E. Cal-
vo Buendía, J.A. Marengo, and U. Oswald Spring (eds.)], McGraw Hill, Madrid, Spain
(pp. 275-328, ISBN: 9788448621667).
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Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

         CO N T E NTS

         Executive Summary.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................      278
          8.1. Introduction...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................   278
               8.1.1. Conceptual framework of this Chapter....................................................................................................................................................                                           278
               8.1.2. Main figures of the sector or system.........................................................................................................................................................                                      278
                      8.1.2.1. Fisheries and aquaculture production....................................................................................................................................                                                  278
                      8.1.2.2. Importance for food security, employment and the economy....................................................................................                                                                              279
                      8.1.2.3. Current status and trends in fishing resources..................................................................................................................                                                          280
               8.1.3. Relationship of the sector or system with climate and climate change..................................................................................                                                                             281
               8.1.4. Review of previous reports.............................................................................................................................................................................                            281
          8.2. Risk components in relation to the sector ..........................................................................................................................................................                                      282
               8.2.1. Hazards.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................       283
                      8.2.1.1. Warm temperate NE Pacific and tropical NE Pacific provinces.................................................................................                                                                              283
                      8.2.1.2. Warm temperate SE Pacific province.....................................................................................................................................                                                   283
                      8.2.1.3. Magellan Province.............................................................................................................................................................................                            283
                      8.2.1.4. Warm temperate SW Atlantic province..................................................................................................................................                                                     283
                      8.2.1.5. Tropical SW Atlantic, Brazilian N shelf, tropical NW Atlantic and warm-temperate NW Atlantic
                                 provinces................................................................................................................................................................................................               283
                      8.2.1.6. Lusitanian province and Mediterranean Sea.......................................................................................................................                                                          285
               8.2.2. Exposure...................................................................................................................................................................................................................        285
                      8.2.2.1. Warm temperate NE Pacific and tropical NE Pacific provinces.................................................................................                                                                              285
                      8.2.2.2. Warm temperate SE Pacific province.....................................................................................................................................                                                   285
                      8.2.2.3. Magellan Province.............................................................................................................................................................................                            286
                      8.2.2.4. Warm temperate SW Atlantic province..................................................................................................................................                                                     286
                      8.2.2.5. Tropical SW Atlantic, Brazilian N shelf, tropical NW Atlantic and warm-temperate NW Atlantic
                                 provinces................................................................................................................................................................................................               286
                      8.2.2.6. Lusitanian province and Mediterranean Sea.......................................................................................................................                                                          286
               8.2.3. Vulnerability............................................................................................................................................................................................................          287
                      8.2.3.1. Warm temperate NE Pacific and tropical NE Pacific provinces.................................................................................                                                                              287
                      8.2.3.2. Warm temperate SE Pacific province.....................................................................................................................................                                                   287
                      8.2.3.3. Magellan Province.............................................................................................................................................................................                            288
                      8.2.3.4. Warm temperate SW Atlantic province..................................................................................................................................                                                     288
                      8.2.3.5. Tropical SW Atlantic, Brazilian N shelf, tropical NW Atlantic and warm-temperate NW Atlantic
                                 provinces................................................................................................................................................................................................               288
                      8.2.3.6. Lusitanian province and Mediterranean Sea.......................................................................................................................                                                          288
          8.3. Characterization of risks and their impacts........................................................................................................................................................                                       289
               8.3.1. Warm temperate NE Pacific and tropical NE Pacific provinces...................................................................................................                                                                     289
               8.3.2. Warm temperate SE Pacific province........................................................................................................................................................                                         290
               8.3.3. Magellan Province...............................................................................................................................................................................................                    291
               8.3.4. Warm temperate SW Atlantic province....................................................................................................................................................                                             291
               8.3.5. Tropical SW Atlantic, Brazilian N shelf, tropical NW Atlantic and warm temperate NW Atlantic provinces........                                                                                                                      291
               8.3.6. Lusitanian province and Mediterranean Sea.........................................................................................................................................                                                 292
          8.4. Adaptation measures ......................................................................................................................................................................................................                293
               8.4.1. Adaptation options.............................................................................................................................................................................................                    293
                      8.4.1.1. Warm temperate NE Pacific and tropical NE Pacific provinces.................................................................................                                                                              293
                      8.4.1.2. Warm temperate SE Pacific province.....................................................................................................................................                                                   293
                      8.4.1.3. Magellan Province.............................................................................................................................................................................                            293

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              8.4.1.4. Warm temperate SW Atlantic province..................................................................................................................................                                                            295
              8.4.1.5. Tropical SW Atlantic, Brazilian N shelf, tropical NW Atlantic and warm temperate NW Atlantic
                                provinces ...............................................................................................................................................................................................               296
              8.4.1.6. Lusitania province and Mediterranean Sea.........................................................................................................................                                                                297
       8.4.2. Planned adaptation activities........................................................................................................................................................................                                     297
              8.4.2.1. Supranational scale..........................................................................................................................................................................                                    297
              8.4.2.2. National and sub-national scale.................................................................................................................................................                                                 297
              8.4.2.3. Local or municipal scale..................................................................................................................................................................                                       302
       8.4.3. Autonomous adaptation activities.............................................................................................................................................................                                             302
 8.5. Barriers, opportunities and interactions...............................................................................................................................................................                                           302
 8.6. Measures or indicators of adaptation effectiveness.....................................................................................................................................                                                           303
 8.7. Case Studies.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................             306
       8.7.1. Autonomous adaptation to climate variability of fan shell (Argopecten purpuratus) extraction in Peru..............                                                                                                                        306
              8.7.1.1. Case summary.....................................................................................................................................................................................                                306
              8.7.1.2. Introduction to the case problem..............................................................................................................................................                                                   306
              8.7.1.3. Case description.................................................................................................................................................................................                                307
              8.7.1.4. Limitations and interactions .......................................................................................................................................................                                             309
              8.7.1.5. Lessons learned..................................................................................................................................................................................                                309
       8.7.2. Social adaptation of women to climate change in the Galician shellfish picking industry (Northwest Spain)....                                                                                                                             309
              8.7.2.1. Case summary.....................................................................................................................................................................................                                309
              8.7.2.2. Introduction to the case problem..............................................................................................................................................                                                    310
              8.7.2.3. Case description.................................................................................................................................................................................                                 310
              8.7.2.4. Limitations and interactions .......................................................................................................................................................                                              311
              8.7.2.5. Lessons learned..................................................................................................................................................................................                                 311
       8.7.3. Adaptation to Climate Change of the Peruvian Fishing Sector and Coastal Marine Ecosystem Project -
              PE-G1001/PE-T1297.............................................................................................................................................................................................                            312
              8.7.3.1. Case summary.....................................................................................................................................................................................                                312
              8.7.3.2. Introduction to the case problem..............................................................................................................................................                                                   312
              8.7.3.3. Case description.................................................................................................................................................................................                                312
              8.7.3.4. Limitations and interactions .......................................................................................................................................................                                             313
              8.7.3.5. Lessons learned..................................................................................................................................................................................                                313
       8.7.4. Fishing in Samborombón Bay, Argentina: vulnerability and guidelines for adaptation to climate change............                                                                                                                          313
              8.7.4.1. Case summary.....................................................................................................................................................................................                                313
              8.7.4.2. Introduction to the case problem..............................................................................................................................................                                                   313
              8.7.4.3. Case description.................................................................................................................................................................................                                314
              8.7.4.4. Limitations and interactions .......................................................................................................................................................                                             314
              8.7.4.5. Lessons learned .................................................................................................................................................................................                                314
       8.7.5. From fishing to sea turtle tourism: the case of El Ñuro, Piura, Peru..........................................................................................                                                                            315
              8.7.5.1. Case summary.....................................................................................................................................................................................                                315
              8.7.5.2. Introduction to the case problem..............................................................................................................................................                                                   315
              8.7.5.3. Case description.................................................................................................................................................................................                                315
              8.7.5.4. Limitations and interactions .......................................................................................................................................................                                             315
              8.7.5.5. Lessons learned..................................................................................................................................................................................                                315
 8.8. Main knowledge gaps and priority lines of action...........................................................................................................................................                                                       316
 8.9. Conclusions............................................................................................................................................................................................................................           316
Frequently Asked Questions......................................................................................................................................................................................................                        317
Acknowledgements..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................              318
Bibliography.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................   318

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      Executive Summary                                                    species with greater thermal, salt and hypoxia tolerance;
                                                                           formulating new foods; adaptive and ecosystem-based man-
                                                                           agement plans; spatial monitoring of marine resources and
      Fisheries and aquaculture are extremely attractive sectors           biodiversity; reducing discards and bycatch; risk analysis in
      in some Ibero-American countries. The Ibero-American region          management plans; adapting port infrastructure; insurance
      is home to unique, diverse and productive ecosystems that            system for extreme weather events; promoting consumption
      contribute more than 10% of the world’s fishery production. In       of fish species with low commercial value; friendly fishing
      Latin America and the Caribbean alone, this sector provides          gear and equipment; protecting critical or essential habitats
      jobs for almost 2.4 million people.                                  in mangroves and estuaries; improving governance systems
      Both fisheries and aquaculture are subject to various haz-           (co-management); diversifying livelihoods.
      ards. Potential hazards to fisheries and aquaculture include
      (i) changes in local sea temperatures; (ii) ocean acidifica-
      tion; (iii) sea level rise; (iv) changes in ambient oxygen con-
      centration; (v) increase in storm severity and frequency; (vi)
                                                                           8.1. Introduction
      changes in sea current circulation patterns; (vii) changes in
      rainfall patterns; (viii) changes in river flows; and (ix) changes   8.1.1. Conceptual framework of this Chapter
      in biogeochemical (nitrogen) flows.
                                                                           Since ancient times, humans have resorted to fishing a
      In most countries of the region, fisheries and aquaculture           means to secure food. It has traditionally been carried out
      have not been paid as much attention as other productive             as artisanal fishing at sea and in continental waters all over
      sectors. This is in spite of the fact that the effects of climate    the planet. The industrialization and expansion of fishing in
      change on the sector’s productivity are already becoming             the 20th century led to a rapid increase in landings, encour-
      apparent. Projections paint a critical landscape for some            aged by the growing demand for fish products for direct and
      countries, and a high risk for the communities that depend           indirect human consumption by the more developed econo-
      on the sector.                                                       mies. These markets have been increasingly supplied by fish
                                                                           imported from developing countries, or caught in the waters
      The Caribbean is one of Ibero-America’s most vulnerable
                                                                           of developing countries by several ocean-going fleets.
      regions with regard to climate change hazards, including
      sea level rise. High mortality and bleaching of coral reefs          According to the IPCC (2014), marine and inland water
      can already be observed in the region, and projections for           ecosystems will be impacted by climate change, affecting
      the end of the century show further temperature rises and            fisheries and aquaculture. Marine climatic stresses, such
      acidification.                                                       as temperature increase, sea level rise, acidification, deoxy-
                                                                           genation, among others, will impact biodiversity, ecosystem
      In Atlantic Iberian waters, changes in species composition
                                                                           productivity, as well as the distribution of species and their
      and distribution are leading to major changes in fisheries,
                                                                           life cycles, leading to impacts on fishing, such as variability
      which will impact fishing communities and consumers.
                                                                           or reduction of catches, as well as socio-economic impacts,
      Mussel production is at high risk in the face of reduced pro-
                                                                           such as unemployment, increase in poverty levels, etc.
      ductivity, an increase in toxic algal blooms and acidification.
                                                                           (Figure 8.1). Against this backdrop, the impacts of climate
      Planned adaptation actions for fisheries and aquaculture—            change on fisheries and aquaculture will depend on the level
      especially in Latin America and the Caribbean—are scarce,            of risk, which in turn depends on the degree of vulnerability,
      while most adaptation actions for this sector are autonomous         exposure and adaptive capacity.
      in nature. RIOCC countries feature a large portfolio of public
                                                                           Meanwhile, vulnerability and adaptation measures can be
      policies on climate change, both in terms of adaptation and
                                                                           assessed in relation to the sustainability of fishery produc-
      mitigation; however, despite government efforts, they have
                                                                           tion, the condition of national economies, food or livelihood
      not yet been implemented effectively in the fishing sector.
                                                                           security; and in terms of regions, countries, communities,
      Overfishing, pollution, the introduction of exotic species,          sectors, fishing operations, households or individuals (Daw
      and the misuse of aquatic bodies in the region (especially           et al., 2009).
      in Latin America), are non-climatic stressors that aggravate
      the impacts of climate change.
      Adaptation efforts in the fisheries and aquaculture sector
                                                                           8.1.2. Main figures of the sector or
      should be directed at increasing the adaptive capacity of                   system
      the most vulnerable communities (whether due to lack of
      resources, gender, or other factors), by strengthening gov-          8.1.2.1. Fisheries and aquaculture
      ernance, knowledge development, and reducing poverty and
      food insecurity.                                                              production
      There are adaptation options for both fisheries and aquacul-         According to the FAO (2018), fisheries and aquaculture pro-
      ture. The main adaptation options in the sector are: growing         duction worldwide (fish and shellfish) amounted to approxi-

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                  CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK                                                              8.1.2.2. Importance for
           CLIMATE CHANGE AND FISHING RESOURCES                                                              food security,
                                                            Governance levels
                                                                                                             employment and the
      CLIMATE VARIABLITY
      AND CLIMATE CHANGE
                                                           Sector dependence                                 economy
                                                          Production alternatives
                                                             Resource status                        The scientific community agrees on the
                                                                                                    paramount importance of oceans and in-
                                                                                                    land waters to secure food and adequate
              HAZARDS                                          RISK LEVEL
                                                                                                    nutrition for a world population that is
                                                                                                    expected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050
    Rise in sea surface temperature                             Vulnerability
             Sea level rise                                      Exposure                           (see, for example, Selig et al., 2017), as
              Acidification
                                                                  Hazard                            well as the critical role of supporting the
                Hypoxia                                                                             generation of ecosystem services that
                 Floods                                                                             are essential for the well-being and even
     Harmful algal bloom increase                        ADAPTATION ACTIONS                         survival of approximately 750 million
                                                                                                    people living in coastal and island areas
                                                                                                    (IPBES, 2019; IPCC, 2019). The trends in
                                                                                                    per capita fish consumption during 1960
          DIRECT IMPACTS                              SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS                        to 2013 in some RIOCC countries such
         ON THE RESOURCE                                       Fewer catches                        as Spain, Peru and Mexico are increas-
       Decreased productivity                                  Unemployment                         ing, while in others, such as Cuba, the
    Changes in species distribution                         Rise in poverty levels                  trend is negative (Figure 8.2). On aver-
           Mass mortality                                      Food insecurity                      age, annual per capita fish consumption
          Insecurity at sea                                Infrastructure damage                    in Latin America and the Caribbean in-
                                                                                                    creased from 7.1 kg in 1961 to 9.6 kg in
  Figure 8.1. Conceptual framework of the impacts of climate change and variability on              2013, and the countries that consumed
  fisheries and aquaculture, with regard to risks and adaptation actions. Source: prepared by       the most fish in 2013 were Portugal, with
  the authors.                                                                                      about 53.8 kg, Spain, with 42.4 kg, and
                                                                                                    Mexico with 10.5 kg.
                                                                                                      85% of the world’s population employed
                                                                                                      in the fisheries and aquaculture sectors
mately 171 million tons in 2016, of which 151 million tons                      are in Asia, followed by Africa (10%) and Latin America and
(88%) were used for direct human consumption. Production                        the Caribbean (4%) (FAO, 2018). Artisanal fishing is a major
from marine (79.3 million) and inland fisheries (11.6 million)                  and often underestimated source of employment, food se-
accounted for 53.2% and production from aquaculture (80                         curity and income, especially in the developing world and in
million) totaled 46.8% of overall production. Aquaculture pro-                  rural areas. It accounts for 90% of the sector’s employment,
duction in 2016, including aquatic plants, was 110 million                      either full- or part-time (World Bank, 2012). An estimated
tons (80 million fish and 30 million aquatic plants), estimated                 70% to 80% of aquaculture enterprises are small-scale (Sub-
at a first sale value of US$243.5 billion. Marine aquaculture                   asinghe et al., 2012). In Peru, Christensen et al. (2014)
made up for 28.7 million tons and freshwater aquaculture                        show that fishing for human consumption provides most of
51.4 million tons, representing 16.8% and 30% of overall                        the income of the Peruvian fishing sector and accounts for
production respectively. The total economic value of the first                  87% of employment in the fishing sector, compared to 13%
sale of fisheries and aquaculture production in 2016 was                        in the fishmeal industry and other related enterprises. In the
estimated at around US$362 billion, of which US$232 billion                     Mediterranean, the importance of recreational fishing should
came from aquaculture (FAO, 2018). Total world catches fell                     also be noted. In the Balearic Islands, one of the few areas
by 2 million tons from 81.2 million tons in 2015, mainly due                    where this type of fishing has been studied (Morales-Nin
to the decline in catches from Chile and Peru as a result of                    et al., 2005, 2007, 2015), it is estimated that 5-10% of
the effects of El Niño (FAO, 2018). The marine areas with                       the archipelago’s population (73,000 people) is dedicated
the highest production worldwide are in the Northwest Pa-                       to this activity, using a great diversity of fishing methods
cific, East Central Pacific, Northeast Atlantic and Southeast                   and gear (e.g., hand lines, trolling, traps and jigging from
Pacific, while the inland waters with the highest production                    boats, rods from land and underwater fishing with harpoons)
are in Asia and Africa. Of the 25 leading countries in the                      and exploiting a high number of species (up to 60 fish and
world catch ranking, 6 of them belong to the RIOCC region, in                   cephalopods). Catches of the recreational fishing in Mallor-
the following order of importance: Peru (5th world producer),                   ca have been estimated between 1,200 and 2,700 t/year,
Chile (12th), Mexico (16th), Spain (19th), Argentina (22nd)                     which makes up about 30-65% of the official commercial
and Ecuador (23rd) (FAO, 2018).                                                 fishing landings (4,000 t/year).

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                                                80
                                                     Portugal
                                                     Peru
                                                                Spain
                                                                Chile
                                                                                                     8.1.2.3. Current status and
                                                                                                              trends in fishing
      Per capita consumption (kg/person/year)

                                                     Cuba       Venezuela
                                                     Panama     Mexico
                                                70
                                                     Ecuador    Others (12 countries)
                                                                                                              resources
                                                60
                                                                                                         According to FAO (2018), the percentage
                                                50
                                                                                                         of stocks exploited at biologically unsus-
                                                                                                         tainable levels increased from 10% in
            40
                                                                                                         1974 to 33.1% in 2015, with the largest
                                                                                                         increases occurring in the late 1970s
            30
                                                                                                         and 1980s. This translates into nega-
                                                                                                         tive trends in global fishing production,
                                                                                                         which become even more pronounced
            20
                                                                                                         when looking at reconstructed global
                                                                                                         catches that include discards and illegal,
            10
                                                                                                         unregulated and unreported (IUU) fishing,
                                                                                                         as reported by Pauly and Zeller (2014).
              0
                1960   1965    1970     1975   1980   1985     1990   1995     2000    2005   2010       Capture reconstruction studies paint an
                                                                                                         even bleaker picture. For example, for
                                                          Year                                           Galicia (Spain) Villasante et al., (2016)
                                                                                                         reported that, in a conservative scenar-
         Figure 8.2. Per capita fish consumption (kg/year) in RIOCC countries. Source: compiled by
                                                                                                         io, the total volume of rebuilt catches is
         the authors with data from FAOSTAT (2019).
                                                                                                         1.5 times higher than official catches;
                                                                                                         while for Argentina the authors reported
                                                                                                         that rebuilt catches can be even twice
                                                                                                         as large as official catches. Official FAO
      In economic terms, fisheries and aquaculture contribute                       statistics show negative trends in total catches for South
      to the GDP of the RIOCC countries in many ways. In Cen-                       America, the Caribbean, Spain and Portugal, as opposed to
      tral America (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Hondu-                      Mexico, Brazil and Central America (Figure 8.3). Fish stocks
      ras, Nicaragua, and Panama), fisheries and aquaculture                        within biologically sustainable levels have shown a declining
      produced an average of 422,210 tons per year between                          trend from 90% in 1974 to 66.9% (with 59.9% fully exploited
      2000 and 2010, valued at US$2.039 billion per year (FAO,                      and 7% under-exploited) by 2015. This situation is worrying
      2014). These countries contributed 24.5% to the primary                       because maintaining stocks at levels below maximum sus-
      sector GDP and 2.6% to the national economy. Expor ts                         tainable yield (MSY) not only has negative ecological conse-
      from Latin America and the Caribbean accounted for about                      quences, but also reduces fish production in the long term,
      25% of world exports in 2016 and were focused on shrimp,                      which subsequently carries negative social and economic
      tuna, salmon and fishmeal from Ecuador, Chile and Peru,                       consequences. Overfishing generally reduces income and
      respectively. In 2016 and 2017, exports increased due to                      economic efficiency, as well as increased variability and de-
      higher production and rising prices of tuna (FAO, 2018).                      creased resilience of fish stocks or other fishing resources
      With regard to the Iberian Peninsula, in Spain, the fishing                   (Hsieh et al., 2006). This is particularly relevant as over-ex-
      sector contributes 1% of GDP, and is particularly relevant                    ploited populations are often much more susceptible to the
      in regions such as Galicia, the Basque Country, Anda-                         impacts of climate change. Aquatic ecosystems have been
      lusia and the Canary Islands. Fishing in Galicia makes                        severely altered by fishing and there has been a widespread
      up about 40% of the Spanish fleet, 50% of its catches                         tendency to fish at increasingly lower levels of the food web
      and 60% of direct and indirect employment in the fishing                      as the number of fish at higher levels dwindles. This has
      sector (Villasante et al., 2016), contributing to more than                   brought about diminishing harvests at lower trophic levels
      10% of the region’s GDP (compared to 0.1% of the fishing                      (Pauly et al., 1998; Allan et al., 2005). Some species known
      sector’s GDP in the European Union), which demonstrates                       for their high reproductive activity and high renewal rate may
      its strategic value for its development. In Por tugal, the                    become extinct (Sadovy and Cheung, 2003), and species at
      fisheries and aquaculture sectors represent less than 1%                      low trophic levels and with high biomasses exhibit historical
      of GDP. However, these sectors may be crucial in many                         lows, which results in decreased annual catches (Da Rocha
      coastal areas (Sines, Leixões, Setúbal and Aveiro, among                      et al., 2014). Bycatch and habitat degradation also lead
      others). In 2016, Spain and Portugal’s fishing fleets had                     to losses in marine biodiversity (Worm et al., 2006, 2009;
      9,459 and 8,100 vessels, with a fish landing volume of                        Allan, 2005), which can impact certain ecological processes
      895,000 tons and 173,000 tons and an economic value                           such as predation (Myers et al., 2007), bio-erosion (Bellwood
      of more than 2,086 and 390 million euros, respectively                        et al., 2003), availability of food for sea birds (Jahncke et
      (STECF, 2018).                                                                al., 2004) and the transport of nutrients (Allan et al., 2005).

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                   14                                                                                        to changes in the growth, body size, dis-
                                                Peru                                                         tribution, productivity and abundance of
                                                Chile
                                                                                                             marine species, including those exploited
                   12                           Spain
                                                Mexico                                                       by fisheries (Perry et al., 2005; Behren-
                                                Brazil                                                       feld et al., 2006; Brander, 2007; Portner,
                   10                           Argentina                                                    2010; Simpson et al., 2011; Cheung et
                                                Ecuador                                                      al., 2010; Breitburg et al., 2013). The
                                                Others (14 countries)
                                                                                                             effects of climate change on marine life
Millions of tons

                    8
                                                                                                             extend to all its levels of organization,
                                                                                                             from individuals, populations and com-
                    6
                                                                                                             munities to entire ecosystems (Rijnsdorp
                                                                                                             et al., 2009; Hoegh-Guldberg and Bruno,
                    4                                                                                        2010; Walther, 2010; Poloczanska et
                                                                                                             al., 2013). It should be noted that the
                    2                                                                                        magnitude of phenological responses to
                                                                                                             climate change varies among function-
                                                                                                             al groups and trophic levels. Therefore,
                    0
                        1961   1966   1971   1976   1981   1986    1991   1996   2001   2006   2011   2016   decoupling of phenological events is
                                                                                                             expected to lead to changes in trophic
                                                                Year
                                                                                                             interactions, food web structures and
          Figure 8.3. Annual catches (million tons) in RIOCC countries. Source: prepared by the              ecosystem function (Edwards and Rich-
          authors with data sourced from FishstatJ (2019).                                                   ardson, 2004).
                                                                                                               Most aquatic animal species for human
                                                                                                               consumption are poikilotherms, and are
Dominant selective pressure from fishing is also likely to                               therefore affected by ocean warming. Sea level rise, ocean
affect the genetic makeup of stocks (Hutchings, 2000).                                   acidification and deoxygenation, changes in ocean produc-
                                                                                         tivity, circulation patterns, and the frequency and intensity
                                                                                         of extreme weather events (e.g., monsoons) are also major
  8.1.3. Relationship of the sector or system                                            hazards facing the aquaculture industry, either through im-
                                                                                         pacts on the physical and chemical properties of water or
         with climate and climate change                                                 damage to port and aquaculture infrastructure (De Silva and
                                                                                         Soto, 2009). Changes in the global climate therefore present
Climate processes affect the way marine ecosystems work                                  significant challenges and opportunities for societies and
at different time and spatial scales (Rouyer et al., 2008),                              economies.
which in turn can have direct or indirect consequences for
socio-ecological systems (Figure 8.4). There is a natural vari-
ability in currents, temperature, oxygen, and other factors
that affect the feeding, growth, and migratory patterns of
                                                                                          8.1.4. Review of previous reports
aquatic populations (Miller et al., 2010). Their variations are                          The Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel
not only seasonal, but also inter-annual (e.g., El Niño South-                           on Climate Change (AR5; IPCC, 2014) reviews the scientific
ern Oscillation, ENSO) and multi-decadal (the Pacific Decadal                            evidence on trends and causes of climate change, risks to
Oscillation and the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation). These                            natural and human systems, and options for adaptation and
modes of variability are manifested in changes in global at-                             mitigation. Chapter 27 of this report analyzes impacts, ad-
mospheric circulation, cyclone and hurricane patterns, mon-                              aptation and vulnerability in South America (SA) and Central
soons, and precipitation and heat patterns, accompanied by                               America (CA) (Magrin et al., 2014) for water resources, land
related drought and flooding events (Reid, 2018) that affect                             and inland water systems, coastal systems, food produc-
marine and freshwater systems throughout the food web,                                   tion systems and food security, human settlements, industry
beginning with phytoplankton production and species that                                 and infrastructure, renewable energy and health. Chapter
support fishing (Chavez et al., 2008; Salvatteci et al., 2018).                          26 (Romero-Lankao et al., 2014) assesses the literature on
In addition to this natural climate variability, to which fish-                          observed and projected impacts, vulnerabilities and risks,
ing resources have adapted somehow, man-made climate                                     as well as adaptation actions and options in three North
change has either caused or is expected to cause biological                              American countries: Canada, Mexico and the United States.
and ecological changes in the ocean (Brierley and Kingsford,                             Chapter 23 of the report (Kovats et al., 2014) reviews the
2009). Specifically, changes in the physical conditions of the                           scientific evidence on the observed and projected impacts
ocean (e.g., temperature, ocean currents) and of its biogeo-                             of climate change in European countries, including those on
chemical conditions (e.g., acidification, oxygen content, pri-                           the Iberian Peninsula. It analyzes the impacts of sea lev-
mary production, structure of plankton communities) can lead                             el rise and extreme precipitation, extreme weather events

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                                                                                                      pre-industrial levels. With regard to fish-
           Physical-chemical            Social-ecological               Specific impacts               ing resources, Chapter 3 of this report
               changes                       effects                                                  (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2018) describes
                                                                                                      the observed impacts and projected risks
                                                                   Species composition
                                                                                                      on natural and human systems that in-
                                                                   Production and yield
                                                                   Distribution
                                                                                                      clude fisheries and aquaculture food
                                            Production             Seasonality                        production systems in developing island
                                             ecology                                                  countries.
                                                                   Diseases
          Ocean currents                                           Coral reef bleaching
                                                                                                          The IPCC has recently published a Spe-
                                                                   Calcification
          ENSO                                                                                            cial Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere
           Sea level changes                  Fishing, fish                                                in a Changing Climate (IPCC, 2019) that
                                                                    Security and protection
                                         fa
                                         farming (aquaculture)      Efficiency and costs
           Rainfall                         and post-harvest
                                                                                                          assesses new insights into how climate
                                                                    Infrastructure
           River currents                       operations                                                change is leading to alterations in the
           Lake levels
                                                                                                          ocean and the cryosphere and how
                                                                     Loss of/damage to livelihood assets  they will keep changing. It talks about
           Thermal structure
                                              Communities            Livelihood means strategies          the risks and opportunities that these
           Heavy and frequent                and livelihoods                                              changes bring to ecosystems and peo-
           storms                                                    Health and safety hazards
                                                                                                          ple, as well as the mitigation, adaptation
           Salinity                                                  Displacements and conflicts
                                                                                                          and governance options to reduce future
           Acidification
                                                                                                          risks. The Report highlights the impor-
           Temperature                                                                                    tance of the world’s oceans and frozen
                                                                     Adaptation and mitigation costs
                                               Society and           Market impact                        areas and the need for urgent action to
                                                 economy                                                  prioritize timely, bold and coordinated
                                                                     Water distribution
                                                                                                          initiatives to address unprecedented ob-
                                                                     Floods and coastal defenses
                                                                                                          served changes. It further analyses ob-
                                                                                                          served changes and impacts, projected
         Figure 8.4. Climate change impacts on fisheries and aquaculture. Source: adapted from
                                                                                                          changes and risks, and how responses
         Badjeck et al. (2010).                                                                           to ocean and cryosphere changes are
                                                                                                          implemented in relation to the physical
                                                                                                          environment, ecosystems, people and
                                                                                                          ecosystem services. Finally, the report
                                                                                      concludes that a significant reduction in greenhouse gas
      (cold or hot), hydropower production, sea temperature rise
                                                                                      emissions, protecting and restoring ecosystems, and care-
      and climate and their implications for agriculture, fisheries,
                                                                                      fully managing the use of natural resources would preserve
      forestry and bioenergy production. The report also contains
                                                                                      the oceans and cryosphere as a source of opportunities for
      a chapter on the ocean, (Chapter 30; Hoegh-Guldberg et al.,
                                                                                      adapting to future changes, limiting livelihood risks and pro-
      2014) which examines the extent to which regional changes                       viding multiple additional benefits to society at large.
      in the ocean can be accurately detected and attributed to
      anthropogenic climate change and ocean acidification, based
      on the marine ecological and physiological responses to cli-
      mate change and ocean acidification discussed in Chapter                     8.2. Risk components in relation
      6 of the same report (Pörtner et al., 2014). This chapter
      assesses the impacts, risks and vulnerabilities associated                        to the sector
      with climate change and ocean acidification in seven ocean
      sub-regions, and discusses the expected consequences and                        According to the IPCC (2014), risk results from the interaction
      adaptation options for key ocean-related sectors, including                     between vulnerability, exposure, and danger or hazard. Under
      fisheries and aquaculture.                                                      this approach, hazards or dangers are actual biophysical
                                                                                      events, such as temperature rises driven by climate change,
      Likewise, the IPCC has published a special report on the im-                    and defined by their magnitude and probability (1 or 2°C).
      pacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels,                   Exposure refers to what is affected by the danger (e.g. fish-
      in the light of strengthening the global response to the threat                 ing potential) and vulnerability describes how sensitive the
      of climate change, sustainable development and efforts to                       affected system or population is to a particular hazard, given
      eradicate poverty (IPCC, 2018). This report assesses miti-                      its exposure (a resource that is overexploited or has a narrow
      gation pathways to limit warming to 1.5°C above pre-indus-                      tolerance range will be more sensitive to this hazard). The
      trial levels, new scientific evidence of changes in the climate                 main hazards posed by climate change to marine fisheries
      system and its associated impacts on natural and human                          and aquaculture are rising sea temperatures, changes in
      systems, specifically focusing on the magnitude and pat-                        seasonality, rising sea levels, increased extreme and cat-
      terns of the risks posed by a global warming of 1.5°C above                     astrophic events, increased precipitation, acidification and

282   RIOCCADAPT REPORT
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Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

hypoxia, and the proliferation of toxic microalgae. FAO (2018)     related to El Niño and La Niña are expected to become more
considers non-climate stressors to be a more serious hazard        frequent (Cai et al., 2015). However, El Niño will continue being
to inland fisheries than climate-driven ones. These hazards        hazardous in the Southeast Pacific region, affecting its climate
lead to changes in species distribution, ecosystem productiv-      (IPCC, 2013; Bertrand et al., 2018). Rising mean sea levels,
ity, coastal erosion and flooding, increased mortality of fish-    together with more intense ENSO causing heavy rainfall and
ing/aquaculture resources and fishing-related ecosystems.          unusual waves and swells (PRODUCE, 2016a), pose a hazard
These in turn pose risks to food security, poverty, health,        to fishery infrastructure off the coasts of Chile and Peru.
unemployment, loss of human life, and income across the
countries, depending on the magnitude of the impact, expo-
sure and vulnerability. Daw et al. (2009) provide a summary        8.2.1.3. Magellan Province
of the ecological, direct and socio-economic impacts of cli-
mate change on fisheries along with some examples (Figure          In Argentinean Patagonia, sea surface temperature (SST) has
8.5). These result from processes linked to ecosystems or          changed over the last 50 years and projections suggest an
to political, economic and social systems.                         increase of more than 3°C by the end of the century, as well
                                                                   as a 25% increase in precipitation (Popova et al., 2016). Rising
                                                                   sea levels and swells pose a serious hazard, especially for the
8.2.1. Hazards                                                     Chilean Patagonian shelf (ECLAC, 2015). They increase the
                                                                   risks to landing sites and marine farming systems, as well as
                                                                   infrastructure along the region’s coastline. Together with the
8.2.1.1. Warm temperate NE Pacific and                             proliferation of harmful microalgae, the surge in extreme and
         tropical NE Pacific provinces                             catastrophic events (storms, increased precipitation and hypox-
                                                                   ic events) that occur along the coasts and are widespread in
The temperature rise in the tropical NE Pacific region, as op-     the high seas threaten fisheries and aquaculture in the region.
posed to Central America, is affecting resources (Lluch-Cota
et al., 2013). Deoxygenation—which manifests itself as an ex-
pansion of hypoxic areas or an increase in their intensity—is a    8.2.1.4. Warm temperate SW Atlantic
significant hazard, since the minimum oxygen layer is notorious
in this region both for its size and hypoxia levels (Fiedler and            province
Lavin, 2017). The hazard of acidification is also a concern in
                                                                   The SST along the Atlantic coast of South America has
this region as projections reveal that the region has one of the
                                                                   warmed over the last 30 years at rates between 0.2°C and
lowest levels of aragonite for coral development (Lluch-Cota et
                                                                   0.4°C per decade (Lima and Wethey, 2012). In the South
al., 2018). Mass deaths of species within the Gulf have been
                                                                   Atlantic of Brazil, Uruguay and part of the Patagonian shelf
associated with harmful algal blooms, and there is evidence that
                                                                   in Argentina, the SST has changed most rapidly over the past
the number of toxic species and the frequency and duration of
                                                                   50 years and is projected to increase by more than 3°C by
events are increasing (Lluch-Cota et al., 2018).
                                                                   2099 (Popova et al., 2016). The increase in SST is expected
                                                                   to be coupled with acidification and a resulting reduction in
                                                                   pH from 0.3 to 0.4 between 2081 and 2100 (IPCC, 2014).
8.2.1.2. Warm temperate SE Pacific province                        This region has exhibited one of the largest increases in
Unlike other regions, the South Pacific coast of South America     precipitation worldwide over the last century, and this trend
has experienced coastal cooling of approximately 1°C from          is likely to continue. Precipitation is expected to increase by
at least the 1970s to the first decade of the 2000s, extend-       5 to 20% by 2050 (Nagy et al., 2008), along with the higher
ing from central Peru to south-central Chile (Gutiérrez et al.,    river flows brought about by El Niño-related events (Vögler
2011; Magrin et al., 2014; Gutiérrez et al., 2016; Yáñez et        et al., 2015). An increase in the frequency and strength of
al., 2018). This upwelling region is affected by seasonal, in-     cyclonic swells has been observed in the coastal areas of
ter-annual (e.g., ENSO), and decade-long fluctuations (Chavez      the Río de la Plata (D’Onofrio et al., 2008), coupled with an
et al., 2008). Future projections estimate an increase in the      increase in the speed and frequency of southern winds on
intensity and duration of winds that favor upwelling off the       land that boost coastal erosion rates (Gutiérrez et al., 2016).
coast of Chile, and a decrease (moderate) or non-significant
changes off the coast of Peru (Belmadani et al., 2014; Wang
et al., 2015; Gutiérrez et al., 2019). Furthermore, there will     8.2.1.5. Tropical SW Atlantic, Brazilian N
be an increase in stratification as well as a strong warming                shelf, tropical NW Atlantic and
of the surface of Peruvian waters and, to a lesser extent, of
Chilean waters (Oerder et al., 2015; ECLAC, 2015). These                    warm-temperate NW Atlantic
latter changes could favor an expansion of the subsurface                   provinces
oxygen minimum zone (OMZ) at low pH, amplifying hypoxia
and acidification in shallow areas. Although there is no con-      Increasing SST in the Central West Atlantic is a highly
sensus on changes in frequency or amplitude, extreme events        disparate hazard influenced by the major currents in the

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                                                    Climate change                                                     Social and
                                                                                                               ecological-fishing systems
                                          Green-            Temperature
                                                                                                                       Ecosystems
                                          house
                                                            Extreme events                                     Ecosystem processes
                                          gases                                    Biophysical effects
                                                                                                               Aquatic environment
                                Re
                            p
                                                            Sea level rise                                     Fish populations and production
                         er
                      cus
                    sions on soc

                                                            Acidification              Dir
                                                                                         ect                        Ecological effects
                                                                                               effe
                                                                                                     cts
                              y
                                 iet

                                                   Politics, society
                                                                                                                    Fishing activities
                                                     and economy
                                            Markets
                                                                                                                      Yields
                                            Migration                         Socio-economic effects
                                            Work                                                                      Effort
                                            Consumption patterns                                                      Livelihood means
                                            Mitigation measures                                                       Management
                                            Fuel prices

                                   Ecological repercussions                                                                 Socio-economic
                                  (outlined in the first study)                  Direct repercussions                        repercussions

                                                                                                                     Affluence of migrant fishers
                                Changes in yields                            Damage to infrastructure
                                                                                                                     Rise in fuel prices
                                Changes in species distributions             Damage to gear
                                                                                                                     Health damages due to diseases
                                Increase in variability of catches           Increased risk at sea
                                                                                                                     Relative financial performance
                                Seasonal production variations               Losses/Gains of maritime routes         of other sectors
                                                                             Flooding of fishing communities          Availability of manageable
                                                                                                                     resources
                                                                                                                     Less security
                                                                                                                     Adaptation funds

        Figure 8.5. Ecological, direct and socio-economic impacts of climate change on fisheries and examples of each case. Source: Daw et al., 2009.

      region (Oxenford and Monnereau, 2018). These range                                       sonal dead zones (lacking sufficient oxygen) in the Gulf
      from slow warming (the Brazilian North Shelf) with a TSM                                 of Mexico (GoM) continue to expand each summer (Hel-
      increase of 0.38°C between 1957 and 2012, and from                                       leman and Rabalais, 2009). On the other hand, in the
      0.15°C to 0.16°C (the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico,                                  Central West Atlantic the decrease in pH has mirrored the
      respectively). Regional-scale models suggest that in the                                 global trend and occurred hand in hand with a sustained
      Caribbean the small annual SST range will continue to                                    decrease in the aragonite saturation state (Ωar) (despite
      drop from a current average of 3.3°C to only 2.3°C by the                                being seasonally and spatially variable according to the
      end of the century, making seasonality less pronounced                                   influence of SST and salinity) from an annual average val-
      (Nurse and Charlery, 2016). The tropical Atlantic (Stramma                               ue of 4.05 to 3.39 within a span of just 11 years (1996
      et al., 2012) has seen a decrease in its minimum oxygen                                  to 2006; Gledhill et al., 2008). Ωar values in this region
      layer (suggesting a hypoxic habitat boundary for species                                 are expected to reach 3.0-3.5, while pCO 2 reaching 550
      with high oxygen demand), and a decrease in upwelling                                    μatm will reduce Ωar to
Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources

Sea level rise (SLR) is also a major hazard for the region.        The surface waters of the western Mediterranean also show
Over the last six decades, the sea level increased at a rate       a clear and significant warming trend during the last decades
of 1.8 ± 0.1 mm/year in the Caribbean (Palanisamy et al.,          of the 20th century, with an average rate of change around
2012) and is projected to rise between 0.35 and 0.65 m (de-        0.03°C/year-1 (Pascual et al., 1995; Salat and Pascual
pending on the emissions scenario used) by the end of the          2002, 2006; Calvo et al., 2011) and 0.04°C/year-1 during
century (2081 to 2100) compared to the 1986-2005 period            the first decade of the 21st century (Kersting et al., 2013;
(Church et al., 2013). Comparing the decades from 1950 to          Marbà et al., 2015). In fact, it has recently been found that
1960 and from 1998 to 2008, the frequency of SLR-related           the water of the Mediterranean is acidifying at a rate of
extreme events has increased significantly (20 percent to          ~0.0044 pH units/year-1 (Arrow et al., 2015). These values
60 percent) throughout the Caribbean, while there has been         exceed the acidification average in the other oceans during
little change in the platform of Northern Brazil (Church et al.,   the same period (-0.1 units; Raven et al., 2005). The level of
2013; Losada et al., 2013). The Mississippi delta in the Gulf      the Mediterranean Sea has also increased since the 1990s
of Mexico is experiencing a sea level rise three times higher      between 2 and 8.7 mm/year (Easter, 2006), contrary to the
than the global average and its coastal impact varies region-      height of the waves, which show a significant decrease of
ally according to tidal range and tidal frequency (Losada et       approximately 0.08 cm year-1 during the 1958-2001 period
al., 2013). This implies that the Caribbean and the Gulf of        (Lionello and Sanna, 2008).
Mexico, which have experienced micro tides and a rise in sea
temperature, will be the most affected, while northern Brazil,
with its macro tides and lower frequency of storms, will be        8.2.2. Exposure
affected in the east.
Finally, there is evidence that more tropical storms in the        8.2.2.1. Warm temperate NE Pacific and
Caribbean region and the Gulf of Mexico are becoming dan-
gerous category four and five hurricanes (Murakami et al.,                  tropical NE Pacific provinces
2012; Magrin et al., 2014).
                                                                   The models project that most tropical areas are exposed to
                                                                   changes in productivity and ecosystem structure and a re-
                                                                   duction in the catch potential of sardine, squid (Pörtner et al.,
8.2.1.6. Lusitanian province and                                   2014; Cheung et al., 2016) and shrimp (Lluch-Cota, 2018)
         Mediterranean Sea                                         (see section 8.3). Also, small-scale fishing and tourism are
                                                                   highly exposed to these changes as they depend heavily
In the Atlantic region of northern Spain, the surface water        on coastal resources in coral reef, mangrove, and seagrass
temperature has increased between 1982 and 2014 at a               ecosystems. Livelihoods and food security are therefore at
rate of 0.026 ºC-yr-1 (Costoya et al., 2015). This warming         risk from the effects of climate change.
is also detected in waters up to 1000 m deep (González-Po-
la et al., 2012), but there is no recent evidence of it at
>5000 m (Prieto et al., 2015). According to Vargas-Yáñez           8.2.2.2. Warm temperate SE Pacific
et al. (2010), in the Mediterranean region east of the Ibe-
rian Peninsula the increase in surface water temperature                    province
during 1948-2007 varied between 0 and 0.5ºC. Between
depths of 200 and 600 m, the temperature increased be-             While there is still uncertainty about how different drivers of
tween 0.05ºC and 0.2ºC and the salinity between 0.03 and           change will impact productivity and biodiversity in this region,
0.09. At greater depths (1000 and 2000 m), the increase            they can be presumed to affect the phenology, spatial dis-
in temperature and salinity was 0.03º-0.1ºC and 0.05-0.06,         tribution and species composition of primary and secondary
respectively. This area has also seen reduction in pH over         producers. Declining productivity and rising sea temperatures
recent decades. Although acidification is also present in          affect anchovy (Engraulis ringens) biomass and catch levels
deeper layers, its rates are lower than in surface waters          (Brochier et al., 2013; Gutiérrez et al., 2019), which can
(Rivers et al., 2001; Castro et al., 2009). Another hazard in      greatly endanger the development of the world’s leading im-
this region is sea level rise, which was estimated at around       portant fish oil and fishmeal industries and the production
2 mm/year-1 for the 20th century (Marcos et al., 2005; Ca-         of land and aquaculture animals. By and large, although the
ballero et al., 2008; Leorri et al., 2008). However, sea level     upwelling systems in the Eastern Pacific only cover a small
rise levels obtained for the last decade of the 20th century       area, the impacts of climate change on them will have dispro-
and the first few years of the 21st century are almost 1           portionately harsh consequences for human society (IPCC,
mm/year-1 higher than those published for the entire 20th          2019). Coastal communities will also be exposed to sea level
century. An increase in wave height of approximately 1.5           rise, as well as abnormal heavy rainfall and waves caused
cm/year-1 between 1958 and 2001 associated with cli-               by more frequent and intense ENSO. Moreover, marine fish
mate change has also been recorded in the Cantabrian Sea,          cultures (such as salmon) and invertebrates (such as Ar-
along with an increase in the number of storms (Anadón and         gopecten purpuratus and Concholepas concholepas) in this
Roqueñi, 2009).                                                    region will also be exposed to deoxygenation and acidifica-

                                                                                                        RIOCCADAPT REPORT 285
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