Coping and adjustment in New Zealand Police staff 12-18 months after the Canterbury earthquakes: A directed qualitative content analysis
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Conservation of Resources
Coping and adjustment in New Zealand
Police staff 12-18 months after the Canterbury
earthquakes: A directed qualitative content analysis
Deborah L. Snell, Lois J. Surgenor University of Otago, Christchurch
Martin J. Dorahy University of Canterbury, Christchurch
E. Jean C. Hay-Smith University of Otago, Wellington
Following a significant earthquake police are a large first responder group Police as First Responders
involved in victim recovery, civil emergencies and community support. They Disaster first responders include
are also exposed to the everyday work and non-work related disruptions a wide range of both professional and
associated with the disaster. Conservation of resources (COR) theory offers non-professional groups. Professional
a framework for understanding longer-term health outcomes associated groups reflect those occupations whose
with disasters in this group. Using a mixed methods approach we surveyed members are regularly put in harm’s
coping resources and psychological health outcomes in police (sworn and way and provide critical services
non-sworn) working during the 2010-2011 earthquakes in Christchurch (New following a civil disaster. Prevention
Zealand). Free text responses (n = 322) from the quantitative survey were and intervention strategies for adverse
subject to a directed qualitative content analysis. Initial data coding used psychological outcomes in disaster
four categories derived from COR theory then inductively grouped into a first responders (police or otherwise)
typology of losses and gains. Resource losses included on-going issues with remains an underdeveloped field of
insurance providers, damage and threat of loss to home, financial insecurity, research, which in part may explain a
and loss of social connectedness, lack of employer recognition and job threat. recent description of best prevention
Resource gains included enhanced self-efficacy, posttraumatic growth and and intervention practice as still very
pride in contributing as police during the critical periods. COR theory was controversial (Kleim & Westphal,
conceptually a good fit for the data, and underscored the dominance of 2011). More research into specific
disaster-associated day-to-day resource losses. Implications for staff support first responder populations and their
and wellbeing, and foci of future welfare interventions are considered. respective peri- and post-disaster
Accident Compensation Corporation roles may help understand risk factors
In the early hours of September 4th
(ACC), NZ’s primary injury insurance and in turn opportunities for primary
2010 the first of a series of significant
and compensation provider (ACC, prevention, screening and intervention.
earthquakes struck the Canterbury
region of New Zealand (NZ). This 2011). It has been estimated that 10,000 The rescue response to the February
first earthquake measured 7.1 on the homes have since been demolished and earthquake was extensive involving
Richter scale, causing widespread more than 100,000 homes were damaged multiple agencies co-ordinated by Fire
damage to land and buildings across although considered repairable. and Police Services. International first
the region but no loss of life. Over Approximately 95% of New responder teams supplemented these
the ensuing 15 months a further eight Zealanders have home insurance groups, though Canterbury Police were
significant earthquake events followed (Morrall, 2012) from which a levy among the largest of the first responder
among more than 10,000 aftershocks is collected from an entity called the groups taking a leadership role and
(GNS Science, 2013). The most Earthquake Commission (EQC) creating coordinating additional personnel
destructive was the February 22nd a government-regulated natural disaster from other districts and countries
(2011) shallow earthquake (6.3 on fund (EQC, 1993). To determine the (New Zealand Police, 2013a, 2013b).
the Richter scale) with an epicentre outcome (repairs or otherwise) for Alongside regular duties, police
close to the Christchurch Central properties, homeowners have had provided security cordons, organised
Business District (CBD), the largest city to negotiate claim settlements with evacuations and search and rescue,
(population 376,000) in the Canterbury both EQC and their private insurance worked in victim identification teams,
region (population 520,000) (Statistics companies. This has become a provided missing persons/family liaison
New Zealand, 2013). This earthquake prolonged and stressful process for support, and organised media briefings.
struck at 12.51pm causing widespread many homeowners, given problems As an occupational group, police
damage to buildings and infrastructure. achieving resolution of claims because are frequently exposed to high stress,
Unlike the September earthquake, 185 processes between these insurance and internationally have high rates
people were killed and more than 8,000 providers have differed. of medical retirement due to mental
injuries were registered with the health problems (Peñalba, McGuire,
New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 43, No. 3, November 2014 •5•D Snell, L J. Surgenor, M J. Dorahy, E J C. Hay-Smith
& Leite, 2009). Disaster research earthquakes (Sattler et al., 2006; Sumer, 2. What are the implications for
investigating psychological outcomes et al., 2005), hurricanes (Ehrlich et al., staff training and wellbeing, particularly
of first responder groups often focuses 2010), floods and drought (e.g. Zamani, the curricula of future preventative
on negative emotional consequences Gorgievski-Duijvesteijn, & Zarafshani, interventions?
resulting from exposures to traumatic 2006); or ‘man made’ such as war and
experiences, high work demands, terrorism (Heath, Hall, Russ, Canetti,
METHOD
working with evacuees, and separation & Hobfoll, 2012); or technological
from home and loved ones (Benedek, (Ehrlich, et al., 2010). Such research
Design and setting
Fullerton, & Ursano, 2007; Haugen, provides support for the COR model
Evces, & Weiss, 2012). In a disaster, regarding: (1) relationships between This was a mixed methods
local first responders can be personally resource losses and symptoms of anxiety, study surveying coping resources
affected and experience damage to depression and post-traumatic stress and psychological health outcomes
their own homes/communities, loss and disorder (PTSD), (2) the mitigating but in police working during the 2010-
injury to themselves, family members, less salient effects of resource gains, 2011 earthquakes in Christchurch,
friends and colleagues. There is limited and (3) the effects of resource loss New Zealand. This paper reports the
research assessing the impact of these spirals (continued loss of resources and findings of the directed qualitative
non-work related repercussions on local the impacts of secondary stressors). content analysis of free text responses
first responder groups. Such effects Following an earthquake, losses may that followed the main questionnaire
might be important to consider in the occur through damage to possessions (see Surgenor, Snell and Dorahy, now
prediction of psychological adjustment and places of work, disruption to in press, for a fuller description of the
in first responder groups such as police social systems, inability to maintain study methods).
following large-scale disasters. and gain resources (Ehrlich, et al.,
2010), and through impact on personal Participants
Conservation of Resources characteristics such as perceived control Potential participants were recruited
Theory and self-efficacy. Resource gains might from a list of Canterbury sworn and non-
Various models conceptualise also be experienced such as a positive sworn staff provided by New Zealand
psychological distress following sense of well-being associated with Police. The primary inclusion criterion
disasters (Sumer, Karanci, Berument, being in a helping role and seeing was being active police (sworn or non-
& Gunes, 2005). One model potentially oneself cope (Zoellner, Rabe, Karl, & sworn) residing in the Canterbury area
capturing the complexities of disaster Maercker, 2008). However COR theory on 22 February 2011. Exclusion criteria
outcomes in first responders who both predicts that resource gains, while were staff not on active duty on/around
work and live in affected communities mitigating, are less salient in the face 22 February 2011 (e.g., sick-leave)
is the Conservation of Resources of large-scale resource losses. or otherwise excluded as required by
(COR) model (Hobfoll, 1989, 2001, In the present study psychological Police National Headquarters (e.g.,
2012). It is a theory capable of drawing outcomes for police as first responders personnel in high security roles). An
together resource losses and gains across were examined 12-18 months after email invitation to participate in the
both work and non-work contexts. the Canterbury earthquake series study was circulated internally by Police
The COR model assumes that people began because people may delay National Headquarters to all eligible
are motivated to obtain, retain and acknowledging their distress for staff. Face-to-face data collection was
protect valued resources to successfully lengthy periods post-disaster, despite considered untenable due to many
cope with stress. Resources consist of experiencing reasonably significant participants being displaced from their
material elements or objects such as problems (Mitchell, Griffin, Stewart, usual buildings. Thus, internet-based
housing and possessions, along with & Loba, 2004). The COR model was data collection was a practical solution,
personal characteristics (e.g., optimism, considered a useful framework in which and one used before in disaster research
self-efficacy), energy resources (time, longer term outcomes associated with (Schlenger et al., 2002).
effort, knowledge) and conditions both work and non-work stressors might We received 786 (75%) responses
(employment roles, interpersonal be understood in local first responder from 1,048 police staff residing in
relationships). The model suggests police. This is because local police as Canterbury on 22 February 2011. Of
stress occurs when an individual’s first responders are exposed to potential these, 18 were identified as duplicates
resources are threatened or lost and/ disaster effects both in their work and removed; the actual participation
or individuals fail to gain sufficient roles and in their roles as members of rate was 72% (n = 768). Free text
resources following investment. Loss or the affected wider community. The responses were provided by 324 (45%).
threat to personal resources is assumed following questions were considered: More males than females responded
to lead to negative emotional and 1. Using the COR model as a guiding (males 72.7%) and mean age of
physical health outcomes. framework, what are the work- and non- respondents was 46.2 years (SD 7.59).
The COR model has been work earthquake-related consequences The only significant difference between
investigated in relation to understanding for local police first responders 12-18 the free text responders and wider
coping and adjustment following months after the Canterbury earthquakes sample was being sworn staff (p < 0.05);
disasters, whether natural such as began? sworn staff members were more likely
•6• New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 43, No. 3, November 2014Conservation of Resources
to have provided free text responses. and code themes and patterns within on insurance outcomes and EQC claims,
Free text responses were received the free text data (Hsieh & Shannon, the loss of financial security as a result
from staff across all earthquake related 2005). Directed content analysis differs of the insurance process, and the loss
work categories (public cordon duties, from more conventional qualitative of valued possessions were common
search and rescue, victim recovery and methods in that it is more structured and issues. For example:
identification, family liaison, media involves both deductive and inductive Our house is a write-off, despite
work, communications, logistics and approaches to the analysis (Pisarik, being still able to live in it and we are
missing person’s assignments). The Rowell, & Currie, 2013). The researcher still in absolute limbo over timelines
gender and ratio of sworn/non-sworn is guided by an a priori theory or and also cash shortfalls when the rebuild
staff of recruited participants very framework or previous research in order comes. House is cold as gaps under
closely mirrors the New Zealand Police to promote more detailed description doors need to be plugged by towels
overall (Human Rights Commission, of a phenomenon or validate or extend [Case 250].
2012). Ethical approval was obtained a theory.
We still have a lot of stress coming
from both the research institution’s The COR model was used to at some point because we have a medium
Ethics Committee and the New Zealand identify key concepts for the initial to significant amount of damage to
Police. coding categories and then operational our home including foundations and
definitions for each category were roof which will need fixing and will
Data collection and measures determined by the research team using require us to move out to alternative
An internet-based survey was COR theory resource categories. Free accommodation for many months at
circulated using Survey Monkey® text responses were coded by two some point in the future. This will be
(www.surveymonkey.com). For security members of the team (DS, LS) using very stressful for us [Case 26].
reasons, the survey link was distributed the predetermined codes, and any data
Also losing two pets as a result
via the police email network, although that could not be coded was examined
of these quakes - which I don’t think
all content identified the email as a to determine if this represented new
was mentioned in the survey. Very
research study independent of the police. categories or subcategories of existing
disheartening losing family, pets and a
Completed surveys were accessed only codes (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Hsieh
city [Case 36].
by the research institution. & Shannon, 2005). Member checking
Along with standard demographic occurred by informal presentation
to a police management team. Data
Condition Resources
questions (gender, age, ethnicity,
are presented descriptively by code Condition resources (states of
education level), participants were
with their associated exemplars, and being) were defined as resources to
asked to describe their usual work
frequency of codes was also calculated the extent they are valued and sought
location (categorised as central CBD,
(Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). after. Following our initial analysis,
suburban, rural or other), sworn status,
it appeared helpful to consider work
and whether they held a specialist
and non-work condition resources as
emergency role (e.g., search and rescue, RESULTS subcategories (see Table 1). Examples of
armed offenders squad) in addition to Data were coded, using the four non-work condition resources included
their normal duties. They were also COR resource categories (object, non-work roles (wife, partner, parent,
asked to indicate from a list which condition, energy and personal social relationships) that are important
first-responder roles they took part in characteristic resources), as either a in increasing stress resistance capacity.
(list ascertained from human resources resource loss or gain. Table 1 shows Work condition resources included work
and welfare staff) in response to the the response frequencies and exemplar roles and status, collegial relationships
22 February 2011 earthquake and how quotes from participants. The most at work, feeling part of a work team,
many (0-4) of the four major earthquakes salient patterns that emerged from employer (e.g. supervisors, managers)
(September, 2010; February, 2011; June, the analyses were losses in terms of recognition and acknowledgement,
2011; December, 2011) they worked object and condition resources, and feeling safe at work, and experiencing
in as part of the police emergency resource gains with respect to personal organisational support. Free text
response. Measures included in the characteristics. responses included both condition
survey assessed coping resources and
resource losses and gains although
styles, distress, and general health
Object Resource Loss losses were more prominent.
outcomes (see Surgenor et al., in press).
After these an open-ended statement Object resources were defined as
physical items of value due to their a) Non-work condition resource losses
(“Is there anything else (positive or
negative) you would like to tell us”) was utility, rarity, or symbolism (e.g., Loss of connection with family and
included to elicit free text information housing, transportation). Object resource friends as well as relational impacts,
from respondents. loss was often mentioned underscoring fears and concerns for partner and
the importance of object resources, such children were prominent in responses.
Data analysis as financial and housing security. The For example:
impact of living in a damaged home I have lost touch with a number
A directed qualitative content without any certainty around decisions
analysis was used to identify, classify of people who moved away after the
New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 43, No. 3, November 2014 •7•D Snell, L J. Surgenor, M J. Dorahy, E J C. Hay-Smith
quakes … I feel a loss of connection the injuries and fatalities were Following the earthquake, I sought
and feel like I am just drifting away. horrific [Case 56]. assistance with a psychologist for
The place I knew and served seems like My attitude towards work is not my PTSD. I have found that it has
it is no longer there, and the tie I felt is so positive as I feel we should helped me cope and recognise my
gone [Case 73]. have been removed from the symptoms and how best to relieve
I have a child at school and I often Central Police Station until they them [Case 300].
feel concerned when I am at work that were absolutely certain it was safe
if another significant event occurred … [Case 27]. Personal Characteristic Resources
I may not be able to get to him. This Some staff also reflected on a sense Personal characteristic resources
scares me and I think about this quite of isolation that resulted from being are traits that help with stress resiliency
often [Case 28]. Police, such that access to usual sources such as general personal orientation
My wife is worn out from the of social support was unavailable: toward the world, beliefs, self-efficacy,
continuing fights with all the various and locus of control. A small number
However, a lot of the experience
agencies; she has aged 10 years in two. of respondents reported coping less
has to be kept private, simply
My kids are still afraid of our house and well than they expected and some
because I can’t burden anyone
won’t go upstairs alone [Case 114]. acknowledged both difficulty returning
with the ‘gory’ details [Case 52].
to normal work and an element of
b) Non-work condition resource gains cynicism in their approach to the work
d) Work condition resource gains
following the earthquakes.
There were also reflections of Positive acts of leadership and
strengthened ties with family and I was able to do my job, but
support were perceived as helpful:
community and the positive impact away from my desk I broke down
The ring arounds [phone calls and felt weak and along with
this had on coping and resilience. For to staff] were nice to know that
example: people losing lives and homes
management were thinking about staff this affected me a great deal - had
I am much closer to my community and I found this a comfort [Case 105]. to take time off work [Case 37].
and know my neighbours a lot better as Many staff acknowledged a sense of
well as the local business people and When I came back to ‘normal’
pride in their role as Police at the time of
information centre. I fully intend to stay duties after the earthquake I had
the disaster, as well as commitment and
in this area and keep my current home difficulty relating to people and
connectedness to being Police:
after it is repaired [Case 26]. their problems. I was very critical
The theme was one of pride with of what I perceived to be their
The main positive thing that being a member of police as to the way petty or minor problems after the
happened as a direct result of the we had responded [Case 245]. enormity of what I had dealt with
earthquakes was that family, friends and
and seen [Case 52].
neighbours pulled together to help each Energy Resources
other [Case 47]. However more prominent were
Energy resources were defined perceptions of having coped well,
I have found that people are better as resources that are valued because better than expected, with associated
communicators since the earthquakes. they lead to acquiring other resources enhancement of self-esteem.
People are more willing to talk about (such as time, money, knowledge,
their situations. The earthquakes showed The earthquakes have provided
help seeking [i.e. seeking information/
everyone involved what is actually me with the most rewarding
knowledge/ support to enable better
important in each of our lives [Case 97]. experiences in my professional
coping]). A small number of respondents
work. All the training I’ve had has
commented on the importance of
c) Work condition resource losses actually been put to the test and
information in regard to managing
I feel that I met the challenges of
Many comments reflected concerns anxiety about safety:
the day(s) really well [Case 4].
about lack of both support and recognition I was very disappointed with
for going above and beyond at the time the way the situation with Other Responses
of the earthquakes as well as the impact Christchurch Central [police
of organisational restructuring when A small proportion of responses
station] was handled and the
staff were already feeling overwhelmed (7.6%) could not be categorised into
initial lack of information about
and under pressure. For a few, distrust one of these COR resource categories
the building safety…this caused
in the building in which they worked and these were responses that reflected
me and many others a large
throughout the critical period suggested psychological and health consequences
amount of stress [Case 165].
a lack of concern for personal safety by of earthquake trauma exposure such
Some respondents reflected on as anxiety, depression, fatigue, and
the organisation. For example: knowledge gain including how helpful vulnerability to illness since the
I am extremely disappointed with access to professional support was for earthquakes. These are shown in Table
the lack of recognition from the them in regard to gaining knowledge and 1.
department for the ‘above and skills to cope better with the situation
beyond’ work completed on they were in:
that day. It was like a war zone,
•8• New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 43, No. 3, November 2014Conservation of Resources
Table 1: Category and subcategory exemplar quotes and frequencies (606 items coded)
COR§ Category Subcategory Loss/Gain Frequency (%) Example/supporting data
Object Resources Loss 21.0 At the end of the day we are nearly two years down the track. I have a
home that is broken and needs to be rebuilt. …we cannot move forward.
We don't know what will happen with insurance, land testing, lending,
resale etc. [Case 114].
Some of us are still living in red-zoned housing1 2 years on fighting
Insurance companies with no light at the end of the tunnel as to where
we are going to live [Case 138].
Damage to home, damage to work place - entire disruption that has been
outside of my control [Case 115].
My house was wrecked, my wife and kids weren't coping with living in
a wrecked and leaking house. My area was also wrecked along with the
roads, the liquefaction, the liquefaction dust, earthquake damage to our
land, our house, our belongings and our motor vehicle [Case 122].
Many aspects of the lives of me and my family are on hold because our
house is significantly damaged, i.e. part of the house foundations have
moved away from the rest of the house and the external bricks are
cracked [Case 63].
Object Resources Gain 2.6 We have ended up selling our house and are now renting in case we
decide we want to make a new start somewhere else. This has in effect
made us more relaxed [Case 32].
Condition Resources Non-Work2 Loss 14.2 I have lost touch with a number of people who moved away after the
quakes that is sad. I feel sad that a lot of people have been badly hurt
through it all and I know nothing of their stories. It saddens me I have
seen, to have seen so much history just disappear, I feel a loss of
connection and feel like I am just drifting away. The place I knew and
served seems like it is no longer there, and the tie I felt is gone [Case
73].
MY RELATIONSHIP HAS BASICALLY BEEN TAKEN TO ITS
LIMIT [Case 50]. (Capital letters used by respondent).
Partner of ten years left me and took our two year old daughter with her
while I was working 16 hour days [Case 142].
Condition Resources Non-Work2 Gain 9.6 The most major positive is that I now have a stronger marriage and
family as we pulled together when we really needed to and the
knowledge that we can rely on each other during times like this is
priceless!!!! [Case 147] (Exclamation marks included by respondent).
The feeling of community increased significantly as a result of the
earthquakes. This related to neighbours, friends, family, colleagues and
the relationship between police and the public. While this feeling has
diminished, there is still a sense that we have all gone through
something together [Case 146].
Condition Resources Work3 Loss 14.0 …there seems to be no recognition of some of the work some of us had
to do. This in itself would help heal and put things behind us. It’s as if
the door hasn’t closed [Case 138].
I believe that front line Police have been extremely under-appreciated as
a result of the earthquakes… I know of lots of cops who will never ever
get recognised for what they did during the earthquakes and the effort
that they put in to help others. [Case 24].
We are currently being affected by major restructuring and job
uncertainty. This along with the loss of our home, ongoing issues with
EQC, Insurance, poor work environment and permanent injury and
ongoing issues to a family member makes life more than challenging.
There appears little respite. I am seeking help...[Case 41].
Condition Resources Work3 Gain 6.9 I feel immensely grateful that as a police officer, I was allowed to
be involved in the searching process during the early stages after
Feb 22. So many people wanted to be actively involved but
New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 43, No. 3, November 2014 •9•We are currently being affected by major restructuring and job
uncertainty. This along with the loss of our home, ongoing issues with
D Snell, L J. Surgenor, M J. Dorahy, E J C. Hay-Smith
EQC, Insurance, poor work environment and permanent injury and
ongoing issues to a family member makes life more than challenging.
There appears little respite. I am seeking help...[Case 41].
Condition Resources Work3 Gain 6.9 I feel immensely grateful that as a police officer, I was allowed to
be involved in the searching process during the early stages after
Feb 22. So many people wanted to be actively involved but
weren't allowed access. We were, and I feel very privileged for
that [Case 146].
Even though not directly involved in search/rescue etc, and doing
rather "un heroic" jobs, felt good to be part of the company we
work for [Case 68].
It was an honour to work with the families [of victims] and this in
turn helped with my coping mechanisms, even though I also lost a
cousin on 22/02/2011 [Case 219].
Energy Resources Loss 2.3 Made lots of rash and quick decisions following earthquakes in
regard to property and listening to media that the quakes were
going to continue for 30 years which made me think real estate
wouldn’t be worth much which is now the opposite with what’s
occurring in the rebuild [Case 170].
Energy Resources Gain 3.3 Learning experience not only from professional, working
perspective but involvement in an historic, life changing event in
the history of Canterbury. Gained a greater overview of how
different areas and organisations operate, respond and prepare
[Case 243].
Personal Loss 5.8 I had always wondered how I would be in an emergency. I always
Characteristics assumed I would be a tower of strength, be proactive and help
Resources others....I was able to do my job, but away from my desk I broke
down and felt weak & along with people losing lives and homes
this affected me a great deal - had to take time off work [Case 37].
It would be [a] fair comment that I do not necessarily like my
hardened attitude I do not like reflecting on the EQs I like to move
on with life, I cannot tolerate repeated reliving of the events [Case
713].
Personal Gain 12.7 The way I personally responded and my decision making during
Characteristics all the earthquakes. Learnt about myself. E.g. Ability to handle a
Resources huge workload [Case 127].
I have learned that I can cope under life and death stress. My
home and family are more prepared for another civil defence
emergency [Case 145].
Other4 7.6 I am still very "jumpy" around loud noises, bangs or shakes…
[Case 1].
…diagnosed with PTSD. Working through this daily, some are
good (haven't had many great ones yet), some are really bad and
low. On the whole I feel I'm slowly getting better; but it does feel
like it takes an awfully long time [Case 49].
I seem to have had negative impacts on my physical health,
getting sick (cold/flu symptoms) substantially more often and for
longer periods [Case 109].
Note:
§ Hobfoll (1989, 2001).
1.Red-zoned houses are those deemed damaged beyond repair (or on unsafe land unable to be repaired). Red zone
homeowners were offered a Government payout for purchase of their homes.
2. Non-work condition resources included social relationships outside work such as being married, with a partner, being
a parent, connection to community (friends, neighbours).
3. Work condition resources included seniority at work, work role, collegial relationships, recognition and support from
superiors, feeling safe at work.
4. Other: items that could not be coded into one of the four resource categories but reflected emotional consequences of
the traumatic experience such as still feeling anxious and jumpy, depressed, fatigued.
• 10 • New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 43, No. 3, November 2014Conservation of Resources
DISCUSSION might produce similar outcomes to between resource loss and psychological
The Canterbury earthquakes those following slower onset disaster outcomes (acute stress disorder [ASD],
provided a unique opportunity for scenarios, where in addition to obvious PTSD, depression) in college students
extending research exploring immediate effects; impacts may also (n = 253) and a community sample (n
psychological outcomes following evolve slowly, becoming more uncertain = 83) four and seven weeks following
natural disasters. The combination and ambiguous over time (Zamani, et the 2001 El Salvador earthquakes.
of the context (nature of disaster, al., 2006). These effects are potentially In students, personal characteristic,
sociocultural context), target population exacerbated by the sociocultural context. condition and energy resource losses
(police first responders), and the The dual nature of New Zealand property contributed to ASD and depression
impact of resource losses and gains insurance (EQC and private companies) while object and personal characteristic
described by COR theory have not been has had unintended effects of conflicting resource losses were more salient for the
examined previously. This directed insurance processes without resolution community sample. In our study object
qualitative content analysis examined or certainty of outcomes for home and condition resource losses dominated
the fit between free text responses from owners. and while no relationships between
a survey of police first responders and The prolonged nature of stress outcomes can be discussed, the potential
Hobfoll’s COR theory of stress. reported by many respondents was impact of contextual factors (nature of
consistent with the salience of resource sample and location) are underscored.
The COR model was conceptually
a good fit for the data, underscoring losses predicted by COR theory and
resource loss spirals (Hobfoll, 2001, The Context Revisited – Police
the dominance of on-going disaster
associated day-to-day losses (work 2012). Loss spirals occur as a result as First Responders
and non-work) in police. Object and of initial resource losses increasing The potential negative emotional
condition resource losses including vulnerability to ongoing resource loss consequences of disaster work such
the impacts of living in earthquake and the impacts of secondary stressors. as ASD, PTSD, depression as well as
damaged homes, uncertainty regarding Resource loss spirals have been subclinical emotional symptoms and
timelines and outcomes of insurance investigated in high demand situations behaviours have been the subject of
claim processes, loss of financial such as large-scale disasters (Ehrlich, extensive research (Benedek, et al.,
security and widespread social impacts et al., 2010; Heath, et al., 2012). This 2007). However, usually only a small
of the earthquakes predominated. body of research shows that persistent percentage of people going through a
The social aspect included impacts stressors such as repeated earthquakes disaster will experience serious mental
on connectedness to home, work contribute to spiralling resource losses health problems (Benedek, et al., 2007).
and community, lack of employer and exacerbated chronic stress effects For some, a positive sense of well-
recognition for going above and beyond, (see especially Sattler, et al., 2006). being sometimes referred to as post-
and job threat due to restructuring In our study respondent comments traumatic growth is reported (Zoellner,
plans. Gains were also evident, such suggested loss spirals associated et al., 2008), albeit the concept of post-
as enhanced self-efficacy and pride in with continuing earthquakes, lack of traumatic growth itself is contentious in
contributing as police during the critical future certainty, in combination with some quarters (Aspinwell & Tedeschi,
periods. additional pressures such as perceived 2010; Coyne & Tennen, 2010). Existing
ill-judged timing of restructuring of jobs research also suggests benefit-finding
The Context Revisited – the while individuals still reported feeling may be influenced by cultural and
overwhelmed by earthquake sequelae. social contexts. For example, studies
earthquakes
Previous research has also examined in Western cultures tend to find greater
First, the series of Canterbury
associations between components of willingness of participants to endorse
earthquakes and significant aftershocks
the COR model and psychological and discuss positive emotions when
continued for more than 15 months and
outcomes after disasters in general compared with participants in Eastern
included 60 events ≥ magnitude 5 on
community samples. The salience cultures (Cummins, 2013). Such
the Richter scale. We are not aware of
of resource loss in the prediction of findings emphasise the importance of
any disaster outcome research that has
psychological outcomes is supported the sociocultural context that is arguably
considered impacts of such prolonged
but varying patterns of resource at the centre of COR theory, setting
seismic activity on a first responder
category losses emerge. For example, it apart from other stress models and
community, with the duration of this
Ehrlich et al. (2010) examined loss of theoretical frameworks (Hobfoll, 2001).
exposure seriously testing resilience.
resources as predictors of post-partum Disaster effects do not occur in
Second, earthquake events typically
depression in 208 women following a vacuum. In our study respondents
occur without warning, are usually
Hurricane Katrina, measuring outcome highlighted the salience of both work
followed by a series of aftershocks
(depression) at 6 and 12 months (supervisor and colleague relationships,
and might not have a low point where
post-partum. Loss of psychosocial wider organisational factors) and
people feel the worst is over as may be
resources (COR condition and personal non-work resource losses. The COR
the case for other acute natural disasters
characteristic resources) was associated framework offers a coherent way
such as floods, fires and hurricanes
with development of depression. Sattler of understanding and examining
(Zamani, et al., 2006). The extended
et al. (2006) examined the relationship the relative contributions of these
nature of the Canterbury experience
New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 43, No. 3, November 2014 • 11 •D Snell, L J. Surgenor, M J. Dorahy, E J C. Hay-Smith
various resources, the associations of and focus on restoring psychosocial to increase the trustworthiness of the
these with psychological outcomes, (personal characteristics, condition and approach to data analysis a second
and opportunities for intervention. energy resources) and object resources researcher tested the definitions of codes
Consistent with Cummins (2013), many could lead to improved outcomes. and care was taken to refine Hobfoll’s
respondents in our study offered positive Thus interventions might need to target resource definitions as clearly as
comments about their ability to cope individual, family, organisation and possible. Member checking by referring
with the disaster, skills and knowledge community contexts although separating back to the affected community (police)
gained through the experience, and these parts from the whole may limit was also undertaken in order to consider
reflected on their commitment to both predictive and intervention capacity the relevance of the findings.
and sense of pride in their police (Hobfoll, 2001, 2012). In addition Finally, three of the four researchers
role, particularly at the time of and COR theory predicts that resource in the team also experienced the
following the February earthquake. In losses following traumatic events occur earthquakes themselves and work as
COR theory, these responses reflect quickly and cumulatively and halting or clinicians treating distressed members
personal characteristic resource gains. reversing loss spirals early should be an of the affected broader community of
Further examination of these gains important focus (Heath, et al., 2012). Christchurch. This positioning of the
and their associations with coping COR theory suggests that organisations researchers may have introduced bias
and adjustment in first responders will focus on development of ‘resource and so the inclusion of an additional
assist development of interventions to caravans’ (Hobfoll, 2012, p 118), where co-author (JHS) who does not live
enhance the psychological robustness resources are supplied, protected, in the affected community and did
or resilience of these groups. shared, fostered and pooled within an not experience the earthquakes was
organisation. Such an approach redirects considered important to verify the data
Implications for Future the focus to the social climate of the analysis.
Research organisation rather than externalising
Our results suggested that the failures by blaming employees or groups Conclusions
COR theoretical framework might of employees.
This exploratory directed
provide a useful means of understanding qualitative content analysis applied
psychological outcomes following large- Limitations
a theoretical model of stress to
scale disasters in first responders who This is a descriptive study using understanding psychological
themselves have experienced disaster directed content analysis to code a large adjustment and consequences in a
associated resource losses and gains. number of free text responses at the first responder cohort following the
There is a growing body of evidence end of a formal survey of police first New Zealand earthquakes of 2010-
supporting COR theory assumptions in responders following a series of major 2011. Participant free text responses
general disaster populations however earthquakes in New Zealand. Although reflected the importance over time of
there is also some research that suggests due caution is needed in generalising both work and non-work pressures for
first responders might respond differently these findings beyond the study context first responders who themselves were
to disaster experiences (Benedek, et and sample, the findings provide helpful exposed to the earthquakes. The COR
al., 2007). Consistent with this, our leads for future research and will assist framework was conceptually a good fit
study suggests that compared with the research team interpret results from for the data and the insights regarding
the general population, these groups the wider quantitative analyses. patterns of resource losses perceived by
might experience a differing pattern of The structure of the survey and use participants provides useful leads for
resource losses and gains necessitating of directed content analysis may have future hypothesis-driven research. The
modified intervention approaches. influenced the findings. First, the open COR model has potential to contribute
Research is required to examine these ended question at the end of the survey usefully to the iterative process of
theoretical possibilities. In addition, followed structured questionnaires theory development and refinement
our cross-sectional descriptive study asking about coping resources and styles, of individual and organisational
suggests future research might focus distress, and general health outcomes. interventions for disaster first responder
on risk for development of resource These preceding items may have led populations.
loss spirals leading to chronic stress respondents to focus on these aspects.
outcomes, using longitudinal designs Second, directed content analysis
with follow-up extending beyond the involves the researcher approaching Acknowledgments
early weeks after a disaster. the data from an informed a priori
We would like to thank Canterbury
position with an increased likelihood
Implications for Practice Police management and staff for their
that evidence will be found to support
willingness to support and participate
Based on the body of research the chosen theoretical framework (Hsieh
in this study.
examining COR theory in disaster- & Shannon, 2005). An overemphasis
exposed populations, the model has on the theoretical framework might
utility as a coherent framework to guide direct the researchers gaze and thus
intervention. It seems that attending increase risk that important contextual
to patterns of resource loss and gain information is overlooked. In order
• 12 • New Zealand Journal of Psychology Vol. 43, No. 3, November 2014Conservation of Resources
of Resources theory. Applied Psychology: Gunes, H. (2005). Personal resources,
An International Review, 50(3), 337-421. coping self-efficacy, and quake exposure
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