"BOOKS OF JUDGMENT" AND THE "BOOK OF LIFE" IN BIBLICAL
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"B OOKS OF JUDGMENT" AND THE "B OOK OF LIFE" IN B IBLICAL
THEOLOGY
John A. Jelinek
Seminary Chaplain, Baptist Bible Seminary
Associate Professor, Baptist Bible Seminary
INTRODUCTION
From whence comes the idea of God as a divine stenographer? A cursory examination of the relevant biblical
passages raises a number of perplexing questions. How did the Israelites and other ancient peoples regard the
divine role in keeping account of human affairs? Is there more than one book of life in the Bible? What is con-
tained in these records and when were they recorded? What is meant when names are said to be "blotted out" of
this record? In sum, how does one understand and integrate the many biblical references to "books of judgment"
and the "book of life”? 1
HISTORICAL B ACKGROUND
A belief in the existence of celestial or heavenly tables on which the "gods" kept record of men, their activities
and destinies, can be traced to ancient Sumer.2 Here, individual destinies, as well as the destinies of nations, were
believed to be recorded on tablets reserved in the heavens.3 Nabu was thought to be the divine stenographer,4 the
keeper of the unalterable records, and several cuneiform texts reflect appeals made by kings to him. 5 The idea, then, of
1
Some may debate the importance of the metaphor. If the "book of life " is merely a symbol, why assign any real
importance to it? After all, is there really a book in heaven, or does Scripture merely speak symbolically or
metaphorically? First, the book of life was important enough for John to refer to several times as incentive for moral
behavior (see references below). Second, when Scripture uses metaphorical language, this does not deny the reality
behind its images. In other words, something real and literal underlay John’s description of a book of life or his
words have no meaning. That reality may simply be a way of saying that God sees and retains knowledge of the
events that transpire here on earth and of the men who are involved in them. However, that reality does not preclude
the possibility of a literal written record. Imagery present in biblical texts should be interpreted in harmony with other
biblical revelation, not simply ignored.
2
An early example comes from the Enuma Elish (Akkadian, Enuma elish "when on high," the title taken from its
opening words), dated by many scholars to the early 2nd millennium B.C. For the text see James B. Pritchard, ed.,
Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 2d ed. (Princeton UP, 1954), 67, 121-22.
3
See B. Meissner, Babylonien und Assyrien (Heidelberg: Wissenschaften Buchgesellschaft, 1925), 2:124-125. For
a discussion of "tablets of destiny" see A. Leo Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization,
rev. and ed. E. Reiner (Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1977), 195, 231-236. See also Madeline David, Les dieux et le destin
en Babylonie (Paris: Garabalda, 1949).
4
The role of Nabu as scribe is detailed in H. Zimmern and H. Winckler, Die Keilschrifin-schriftren und das Alte
Testament, 3d ed., Kommentar zum Alten Testament (Berlin, 1903), 399-408, and in H. W. F. Saggs, The Might That
Was Assyria (London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1984), 280ff.
5
For example, Ashurbanipal, who ruled from 668-627 B.C., addressed Nabu saying, "My life is inscribed before
you." Cf. Th. H. Gaster, Thespis (New York: Doubleday/Anchor Books, 1961), 288. See further, Saggs, Assyria, 281:
"Whoever erases my name as written and writes his own name, may Nabu, the universal scribe, erase his name."
Compare also the saying of Nebuchadnezzar (ruled 605-562B.C.), "On your unchangeable tablet, which established
the boundaries of heaven and earth, proclaim length of days for me, inscribe long life." For the text see Donald J.the gods keeping record of human events and participating in human destinies was not foreign, even in the time of
Moses and before.
Further, in ancient cities the names of citizens were often recorded in a register until their deaths (cf. Jer 22:30;
Ezek 13:9).6 Their names were then marked out of the book of the living. This same concept appears in the Old Testa-
ment (cf. Exod 32:32-33; Pss 58:8; 69:28; Isa 4:3, et al), and implications from it seem to spill into the New Testament,
particularly the book of Revelation (see references below).
YAHWEH AS RECORD KEEPER
God as "Scribe." The first and only biblically recorded instance of God "writing something down" occurs in the
giving of the decalogue to Moses (Exod 20-24). In Exodus 20:1-17, the words of the covenant were given audibly to
Moses. In Exodus 24:12, God gave to Moses, !t;rwo hol] yTibt] K' ; rv,a] hw:xM] hi w' Ò , "the commandments which I have written for
the people's instruction." Later in the same narrative (Exod 31:18; 32:15, 16),7 these tablets are identified as that which
is written "by the finger of God" and "God's writing" and delivered directly into the hands of Moses. The same em-
phasis on the nature of these writings continues into Exodus 34 where, following the idolatry and repentance of the
nation (Chapters 32 and 33), God again pledged to write the words which were on the former, shattered tablets (v. 1,
yTibt] k' w; )Ò and Moses described the finished product as what God wrote (v. 28).8 This contextual background is essential
for understanding the meaning of Moses' appeal in Exodus 32:32, as shall be seen.9
The idea, then, of God as a direct Author or Scribe for certain texts comes early in biblical revelation. Before
Moses took pen to hand in composing Genesis, God is said to be at work in actual writing, thus safeguarding the
foundational component of the Hebrew (and later Christian) ethic. The repeated emphasis of the text is that God Him-
self (Exod 32:16) inscribed the moral law upon the tablets of stone.
The "Heavenly Records." In addition to divine scribal activity, the Bible refers to several different kinds of divine
"record-keeping." As the passages cited below indicate, certain portions of Scripture refer to name lists, others to
historical incidents, and still others to a record or records of deeds. A number of categorizations and/or definitions
have been offered and continue to be offered by scholars, but what follows provides a general summary of the his -
Wiseman, Nebuchadnezzar and Babylon (London: Oxford UP, 1985), 67; and for the cuneiform citation,
Vorderasiatische Bibliothek 4, 100, ii: 23-25.
6
Compare Amihai Mazar, Archaeology of the Land of the Bible: 10,000—586 B.C.E., Anchor Bible Reference
Library (New York: Doubleday, 1990), 182-195, for Mari as an example. Compare also John McRay, Archaeology and
the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1991) for a discussion of libra ries and record -keeping in Rome and Corinth;
and F. Schultz, "Roman Registers of Births and Birth Certificates," Parts 1 and 2, Journal of Roman Studies 32
(London, 1942): 78-91 and 33 (London, 1943): 55-64; and Colin J. Hemer, The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia in
their Local Setting, JSNTSupp 11 (Sheffield: University of Sheffield, 1986).
7
Apparently all of chapters 25-30 take place up on the mountain, for 31:18 resumes the flow of the narrative from
chapter 24. See John H. Sailhamer, The Pentateuch as Narrative (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992), 295-309, and the
textual strategy (structure) diagrammed on p. 47. For alternative views on the sequence of the narrative, see John I.
Durham, Exodus, Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 3 (Dallas: Word, 1987), 278-283.
8
The Lord is the subject of the verb "he wrote" in v. 28 contra the assertions of Cartwrightus, Critici Sacri:
Annotata Doctissimorum Virorum in Vetus ad Novum Testamentum, ed. J. Pearson, A. Scattergood, F. Gouldman,
and R. Pearson (Amsterdam, 1698), 1:862, and Walter C. Kaiser, "Exodus," in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary, ed.
Frank E. Gaebelein (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1978-91) 2:485.
9
I am indebted to my colleagues at BBS for their interaction with this article. I am particularly grateful to John I.
Lawlor, professor of Old Testament, for his insight into this aspect of progressive revelation from the book of Exodus
(and the OT) and for his interaction with key components of this article. The reader may also want to consider the
record of Eze kiel’s call and commissioning (Ezek 2:8-3:3) in which he is given a scroll to eat which had writing on it
(back and front {2:10}), like the tablets Moses received {Exod 32:15}). Ezekiel’s scroll had the words of the Lord on it
{cf. Ezek 2:7}, and its purpose was not to establish a covenant as Moses had, but to define the nature of judgment to
befall the nation that had violated that covenant. The words on Ezekiel’s scroll belong to Yahweh, but they are not
said to be written by his finger (as the Decalogue was).torical interpretive options for both these "lists" (in general) and for the book of life (in particular). Of course, the
identification of the written record varies with the context under consideration. Further, a comb ination of one or more
of these views may be applied by an interpreter in any given context.
"B OOK OF LIFE" REFERENCES
In several passages, a book or registry of names is referred to or described by the authors or persons within the
biblical narrative. The use of this so-called "book of life" in these many and varied references has led many commen-
tators and theologians to attempt a harmonization of the scattered data. What follows here are several (though cer-
tainly not all) of the theories that have been derived from the scriptural data, cited with some of their more prominent
proponents (footnoted).
A list in heaven of the elect saints, from which no names are ever expunged.10 Many see the reference to the
book of life as a simple record of the elect. Since the enrollees are the elect, this record is unalterable and unaltered in
the heavens. It is not clear, in most instances, whether this list is thought to be composed by God Himself or merely
recorded in heaven at His behest.
A list in heaven of provisionally elected "saints." Others see in the book of life a record of those who may or
may not endure or persevere. Those who persevere remain on the list; those who fall away are removed from the
list.11
A combined list of apostates (or professing believers) and believers, from which the names of said apostates
are later expunged.12 This approach differs only slightly from the previous view. Here, apostates are included on the
elect list and would be removed, in what would seem to be a special form of divine judgment upon them, from the list
of the elect. Their ability to persevere, however, would still determine their status upon the list.13
A list of all humankind, from which the names of believers are eventually blotted out. This view reverses the
idea of the preceding view. Only believers are removed from the book of judgments. It seems logical that those main-
taining this position would see the book as identical to the one used for judgment in Revelation 20:12.
A record of professing believers, from which the names of those whose profession is false are erased. Some have
sensed the tension that the combination of the Old and New Testament references provide and attempt to harmonize
the data with their perspective on election.14 Only those "professing" but not posses sing a saving faith are expunged
from the book.
A list or book recording those who are physically alive.15 In this understanding of the book of life, the names of
everyone who lives (physically) are recorded in God's book, and names are removed from that book only when a
10
See, for example, M. Rist, "Life, Book of," in The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible (New York: Abingdon,
1962) 3:130. See also Thomas W. Davis, "Book, Book of Life " in Walter Elwell, ed., Evangelical Dictionary of
Biblical Theology (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1996), 74. Davis describes the book as a simple "list of the righteous" in the
OT and a "eternal ledger of heavenly citizenship " in the NT.
11
Cited in I. Howard Marshall, Kept By the Power of God: A Study of Perseverance and Falling Away
(Minneapolis: Bethany House, 1969), 29-39.
12
Robert Shank, Elect in the Son (Springfield: Westcott, 1970), 207ff. and Life in the Son (Springfield: Westcott,
1960), 281, 365. See also W. M. Ramsay, Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1907),
385.
13
J. A. Seiss, Letters to the Seven Churches (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1956), 201. Compare the critique of this view
by John F. Walvoord, The Revelation of Jesus Christ (Chicago: Moody, 1966), 82. See also his Prophecy Knowledge
Handbook (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1991) for a current statement. Walvoord takes umbrage with Seiss’ suggestion
that eternal salvation blessings could be lost.
14
As observed in footnote 13, Walvoord, Revelation, 82.
15
E. W. Smith, "Book of Life," in The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, gen. ed. Geoffrey Bromiley,
rev. ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979), 1:534. See also Walter Kaiser, "Exodus," 481; Robert Gromacki, Is Salvation
Forever? (Chicago: Moody, 1973), 156, 157. Gromacki concedes that the list "does seem to contain a roster of the
names of saved people."person dies. Hence, when Moses interceded for the people in Exodus 32:32, he pleaded for them on the basis of his
physical life. "Spare them or take my life" would be the sense of the passage.
A book listing those who will receive the blessings of Yahweh's (God's) covenant.16 In this position, an attempt
is made to harmonize the covenant setting of the original reference to God's book with the perspective of the new
covenant blessings in Christ. To be in God's book is to be in a position to receive covenantal blessing.
OTHER "B OOKS " OR "LISTS " IN HEAVEN
Other written, yet heavenly, records appear in Scripture which do not appear to carry the redemptive nuances of
the previous references. In these references the focus/perspective moves to God's omniscience in the daily affairs of
men, His sovereignty over what the ancients might have called "the fates."
A book or books of deeds which God reserves for use in judgment of humanity.17 Several passages in Scripture
indicate that God keeps record of incidents or behaviors that serve as a later basis for recompense, judgment, or
justice. Nehemiah asks to be remembered (in the heavenly record?) for his good deeds (Neh 13:14). The psalmist
indicates that even his tears are recorded in God's book (Ps 56:9). These may be figurative allusions to the omnis-
cience of God (God sovereignly and exhaustively knows all things). Context s like Daniel 7:10 and Revelation 20:12
make it clear that God's judgment of men proceeds from what is recorded in these books. None of these "deed lists,"
however, appear to clarify or confirm the nature of the book of life.
A book or books which record foreordained events and individual destinies.18 Finally, certain contexts (such as
Ps 139:16; Rev 5:1; 10:8-1119) make it clear that heaven contains scrolls or books which reveal His sovereign plan for
men and their fate.
TOWARD A SUMMARY OF THE 'HEAVENLY' RECORDS
Of the aforementioned options, the last two are not records of persons, but of events (though involving per-
sons) and are illustrated in the OT judgment texts listed below. Having briefly summarized some scholarly perspec-
tives on such passages, how should one understand the manifold scriptural testimony pertaining to these records?
The following catalogue listing of the pertinent texts provides the reader easier reference and facilitates the dis-
cussion.20 The list includes allusions to "writings" either extant or written out in the presence of the Lord. It is be-
yond the scope of this article to provide full, exegetical comments on each passage; however, preliminary assertions
and discussion may be found in the footnotes.
Exodus 32:32-33
"But now, please forgive their sin—but if not, then blot me out of the book you have written." The LORD replied to
Moses, "Whoever has sinned against me I will blot out of my book ." 21
16
Compare Durham, Exodus, 432; and J. B. Lightfoot, Saint Paul’s Epistle to the Philippians (Grand Rapids:
Zondervan, 1959), 159, for his commentary on Philippians 4:3.
17
Rist, 3:130. Compare also Revelation 20:12.
18
See, e.g., E. J. Young, Psalm 139: A Study in the Omniscience of God (London: Banner of Truth Trust, 1965); S.
Wagner, "Zur Theologie des Psalms 139," in Congress Volume: Gottingen 1977 Vetus Testamentum Supplement 29
(Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1978); Jan Holman, "An Analysis of the Text of Psalm 139," Biblische Zeitschrift 14 (1970): 199;
Leopold Sabourin, S. J. The Psalms: Their Origin and Meaning (New York: Alba House, 1970), 147.
19
This last reference corresponds to the calling of Ezekiel as a prophet (Ezek 2:8-3:3). Ezekiel’s calling was in line
with Moses’ revelation of God’s word/covenant, and John demonstrates his solidarity with Moses’ (and Ezekiel’s)
message in this passage.
20
All references are NASB unless otherwise noted (La Habra, CA: Lockman Foundation, 1995).
21
Here, Moses interceded for the nation in the wilderness following the giving of the covenant and the golden
calf idolatry. The context, therefore, from which this material proceeds is the cutting of the covenant at Horeb.
Significantly, it is at Horeb where God gave Moses the original autographa (self-written copy) of the decalogue. ThisPsalm 40:8
Then I said, "Behold, I come; In the roll of the book it is written of me . . . " 22
Psalm 56:9
Are they (my tears) not in Your book ?23
Psalm 69:28
May they be blotted out of the book of the living;24 and not be listed with the righteous.
Psalm 87:6
The Lord records in the roll of nations: "This one was born there . . . . "
Psalm 139:16
Thine eyes have seen my unformed substance; and in Thy book they were all written,25 the days that were ordained
for me, when as yet there was not one of them.
Isaiah 4:3
Those who are left in Zion, who remain in Jerusalem, will be called holy, all who are recorded among the
living 26 in Jerusalem.
Isaiah 34:16-17
Seek from the book of the LORD, and read: Not one of these will be missing; None will lack its mate. For His mouth
has commanded, And His Spirit has gathered them. 27 (Sealing the doom of Edom)
foundational passage not only informs, but is the very basis for analyzing all subsequent passages on the book of
life. The holy God, who did not e ntrust the writing of the decalogue to his most trusted servant Moses (the paradigm
for the prophet who is to come), also kept personal record of the individual destinies of men. The same God who had
written ("I have written," or yTib]t'K) the decalogue had also written (T;b]t;K; also from b]t;K;) {at least} Moses into a written
record. The book is not identified or explained any further in the context of the verse, but is plainly that which is
written by God Himself.
22
Most likely a reference to Deuteronomic law pertaining to kings (Deut 17:14-20) and the cultic requirements
related to them.
23
The sufferings of the just are duly noted by God. The Lord’s record of such injustices serves as an assurance
of the psalmist’s vindication.
24
Marvin E. Tate, Psalms 51-100, Word Biblical Commentary (Waco, TX: Word, 1990), 199, sees a simple
reference to the retributive nature of God’s justice: "removed from those who are preserved alive by God." Sabourin,
The Psalms, 147, sees instead a reference to excommunication, to being expelled from the covenant, which is "life’s
domain."
25
Willem A. VanGemeren, "Psalms," in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary, ed. F. E. Gaebelein (Grand Rapids:
Zondervan, 1991), 5:838, alludes to the "blotting out of sin " in Psalm 51:1 and Psalm 69:28 as illustrations of God’s
book of the righteous. The later (Babylonian) Talmudic reference in Pirqe Aboth 2:1 is illustrative if late: "Know what
is above you: A seeing eye and a hearing ear and all your deeds written in a book." Cf. also Strack-Billerbeck,
Kommentar zum NT aus Talmud und Midrasch, II: 171ff.
26
The idea is, literally, "written for/unto life." The referent is unclear. Are they written in a record of destiny or
merely registered in a registry of citizens? Is the stress on Jerusalem for its pivotal role in biblical theology or is this a
veiled reference to a list kept in the Temple? Some are left (ra;v]NI) and remain (rt;wNœh'wÒ) and "holy " shall be said to each of
them. In some unexplained way, the survivors are rendered fit for the divine presence.Isaiah 65:6
Behold, it is written before Me,28 I will not keep silent, but I will repay; I will even repay into their bosom (referring to
the idolatrous sins of Israel).
Jeremiah 17:13
O LORD, the hope of Israel, All who forsake Thee will be put to shame. Those who turn away on earth will be written
down,29 because they have forsaken the fountain of living water, even the LORD.
Jeremiah 22:30
Thus says the LORD, "Write this man down30 childless, A man who will not prosper in his days; For no man of his
descendants will prosper sitting on the throne of David or ruling again in Judah."
Ezekiel 13:9
My hand will be against the prophets who see false visions and utter lying divinations. They will not belong to the
council of my people or be listed in the records of the house of Israel,31 nor will they enter the land of Israel. Then
you will know that I am the Sovereign LORD.
Daniel 7:10
A river of fire was flowing and coming out from before Him; Thousands upon thousands were attending Him, and
myriads upon myriads were standing before Him. The court sat, and the books were opened.32
Daniel 10:21
However, I will tell you what is inscribed in the writing of truth.33 Yet there is no one who stands firmly with me
against these forces except Michael your prince.
27
D. R. Hillers, Treaty Curses and the Old Testament Prophets, Biblia et orientalia 16 (Rome: Pontifical Biblical
Institute, 1964), 45-49, compares this verse to the Sefire Treaty (III:4) and interprets hw:hyÒ rp,se as a reference to the
inscribed copy of a covenant. John Calvin (ad loc) says the scroll is "the Law" but cites no passage for confirmation.
J. Alec Motyer, The Prophecy of Isaiah: An Introduction and Commentary (Downers Grove: Intervarsity P, 1993),
272, points to the "book metaphor" in 29:11-12, 18 as the near referent (cf. also 35:5 with similar language). It seems
preferable to understand this reference as to the words of Isaiah at hand in this and previous prophecy (including the
Law).
28
In context, God has the sins of the people as they obstinately rejected his outstretched hands and sinned
willfully in his face (vv. 2, 3). The judgment is certain; it is written down before God (gevgraptai ejnwvpiovn mou in the
LXX). John may allude to this verse in Rev. 20:12.
29
The text here is difficult. The Latin and the Targum read "they will be cut off" (WtrK;yI) or "they will be ashamed"
(WmlK;yI) . MT reads WbteK;yI, "they will be written down." Between this verb and the first participle is the phrase, "in the
land." The phrase may be taken with either verb yielding two possible meanings: either "those who turn aside from
You in the land" or "they will be written in the earth." If the latter is taken, the idea is that their time is short for they
are written, as it were, in the dust. In a less likely scenario, Mitchell Dahood, "The Metaphor in Jeremiah 17:13,"
Biblica 48 (1967), 109ff attempts to link the phrase to Ugaritic evidence pointing to the netherworld.
30
It seems likely that this refers to writing in a genealogical register. The form of the saying is a judgment speech.
It is possible that the speech intends that the writing occur in the heavenly sphere as a record of judgment against
Jeconiah. There is insufficient data to be certain.
31
A clear and direct reference to a genealogical register.
32
An entire set of books of record was opened, presumably containing the sins of the little horn and its
adherents. The judgment depicted takes place at the end of the millennium (cf. Rev. 20:12-13) in the setting of the final
judgment of the nations.Daniel 12:1
At that time Michael, the great prince who protects your people, will arise. There will be a time of distress such as has
not happened from the beginning of nations until then. But at that time your people—everyone whose name is found
written in the book —will be delivered.
Malachi 3:16-17
Then those who feared the LORD talked with each other, and the LORD listened and heard. A scroll of remembrance
was written in his presence concerning those who feared the LORD and honored his name. "They will be mine,"
says the LORD Almighty, "in the day when I make up my treasured possession. I will spare them, just as in compas-
sion a man spares his son who serves him."
Luke 10:20
However, do not rejoice that the spirits submit to you, but rejoice that your names are written in heaven.
Philippians 4:3
Yes, and I ask you, loyal yokefellow, help these women who have contended at my side in the cause of the gospel,
along with Clement and the rest of my fellow workers, whose names are in the book of life.
Hebrews 12:23
To the church of the firstborn, whose names are written in heaven.34 You have come to God, the judge of all men, to
the spirits of righteous men made perfect, to Jesus the mediator of a new covenant . . . .
Jude 4
For certain persons have crept in unnoticed, those who were long beforehand marked out35 for this condemnation,
ungodly persons who turn the grace of our God into licentiousness and deny our only Master and Lord, Jesus
Christ.
Revelation 3:5
If you conquer, you will be clothed like them in white robes, and I will not blot your name out of the book 36 of life; I
will confess your name before my Father and before his angels.
Revelation 13:8
And all the inhabitants of the earth will worship it, everyone whose name has not been written from the foundation of
the world in the book of life of the Lamb that was slaughtered.
Revelation 17:8
33
A tm,a> bt;k] , or a reference to God’s truth in general, of which the Scriptures are one expression.
34
Kai; ejkklhsiva/ prwtotovkwn ajpogegrammevnwn ejn oujranoi'" (compare Luke 2:1, 3, 5 where ajpogravfomai is used of
the census of Quirinius). The perfect ajpogegrammevnwn stresses the permanence of the record. Here is made an explicit
identification of the church of the firstborn with the names written in the book.
35
"Marked out" here translates progegrammevnoi, a word which indicates a record kept on those who disturbed
the faith of Jude’s audience. The idea is that the false teachers’ abuse of believers was foretold in writing. The natural
referent in close context is either the writings of Peter (cf. 2 Pet 2:1-3:4) or, more likely the Old Testament (since Jude
elaborates in vv. 6-19 on OT themes). It seems improbable that Jude refers to heavenly records which were kept,
"proscribing" their fate (Clement of Alexandria’s view, cf. H. Windisch, Die Katholischen Briefe , Handbuch zum
Neuen Testament 15, 3d ed. (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1951), ad loc, since the examples of judgment Jude proceeds to
list point to the last judgment. Jude is omitted from the charts and discussions which follow for this reason.
36
John prefers biblion to biblo", using the former term 23 times.The beast that you saw was, and is not, and is about to ascend from the bottomless pit and go to destruction. And
the inhabitants of the earth, whose names have not been written in the book of life from the foundation of the world,
will be amazed when they see the beast, because it was and is not and is to come.
Revelation 20:12
And I saw the dead, great and small, standing before the throne, and books were opened. Also another book was
opened, the book of life. And the dead were judged according to their works, as recorded in the books.
Revelation 20:15
Then Death and Hades were thrown into the lake of fire. This is the second death, the lake of fire; and anyone whose
name was not found written in the book of life was thrown into the lake of fire.
Revelation 21:27
But nothing unclean will enter it, nor anyone who practices abomination or falsehood, but only those who are writ-
ten in the Lamb's book of life.
Revelation 22:19
I warn everyone who hears the words of the prophecy of this book: if anyone adds to them, God will add to that
person the plagues described in this book; if anyone takes away from the words of the book of this prophecy, God
will take away that person's share in the tree of life and in the holy city, which are described in this book.
PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS
Of the Old Testament references, the most difficult to interpret are Exodus 32:32-33, Psalm 69:28, Isaiah 4:3, Jere-
miah 17:13, and Daniel 12:1. The LXX consistently renders the Hebrew word for "book" (rp,s)e with bivblon(-"). These
books appear prominently in apocalyptic writings, leading some to see them as portraits of God's purposes for His
people or creation.37 The most common approach to these references to books is to reckon them as metaphors for
physical life: Moses and others use the metaphor to refer to the possibility of an untimely end or being "cut off" from
the world. The NIV and KJV support this idea in their translations by referring to those listed as among "the living."
Figure 1.1 details the distribution of OT references according to selected categories (similarities and differences).
37
Compare U. Becker, "Book," in NIDNTT (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1988), 1:243; and G. Schrenck, TDNT, 1:618,
who calls book "an image for the divine secret which is declared and developed as a firmly sketched entity."Distribution of OT Evidences for the Book of Life/Books of Judgment 38
(Figure 1.1)
38
The intent of the chart is to display similarities and differences between the various passages at a glance. The
arrangement and categories are those which arise in the texts themselves. Further exegetical study in each of these
texts in their contexts is required befo re any dogmatic conclusions are reached about the information recorded on this
chart; hence, the arrangement is tentative.The New Testament references have generally been treated as referring to the same entity. Luke 10:20
and Hebrews 12:23 do not use the familiar phrase "book of life," but instead say that believers (the disciples and
the church, respectively) are "written in" (Heb 12:23 is, literally, "church of the firstborn, which are written in
heaven") or whose names are written in heaven (Luke 10:20). Figure 1.2 details the distribution of NT references ac-
cording to selected categories (similarities and differences). The OT characteristics utilized in Figure 1.1 are followed
by some distinguishing NT characteristics.
New Testament References to the Book of Life
(Figure 1.2)
Gone, in the NT references, are ideas of Yahweh as the one who keeps scribal records. This role has been passed
on to Jesus Christ (Rev 3:5). To Jesus is given the right to erase or not erase names from the book of life. The setting
for the references is predominantly heavenly, and angels take a prominent role. The heavenly book for John, then,
becomes a book of destiny in the ultimate sense. The key question, of course, is this: Do these passages all refer to
the same "book," or are there other books in view in these passages?
WHAT IS THE OLD TESTAMENT B OOK OF GOD ?
According to the testimony of the OT passages cited above, being "written" in God's book (hw:hyÒ rp,s)e is con-
nected with righteousness. This is explicit in Exodus 32:33, where those who have sinned against God are blotted out.
Those who are not "written in" are connected with sin. A further clear exa mple is found in the parallelism of Psalm
69:28, where being "blotted out of the book" is parallel with "not being written" (WbteKy; Ai la) "with the living"
(!yYij' rp,Sme i WjM;y)i . Those blotted out of this book are not listed with the righteous.
Exodus 32:32-33 is the principal biblical text for everything else that is predicated about the book of life and di-
vine record keeping in the Bible. It is necessary, given the importance of this text, to offer a brief exegesis and exposi-
tion of its contents with a view toward answering some important questions. In context, Moses intercedes on behalf
of the nation following the breach of covenant faithfulness at Sinai more commonly known as the rebellion of the
idolatrous calf. Moses asks God to forgive Israel or to blot (ynIjme , wipe away, erase)39 his name from the rp,se He has
written. What is this rp,s?e Is it simply a register of those loyal to Yahweh and worthy of his covenantal blessing,40 or
is more in view? Moreover, what does being "blotted out" of this book mean?
39
Compare BDB, 562. In Gen 7:4 the word is used of the Lord’s purpose to "blot out" from the earth every living
thing He had made. The only other Torah reference is in Deut 29:20 (in the context of the Palestinian covenant) where
it refers to the blotting out of names "from under heaven."
40
So argues John I. Durham, Exodus, Word Biblical Commentary (Waco: Word, 1987), 3:432. Donald E. Gowan,
Theology in Exodus: Biblical Theology in the Form of a Commentary (Louisville: Westminster/John Knox, 1994),
286, n 19, has suggested that the idea of heavenly lists arose during the exilic or postexilic period.The setting for the text under consideration is what is popularly known as the golden calf incident (Exod 32-34).41
These chapters resume the narrative that was interrupted at 24:18. In the intervening chapters
Moses recorded Yahweh's instructions for the material (tabernacle construction) and the media to
be employed in Israel's worship (Exod 25-31). Moses' inclusion of the events of chapters 32-34 at
this point in the structure of the book may be intended to serve as a contrast between worship as
Yahweh prescribed it and wo rship as human beings conceive it. The people have aban d o n e d t h e
c o v e n a n t e v e n a s i t i s e s t a b l i s h e d a n d in stead entered into a surrogate, humanly contrived wo r-
ship. It is this great sin (hl;dogÒ ha;f;j} !t,af;j}) that precipitates the function of Moses as mediator before God for the
people.
The section as a whole (chapters 32-34) is framed against two speeches by Yahweh, his first and his last speech.
In the first speech, God attempted to dissuade Moses from intervening on behalf of the people (32:10): "Leave me
alone so that my anger may burn against them." God inaugurated the exc h a n g e between Himself and
Moses. In the last speech, God declares his gracious and merciful character (34:6) and reestablishes the broken cove-
nant (34:10). In the intervening verses between the two speeches (actually 32:7-34:10), there is a long dialogue be-
tween Yahweh and Moses.
Thus, Exodus 32:30-35 is a continuation of the intercession of Moses on behalf of the people, a intercession he
began in 32:11.42 Here, as in 32:7-14, Moses does not distance himself from the fate of the people, but aligns himself
with them in his appeal.43 If God will not forgive them, presumably meaning death for them all, Moses wants God to
count him into that death sentence. This God refuses (v. 33), promising to blot from His book only those who sin
against Him.
In Exodus 32:33 it is only those who have sinned through some form of rebellion ("sin with a high hand") whom
the LORD promises to blot out. Is it possible to understand the meaning of being "blotted out" of this book? Does it
refer to death? Is it merely an exclusion from the privileges of the covenant community? Does it refer only to physical
deliverance (as some see in Dan 12:1)? 44 Or is it perhaps a metaphoric description of being blotted out of a book (re-
cord) of covenant blessings?45 This last option seems the most plausible. The Mosaic covenant promised blessing
contingent upon obedience. A person who failed to fulfill the covenant could be expunged from a list of covenant
blessings (cf. Deut 29:20). All of the references to the "book" in the OT can be seen to refer to more than just physi-
cal life. At the same time, an implication of judgment upon the physical life (Isa 4:3; Ezek 13:9) of an individual would
not be excluded by indicating the forfeiture of covenant privileges. In other words, the situation could be both imme-
41
For a treatment of the unity of this section see Dale Ralph Davis, "Rebellion, Presence, and Covenant: A Study
in Exodus 32-34" WTJ 44 (1982): 71-87.
42
The words Moses used in v. 11 to describe his intercession before God stress that his plea was before the very
countenance of God. They are ynEP] . . . lj'yÒw", which could be rendered literally, "and make pleasant (sweet) his face." In
his previous intercession Moses asked for forgiveness and diverted God’s plan to make a new nation out of him
based on the reasonableness of preserving His reputation and His promise (32:7-14). The LORD does not address the
issue of forgiveness at all, but does indicate that Moses should lead them to the promised land.
43
Kaiser, "Exodus," 481, follows Martin Noth, Exodus: A Commentary, transl. J. S. Bowden (Philadelphia:
Westminster, 1962), 251, in reading a vicarious atonement into the passage. Both men see Moses offering himself as a
vicarious ransom for the people. The text, however, does not say this (or require it), and it is more appropriate to
reckon Moses as saying, "If the people must die, I want to die with them" (Exod 32:32).
44
The context of Daniel 12 may refer only to physical deliverance throughout the great tribulation, but it is not
certain that this is all that it implies. In the context of Daniel, the earlier reference to the book featured the aspect of a
searching judgment (cf. 7:10; 10:21). The intent of the imagery is obviously to convey a coming search of the
thoughts, motives, and actions of men.
45
Lightfoot, Philippians, 159, suggests this latter view. ". . . the ‘book of life’ in the figurative language of the
Old Testament is the register of the covenant people, . . . hence to be blotted out of the book of the living means to
forfeit the privileges of the theocracy; to be shut out from God’s favor."diate and physical (bodily judgment)46 as well as spiritual (forfeiture of the blessings of covenant relationship). At
stake, at least in Moses' mind, are the promises and the reputation of God. For God to destroy this whole people
would jeopardize his promised blessing. Further, as the narrative unfolds in chapters 33-34, God's presence and pro-
tection are essential to the success of Moses' mission and the prosperity of the promise to the nation (33:12-17).
To be "in" God's book in the OT, then, is to be in a place where one is the recipient of special divine blessings
(among which are covenant blessings and the privilege of life). To be blotted "out" of the same book, then, means
that one loses these special blessings and perhaps faces termination of life (or protection) as well.47
This book of covenantal blessings is variously described throughout the remainder of the OT, but only as "the
book of the living" (Ps 69:28, cf. Isa 4:3) or as "thy book" (Exod 32:32), "my book" (Exod 32:33), the "writing of the
house of Israel" (Ezek 13:9), "the book" (Dan 12:1), or as "a scroll of remembrance" (Mal 3:16-17). The most difficult
verses to square with this view are those cited above from Exodus, where a specific relationship to God is entailed.
Even there, however, one need see nothing more in the references to "blotting out" than a reference to promised
covenantal blessings.48 Those who were thus "blotted out" experienced the loss of physical life and/or temporal
blessings, though there certainly were eternal consequences possible (and attendant to) such losses.
INTERTESTAMENTAL AND NEW TESTAMENT TRANSITIONS
As one observes the progress of biblical revelation into the New Testament, some development is evident con-
cerning the meaning of the book of life. Though the OT emphasis was primarily on physical life and temporal bless-
ings, by the time of the NT (and perhaps earlier, depending on how Daniel 12:1 and other texts are understood)49 a
different kind of recipient of God's blessing is in view. In Luke 10:20, Jesus introduced the concept of the disciples'
need to rejoice at their names as recorded (intensive perfect ejggevgraptai from ejggravfw50) in heaven. In context the
seventy are returning from their mission to the cities which Jesus was about to visit. He instructed them to rejoice not
in the powers they saw going forth as Satan "fell," but on their status in the heavenly registry.
The OT concept, therefore, may have undergone some development in the intertestamental period. In Malachi
3:16-17, the concept of belonging to the Lord is set alongside having one's name recorded on a scroll. This "book of
remembrance" in Malachi is more future looking than the other OT references, and it bridges into the intertestamental
references (which may or may not have affected NT understanding).51 In later Judaism there developed out of the
concept of the heavenly tablets the idea that all words and all conduct are recorded in heaven in two books: one of
the friends and the other of the adversaries of God.52
46
It is interesting to observe that the bodily judgments in this context were initiated by the actions of Moses, not
God. It was Moses who ground the calf to powder and made the people drink; it was Moses who assembled the
Levites to slay their brethren. Only later (Exod 32:35) does Yahweh smite the people with a plague.
47
This view is proposed by Charles Smith, "The Book of Life," GTJ 6.2 (1985): 223. Smith taught at the Master’s
Seminary in CA and at Grace Seminary in IN. Another proponent of the view is Colin J. Hemer, "The Letters to the
Seven Churches of Asia in their Local Setting," JSNT Supplemental Series, 11 (Sheffield: U of Sheffield P, 1986).
48
In ancient Near Eastern covenants specifying conditional blessings, a forfeiture of such blessings is described
as a blotting out from a list. This fits in with Deuteronomy 29, which warns of the punishment awaiting a covenant
breaker: "All the curses written in this book will descend on them, and the LORD will blot out their names from under
heaven" (29:20). For other illustrations see James Pritchard, ANET, 112:11-12.
49
The references in Daniel 7:10; 10:21; 12:1, 4 are to the "book of destiny" in which God inscribed (or had
inscribed) the future of men.
50
In everyday Greek ejggravfw referred to making a list in an everyday register or census. Compare Schrenk,
TDNT, 1:769-770. The intensive perfect here emphasizes its existing (current) state; the names stand recorded in
heaven. See further discussion in note 61.
51
For the full texts in their contexts, consult Charlesworth, Pseudipigrapha, ad loc.
52
See Jubilee 19:9 and H. Strack and P. Billerbeck, Kommentar zum Alten Testament aus Talmud und Midrasch,
2d ed. (Munich: Beck, 1954), II: 169-176; III: 840. In the view of the strict Synagogue, the fulfillments of the Law were
recorded in one book and violations in another. Compare Babylonian Talmud, Taanit, 11a (Mishnah tractate).Jubilee 19:9 [of Abraham]
. . . he was found faithful and was recorded as a friend of the Lord in the heavenly tablets.
Jubilee 23:32
[Moses commanded to write on historical tables that the Lord's servants will receive mercy] . . . to all who love Him.
Jubilee 30:19-23 [of Levi]
. . . his [righteousness written] on heavenly tablets before the God of all righteousness, as a friend and a righteous
one on His tablets.
Jubilee 36:10
[warning by Abram to Esau/Jacob] recorded on the same tablet as the warning to his enemies.
1 Enoch 47:3
the Antecedent of time . . . the books of the living ones were open before him.
1 Enoch 104:1
[as a retribution for persecution] your names shall be written before the glory of the Great One.
1 Enoch 108:3, 10
As for you, wait patiently until sin passes away, for the names of (the sinners) shall be blotted out from the book of
life and the books of the Holy One;
Apocalypse of Zephania 3:15-4:13 (excerpted)
I am wont . . . to bring them before the Lord Almighty, in order that He may inscribe their names in the book of the
living. Also the angels of the accuser who is upon the earth, they also, in turn, write according to all the sins of man
upon their scrolls . . . they announce to the accuser that he is to inscribe them upon his scroll in order that he may
accuse them when they come hither out of the world below.
Apocalypse of Zephania 14:5
For thy name is inscribed in the book of the living.
1 QM (War Scroll from Qumran, Cave 1) 12:2
And Thou hast established in (a community) for Thyself the elect of Thy holy people. The list of the names of all
their hosts . . . .
SUMMARY OF INTERTESTAMENTAL REFERENCES
The intertestamental literature displays understandings of heavenly books related to both physical life (in the
form of strict genealogical references) and to ultimate existence after death (some writings stress the angels' role in
recording human activity or the accuser's records for judging purposes).53 The divine judgment aspect foretold in
Daniel 7:10 and 12:1 is thus present in both 1 Enoch and the Apocalypse of Zephaniah. Here, as in the OT, God is
found in these writings to act as scribe in recording men's names in the book of the living (Apoch Zeph 3:15).
These references reflect selected OT themes observed above. Though the early (OT) emphasis was presumably
on at least physical life and temporal blessings, some measure of a future assurance is proffered through the intert-
estamental references. Some intertestamental passages seem to run parallel to the NT concept of a divine record
listing those headed for eternal covenantal blessings. Direct influence on NT authors and literature would be beyond
the scope of this survey article, but at the least it may be said that these passages informed the cultural milieu of
Judaism in which the NT references emerged.
53
The angels, archangels, Elijah, or Enoch take on the role of scribe, recording each event. Again, Strack-
Billerbeck, IV: 1037. Observe that in this literature hell seems to keep its own records through (fallen) angelic scribes
(Apoc Zeph 3:15-4:13) for purposes of accusation.AN OVERVIEW OF THE NEW TESTAMENT
REFERENCES
The NT clearly indicates a list of those chosen before the foundation of the world (Rev 17:8) for the immutable
blessing of eternal life (cf. Rev 3:5; 20:15). There are sufficient items of discontinuity between the OT and the NT to
see the OT book as a book of temporal covenantal blessings and the NT book as a book of eternal covenantal bless-
ings.54 At the same time, the nine NT references clearly refer to the concept of the book of life as a book which
determines individual status for eternal blessings. Of t h i s "book of life" (the listing of the re -
deemed) there cannot be more than one.
A look at the primary passages raises additional questions for the synthesis of the NT teaching about the book.
Critical in this investigation are the meanings/interpretations of the passages in Revelation.55 The phrase "book of
life" seems to be a favorite one for John in the structure and argument of his Apocalypse. It is helpful, therefore, to
survey the passages in some detail in their context before drawing definite conclusions.
Revelation 3:5
In the message of Christ to the church at Sardis a stern warning is offered. Some in Sardis, Christ warned, were
dead and in need of repentance. Still, there were those who had not "soiled their robes" and would walk with Him
dressed in white,56 having their names confessed in heaven before the Father and His angels.
A key question arises concerning the phrase "I will not blot your name out of the book of life." Is this phrase
intended as a threat of removal or as a promise negating any possibility of removal? The word for "blot out"
(ejxaleivyw) alludes to the erasure of a name from a written page.57 Some see in it the idea of the loss of one's salva-
tion;58 others see it as an exa mple of litotes (a figure of speech that expresses less than what is intended, making no
assertions about the fate of those who do not overcome). Thomas suggests that the promise to the overcomer is an
empty one "unless the possibility exists that such a blotting could occur." 59 How can there be incentive in a promised
deliverance from something that has no possibility of happening? One answer proposed is that the warning may be
54
Robert L. Thomas, Revelation 1-7: An Exegetical Commentary (Chicago: Moody, 1992), 262, calls such a
distinction between OT and NT (first proposed by Swete) "arbitrary." He insists, "Consistency demands that both
refer to relegation to spiritual death." It is not altogether clear, however, that the Bible itself requires the kind of
consistency between tes taments to which Thomas subjects it here. See the treatment of Revelation 3:5 below. For a
fuller treatment of Revelation 3:5 in its context, see Thomas, 259-267.
55
The passages in Hebrews and Philippians indicate that the names of the faithful/elect are "recorded" in heaven
without specific reference to the book of life. Similarly, Jesus’ statement in Luke 10:20 indicates that such a record is a
cause for disciples to rejoice. These passages illustrate the concept of a book indirectly.
56
The reward for maintaining ethical standards is pictured as a divinely appointed garment. The white symbolizes
purity (cf. Matt 17:2; Mark 9:3; also Rev 7:9, 13). The overcomer enjoys a three-fold blessing: He is clothed in white
garments (Rev 3:4-5a), his name is not wiped from the book of life (Rev 3:5b), and his name is confessed by Jesus
before the Father.
57
The same verb is used in Acts 3:19 to describe wiping out of sins (ejxaleifqh'nai, aorist passive infinitive). In the
LXX, the verb is employed with acts of judgment (Deut 9:14; 25:19) or to describe the blotting out of the names of
God’s enemies from the book of the living (Ps 69:28 - ejxaleifqhvtwsan ejk bivblou zwvntwn). The aorist imperative (2nd
sg) ejxavleiyovn is found in the LXX of Exod 32:32. A basic comparison of these uses with John’s use of ejxaleivfw in
Revelation indicates that the same idea is in view.
58
John P. Lange, The Revelation of John, Lange’s Commentary, ed. E. R. Craven (Reprint, Grand Rapids:
Zondervan, 1968), 127.
59
Thomas, Revelation 1-7, 261. Thomas and others, however, do not fully consider the extent to which John in
Revelation reflects Moses’ words in Exodus 32:32. Moses may have been asking for something he knew was
impossible (cf. Paul in Romans 9:3, wishing he were accursed for the sake of Israel).there for those who consider themselves Christians but are not in reality.60 Such persons are not overcomers (by
definition) and do fall away either in time or at the end. Such persons apparently were present in Sardis as John
wrote.
A second key question relates to the nature of the overcomer. Does "he that overcometh" describe a special
"class" of Christians or does it refer to all Christians?61 Two key passages from Johannine literature help to clarify the
matter. In Revelation 2:11 John indicates that the overcomer is not hurt of (by) the second death. Similarly, in 1 John
5:4-5 the one who overcomes is equated with one who is born of God. If we assess these passages in combination
with Revelation 20:14-15, where the second death is linked with the lake of fire, it is clear that every Christian is an
overcomer.62 Thus, it is clear that the overcomer is not part of a special class of Christians, but is the born-again be-
liever who possesses life in Christ.
Smith has observed that the emphatic negative (ouj mh;) is employed in two other places in the book of Revelation
in reference to overcomers (2:11—"they shall not be hurt [at all] by the second death;" and 3:12—"never shall he go
out of it [the temple of my God]").63 In each reference the negative is not used to state a threat but to indicate the
surety of the event described in context. The reference in 3:5, he concludes, is nothing more than a strong assurance
that believers will not be wiped out of the book. Smith's argument has merit for its contextual considerations, but it is
not clear that the two other instances cited clearly establish his case. Combining his argument, however, with the
suggestion cited above (that John is not referring to a special class of Christians) provides a stronger case for the
verse as a promise than as a threat.64 It seems to resolve most, if not all, of the tensions created by opposing alterna-
tives.
Difficult questions arise when one attempts to equate the book of life in Revelation with God's book in Exodus
32:33. Logically, how can God say in Exodus that he will blot sinners out of his "book" unless their names are actually
recorded there? If that OT book is a book of life (in the sense that John indicates in Revelation), the presence of lost
sinners' names in it would require that it be understood solely as a book of the living. Otherwise, if the book in Exo-
dus is a book of the elect, what are lost sinners' names doing there in the first place?65
Revelation 13:8, 17:8: Whose Names Are Written
in the Book of Life?
John's references to the book of life in these contexts are less positive, but no less informative. These passages
assist in answering two fundamental questions about the book of life: 1) Are the names of all humans written therein?
and 2) When are/were names recorded in the book? The verses are cited below with the Greek text to facili-
tate the discussion that follows.
Revelation 13:8 (Context concerns the beast: his rule and his prophet; detailing the beast's future ascent from the
abyss)
60
Smith, 229, n. 29.
61
J. William Fuller, "I Will Not Erase His Name From the Book of Life (Revelation 3:5)," JETS 26 (1983), 299,
argues that the reference to the overcomer "implies that the victory is on an individual basis, that not all Christians
attain it."
62
Compare further, James E. Rosscup, "The Overcomer of the Apocalypse," GTJ 3 (1982): 261-286.
63
Smith, "The Book of Life," 229.
64
In other words, for those who "think" that they are Christians, but are not, they will fall away and be lost. For
those who think they are Christians, their names are most assuredly written in the book of life. The NT makes it clear
that many who consider themselves to be Christians are not in reality.
65
Unless one concludes, with Schrenk and others, that God’s foreordination is contingent with (or linked to)
human response ("readiness to carry the conflict to victory "). See Schrenk, TDNT, 1:620.kai; proskunhvsousin aujto;n pavnte" oiJ katoikou'nte" ejpi; th'"
and they shall worship him, all the dwellers66
gh'", ou| ouj gevgraptai to; o[noma aujtou' ejn tw'/ biblivw/ th'" zwh'"
of earth whose names are not written in the book of life
tou' ajrnivou tou' ejsfagmevnou ajpo; katabolh'" kovsmou.
of the Lamb (the) slain one (cf. 5:6) from the foundation of the world.
Revelation 17:8 (Context of religious Babylon; and the fulfillment of 13:1-10)
To; qhrivon o} ei\de" h\n kai; oujk e[stin kai; mevllei
The beast whom you beheld was and is not and is about to
ajnabaivnein ejk th'" ajbuvssou kai; eij" ajpwvleian uJpavgei
arise/come up from the abyss and he goes into destruction;
kai; qaumasqhvsontai oiJ katoikou'nte" ejpi; th'" gh'",
And they will marvel, those who dwell upon the earth,
w|n ouj gevgraptai to; o[noma ejpi; to; biblivon th'" zwh'" ajpo
whose names are not written upon the book of life from
katabolh'" kovsmou blepovntwn to; qhrivon o{ti h\n
the foundation of the world beholding the beast, that he was
kai; oujk e[stin kai; parevstai
and is not and will be present.
Both near contexts have the "earth dwellers" expressing amazement at the beast and his wonders. In 17:8, as in
13:1, the beast arises from the abyss.
It has been debated whether the words "from the creation of the world" (ajpoV katabolh'" kovsmou—13:8, also in
17:8) belong grammatically with "have not been written" (ou| ouj gevgraptai) or with "the lamb that was slain"
(tou' ajrnivou tou' ejsfagmevnou). In other words, is it the Lamb who was slain from the creation of the world, or is it the
names that were not recorded in the book of life from the creation of the world? Either interpretation is grammatically
acceptable in Greek for 13:8. If the first view (Lamb slain from before the foundation of the world) is taken, the empha-
sis is that God decreed in eternity past to elect the Son as the redeeming agent for mankind's salvation (cf. 1 Pet 1:20).
If the second view is taken, God is presented as having eternal foreknowledge of a group of people who partake of
the Son's redeeming work (cf. Rev 17:8).67
The word order of Revelation 13:8 appears, at first glance, to favor the first view because of the distance between
gevgraptai68 (written) and ajpo; katabolh'" kovsmou (from the foundation of the world).69 The occurrence of the phrase
66
On the phrase "earth dwellers " or "those who dwell on earth" compare Rev 3:10; 6:10; 8:13; 11:10; 13:14,
and 17:8.
67
In either case, the words "from the creation of the world " cannot prove eternal individual election to either
salvation or damnation because 3:5 indicates that human responses may remove one’s name from the book of life.
68
The word is a perfect passive indicative. If it is an intensive (resultative) perfect, the action was accomplished
in the past with the results of that (i.e., the completed action, the state of affairs brought about), being emphasized in
the present. See Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 574-76, for this view
of the perfect. Stanley E. Porter, Idioms of the Greek New Testament, 2d ed. (Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic
Press, 1994), 20-23, has argued that the perfect describes action "as conceived by the language user as reflecting a
given (often complex) state of affairs. This is regardless of whether this state of affairs has come about as the result
of some antecedent action or whether any continued duration is implied." For Porter, the perfect itself reflects no
temporal concerns of itself. To reflect Porter’s view, gevgraptai would be rendered "stands written." These contexts
(Rev 13:8; 17:8) add the qualifying phrase "from the foundation of the world," supplying the temporal nuance in the
translation.
69
Thomas, Revelation, 164, however, switches the word order in his translation to provide harmony with 17:8.
The phrase ajpo; katabolh'" kovsmou appears also in Matthew 13:35 (citing Ps 78:2 and referring to the origin of the
visible order); 25:34 (of the kingdom prepared from the origin of the visible order); Luke 11:50 (of the blood of theYou can also read
