COVID-19 VACCINATION STRATEGIES - A scoping review of international approaches COVID-19 POLICY SERIES GLOBAL HEALTH GOVERNANCE PROGRAMME - global ...

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COVID-19 VACCINATION
STRATEGIES

A scoping review of
international approaches

COVID-19 POLICY SERIES
GLOBAL HEALTH GOVERNANCE PROGRAMME
21 November 2020
Global Health Governance Programme
21 November 2020

Contributors:
Gabrielle Geonnotti
Kavya Anchuri
Jay Patel
Maartje Kletter
Genevie Fernandes

                                     2
Global Health Governance Programme
21 November 2020

BACKGROUND:
We conducted a scoping review of grey literature reports, peer-reviewed articles and news media reports to
summarise the COVID-19 related vaccination strategies of 15 countries across North America, Europe and East
Asia. In our searches, we tried to locate information for four broad areas i.e. (i) procurement, (ii) governance in
terms of decision-making bodies and plans, (iii) vaccine distribution and administration strategies, and (iv)
public attitudes and efforts for public information and communication. We have listed the key findings under
each area below. Please see table 1 for a detailed summary of each country case based on the available
information.

SUMMARY:

Vaccine procurement:
▪   Countries have undertaken four predominant routes to secure vaccine doses for their populations:
    o First, all the countries except for the US have joined the COVAX Facility coordinated by Gavi, the
         Vaccine Alliance, the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI) and the WHO. European
         countries including Austria, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, and Spain have joined the COVAX Facility
         as ‘Team Europe’ which is the European Commission on behalf of the 27 European Union member
         states as well as Norway and Iceland, negotiating for vaccine doses proportional to each country’s
         population.
    o Second, apart from the COVAX agreement, countries have also struck separate deals with the leading
         pharmaceutical companies developing the COVID-10 vaccine viz. Pfizer and BioNTech, AstraZeneca,
         Moderna, Johnson & Johnson, Valneva, and Sanofi and GlaxoSmithKline, for securing millions of
         vaccine doses for advance financial commitments. The first COVID-19 vaccines will require doses 3-4
         weeks apart, which explains the increased number of doses being secured by some countries.
         However, Oxfami has warned that such dealmaking by richer countries representing just 13 per cent
         of the world’s population has already bought more than half of the leading vaccine candidates’
         promised doses. Canada for instance has a population of 38 million, but has secured close to 358
         million doses; Japan has 126 million citizens and has brokered deals securing 521 million doses.
         Contrastingly, South Korea intends to vaccinate 70% of its 51 million population to attain herd
         immunity, and accordingly has secured 60 million doses.
    o Third, countries are also funding local vaccine candidates, currently in the early stages of
         development and testing.
    o Fourth, countries like Mexico for instance, have agreed to host human trials of Covid-19 vaccines to
         strengthen relations with pharmaceutical companies in case limited production capacity leads to a
         battle for doses.
▪   Phase 3 trials are being conducted in the United Kingdom (UK) (AstraZeneca and Oxford University and
    Novavax) and the United States of America (USA) (Moderna and Johnson & Johnson). Additionally, a Phase
    3 trial is being conducted in Canada with a focus on prevention of COVID-19 in cancer patients. Further,
    preparations for the start of a Phase 3 trial are undertaken in Austria. Phase 1 and/or Phase 2 trials are
    being conducted in Canada (n=3), Taiwan (n=2), South Korea (n=1), Singapore (n=1), Japan (n=1), Mexico
    (n=1), Austria (n=1) and Italy (n=1). Finally, pre-clinical vaccines were developed in Germany (n=2) South
    Korea (n=2), Hong Kong (n=1) and Spain (n=4).
▪   Germany added an additional 100 million euros to COVAX aimed at providing vaccine access in Low- and
    Middle Income Countries (LMIC). The UK provided £500 million aimed at providing access to vaccines in
    LMIC whereas Canada invested 440 million in COVAX of which half will go to vaccines for Canadians
    specifically.
▪   Several countries have invested in improving infrastructure in order to manufacture sufficient number of
    effective and approved vaccines. The UK, Canada and the US have invested to advance domestic
    manufacturing capabilities in order to have sufficient vaccine available. Further, in the US, distributors of
    vaccine components were identified and invested in. Singapore intends to ramp up to production of
    vaccine when they become available. Japan has obtained a licence to manufacture as well as
    commercialise the Novavax vaccine.

Governance:

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Global Health Governance Programme
21 November 2020

▪   For most of the countries (n=13), we found information about established national-level taskforces or
    committees overseeing the vaccine procurement and vaccination plans. Countries including UK, US and
    Canada have set up their vaccine taskforce as a public-private partnership embedded within government
    departments.
▪   We found detailed vaccination strategies released by the US, Germany, and France, outlining the
    complete process of distribution, public communication, administration, and monitoring of vaccination.
    Germany has laid out a national strategy for three phases as the availability of doses, experience with the
    vaccine increases. Further, the health ministers of the 16 federal states of Germany have also drawn up
    vaccination plans including delivery and administration of vaccines.

Vaccine distribution and administration:
▪   All countries have identified priority populations that will receive vaccination in the first phase when
    vaccines get approved and become available, followed by general population in the next phases.
▪   Health and social care workers, older adults (>60), and those with chronic health conditions were
    commonly identified by all countries as being at high-risk and priority population groups for vaccinations.
    Additionally, Canada’s guidelines for priority populations also included those who live/ work in settings
    where physical distancing is challenging, healthcare infrastructure is lacking, and/ or where infection could
    have disproportionate consequences compared to the general population (e.g. Indigenous reservations),
    while US guidelines also included people with limited access to routine vaccination services.
▪   In terms of vaccine delivery, the German government will deliver vaccines to 60 delivery locations
    (wholesalers, pharmacies) in all federal states. Health ministers of the 16 federal states have drawn up
    plans to create one to two centers per administrative district — totaling hundreds of centers — as well as
    employing mobile vaccination teams. Similarly, Austria will also employ mobile vaccination teams.
▪   With respect to vaccination settings, US guidelines have listed healthcare provider offices and other
    outpatient clinics, public health clinics, chain and independent pharmacies, school-based health centers,
    worksites and other occupational health clinics, hospitals, temporary or off-site vaccination clinics and
    mobile vaccinators. In France, target populations will be vaccinated as close as possible to the people
    concerned – i.e. “in the field” Outpatient vaccination in doctors’ offices is also expected. Italy’s vaccine
    task force is reportedly planning where injections will be carried out: as well as at existing vaccination
    clinics and doctors' offices, the health service could set up large-scale, temporary centres in the same way
    it has created drive-through coronavirus testing sites.
▪   In Germany digital appointments are being planned, real time surveys and applications for monitoring
    safety and effectiveness also in pipeline. In Japan, those wishing for a vaccine will be inoculated for free at
    health care facilities by submitting special coupons to be distributed by local municipalities; they will also
    receive a certificate upon vaccination.

Public attitudes and communication:
▪   In a global surveyii with 13,426 people in 19 countries, around 71% of participants reported that they
    would be very or somewhat likely to take a COVID-19 vaccine, and 61% reported that they would accept
    their employer’s recommendation to do so. Differences in acceptance rates ranged from almost 90% (in
    China) to less than 55% (in Russia). Respondents reporting higher levels of trust in information from
    government sources were more likely to accept a vaccine and take their employer’s advice to do so.
▪   Surveys conducted in Germany, France, Italy, Spain, and the US found that one-third of participants had
    doubts about a new vaccine and were not willing to receive it. While surveys in South Korea, Taiwan and
    Singapore revealed high levels willingness to accept a vaccine and high levels of trust in the government.
▪   These findings raise the issue of public hesitancy and skepticism over a new vaccine that needs to be
    urgently addressed through rapid, clear, transparent and multipronged communication from government
    authorities.

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Global Health Governance Programme
21 November 2020

  COUNTRY             DEVELOPMENT AND PROCUREMENT                                    GOVERNANCE                                       STRATEGY                         PUBLIC ATTITUDES AND
 (Population)                                                                      (Taskforce, Plans)                    (Doses, Target groups, Timelines,               COMMUNICATION
                                                                                                                                       Delivery)
 UK             The UK Government has secured access to 355           Two government bodies advising and            JCVI has released a provisional list for        Vaccine Task Force has
 (67 million)   million doses of six vaccines across four different   playing a lead role in decision-making:       vaccine prioritisation which indicates that     launched a series of podcasts
                formats: adenoviral vectors, mRNA, adjuvanted         (i) Joint Committee of Vaccine and            older adults living in care homes, their        on Amazon and Spotify with
                proteins, and whole inactivated viral vaccines,            Immunisation (JCVI)                      care workers, all adults over 80, all health    experts discussing all key
                developed by AstraZeneca and Oxford (100              (ii) Vaccine Taskforce (VT)                   and social care workers, should rank first      aspects of vaccine
                million doses), BioNTech and Pfizer (40 million                                                     to receive the vaccine. After this, risk (and   development to inform the
                doses), Janssen (30 million doses), Moderna (5        JCVI is an existing government body. The      priority for receiving the vaccine) is          public about what to expect
                                                                                                                                                                                               viii
                million doses), GSK/ Sanofi (60 million), Valneva     Vaccine Taskforce, a public-private           stratified by age and presence of pre-          from COVID-19 vaccines.
                             iii                                                                                                              vi
                (60 million). iv                                      partnership, has been recently set up in      existing chronic disease.
                                                                      May 2020 by Sir Patrick Vallance. It is
                                                         v            embedded in the Department for Business,
                UK has pledged £500 million to COVAX.                                                               Kate Bingham, head of the UK
                                                                      Energy and Industrial Energy, and is          Government’s Vaccine Taskforce,
                UK also has an agreement with AstraZeneca to          responsible for identifying and securing      indicated in early October 2020 that less
                neutralising antibody cocktail as a prophylactic      access to effective and safe vaccines,        than half of the UK population will receive
                treatment once clinical trials are completed and      supporting clinical studies and funding the   coronavirus vaccine—only the most “at
                                                                      manufacturing of vaccines.                          vii
                it is approved by regulators, for those who                                                         risk”.
                                          iv
                cannot receive a vaccine.

 Germany        Germany has 2 vaccine candidates in pre-clinical      In Germany, the Standing Committee on         Phase 1 will inoculate high-risk groups and     A World Economic Forum
                            ix
 (83 million)   development                                           Vaccination in the Robert Koch Institute      populations at higher risk of exposure;         survey, however, found that
                                                                      develops national recommendations for         phase 2 will open vaccination up to the         69% of respondents in
                                                                                                    xii                                 xv
                Germany has joined the COVAX Facility as a            the use of licensed vaccines.                 general population.                             Germany would be willing to
                member of “Team Europe”, on behalf of the 27                                                                                                        get a vaccine for COVID-19, if
                                                                                                                                                                               xviii
                EU members states as well as Norway and               The Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, the national       Vaccines will be delivered by the German        available.
                Iceland.x Team Europe has secured doses from          regulatory authority for vaccines, is         government to 60 delivery locations
                Oxford University and AstraZeneca (300 million),      responsible for the release of vaccine        (wholesalers, pharmacies) in all federal
                                                                                           xiii                             xvi
                Sanofi and GlaxoSmithKline (300 million),             batches in Germany.                           states. Health ministers of the 16
                CureVac candidate (225 million), BioNTech and                                                       federal states have drawn up plans to
                Pfizer (200 million), Johnson & Johnson               Germany has a vaccination strategy in         create one to two centers
                subsidiary (200 million). The bloc is also in talks                                   xiv
                                                                      place, which outlines 3 phases:               per administrative district — totaling
                with Moderna about a potential deal for an initial    1. Targeted, centralised inoculation          hundreds of centers — as well as
                80 million doses. Germany will receive 18% of         2. Advanced, centralised inoculation          employing mobile vaccination teams.
                doses secured by this bloc.                           3. Width, decentralized routine               Digital appointments are being planned,
                                                                          inoculation                               real time surveys and applications for
                Germany has committed an additional 100                                                             monitoring safety and effectiveness also
                                               xi                                                                                xviixv
                million euro to the COVAX AMC.                                                                      in pipeline.

                                                                                                                                                                                                5
Global Health Governance Programme
21 November 2020

  COUNTRY             DEVELOPMENT AND PROCUREMENT                                    GOVERNANCE                                        STRATEGY                           PUBLIC ATTITUDES AND
 (Population)                                                                      (Taskforce, Plans)                       (Doses, Target groups, Timelines,               COMMUNICATION
                                                                                                                                        Delivery)
 France         France has joined the COVAX Facility as a             In France, COVID-19 vaccine policy is being      France has outlined conditions to be taken       In their strategy document,
 (67 million)   member of “Team Europe”, and will secure doses        shaped by two key advisory bodies                into account for prioritising populations,       French health leaders state
                in proportion to its population.                      including:                                       such as duration of protection to COVID-         that their strategy hinges on
                                                                                                                                                              xxii
                                                                                                                       19 and amounts of vaccine available.             their ability to promote the
                In June, Italy, Germany, France and the               1.   le Conseil scientifique                     With these in mind, they have identified         vaccine, support the people
                Netherlands agreed to pay AstraZeneca 750             2.   le Comité analyse, recherche et             the following priority populations:              to receive it, and promote
                                                                                                                                                                                           xxv
                million euros for 300 million doses (with the              expertise (CARE)                                                                             good adherence, also
                option to buy an additional 100 million) of the                                                        First priority                                   stating that vaccine
                vaccine they are developing with Oxford               CARE has published draft guidelines, which       ▪     Those at risk due to potential             reluctance has been
                           xix
                University                                            details who will qualify for the vaccination           occupational exposure                      documented in France and
                                                                      first, and highlights people due to their job,   ▪     People aged ≥ 65 years or those at         authorities cannot take this
                In October, France called for 25,000 adult            risk category, age, or the presence of any             risk due to their health                   for granted when preparing
                                                                                         xxi
                volunteers on Thursday to enrol in a series of        chronic illnesses.                               ▪     People living in precarious situations     their campaign.
                large-scale clinical trials aimed at evaluating the                                                          (e.g. homeless)
                safety and efficacy of several COVID-19 vaccine       The number of vaccinations that will be          Second priority                                  The three main difficulties
                                                                                                                                                                                          xxvi
                candidates. France’s public research body             ordered is still unknown, but it is expected     ▪     Departments and overseas regions, if       they foresee are : (i) Doubts
                Inserm, which is in charge of the project, did not    to have tens of millions of doses                      there is a risk of a shortage of           about the effectiveness and
                name the vaccines that would be assessed and          (potentially of 2-5 different products)                resuscitation                              safety of some (or all)
                said it was currently holding discussions with        available between the last trimester of          ▪     People living in closed facilities (e.g.   vaccines, (ii) Controversies on
                drugmakers, adding it would pick the “most            2020 and the first trimester of 2021, which            prisons)                                   public strategies or
                promising” candidates for the trials. xx              could be deployed in case of a second wave       ▪     Those with strategic jobs (e.g. police)    pharmaceutical products, (iii)
                                                                      of Covid-19.                                                                                      The COVID-19 vaccine
                                                                                                                       Target populations will be vaccinated as         specifically might raise a
                                                                                                                       close as possible to the people concerned        number of uncertainties.
                                                                                                                                            xxiii
                                                                                                                       – i.e. “in the field” Outpatient
                                                                                                                       vaccination in doctors’ offices is also
                                                                                                                       expected. France anticipates training
                                                                                                                       those giving the vaccinations and expects
                                                                                                                       that this workforce will consist of doctors,
                                                                                                                       nurses, and pharmacists, as well as
                                                                                                                       workers from occupational medicine,
                                                                                                                                                               xxiv
                                                                                                                       hospitals, and the medico-social world

  COUNTRY             DEVELOPMENT AND PROCUREMENT                                    GOVERNANCE                                       STRATEGY                            PUBLIC ATTITUDES AND
 (Population)                                                                      (Taskforce, Plans)                      (Doses, Target groups, Timelines,                COMMUNICATION
                                                                                                                                       Delivery)

                                                                                                                                                                                                   6
Global Health Governance Programme
21 November 2020

 Italy          Italy has joined the COVAX Facility as a member       A task force of 15 experts has been working    Leaders from the Italian Ministry of health    The Italian population has a
 (60 million)   of “Team Europe”, and will secure doses in            on Italy's immunisation strategy since         have said that priority groups, such as        history of vaccine skepticism.
                proportion to its population. Italy will receive      November 4th, particularly examining ways      healthcare workers, the elderly, and those     In 2018, their lawmakers
                13.5% of the secured doses that entitles the          to distribute the various possible vaccines,   with conditions that put them at risk          amended a law requiring
                                                                                                                                                  xxx
                country to around 165 million at least of all the     including different ones at the same time,     should get the vaccine first                   parents to vaccinate their
                doses secured by the EU so far, for its population    with one of the major challenges being                                                        children before sending them
                of 60.2 million people. The government expects        how to store vaccines such as Pfizer's that    The Italian government has decided to          to school; this law introduced
                its first round of vaccinations to deliver 3.4        need to be kept at temperatures as low as -    coordinate its vaccination plan nationally     in 2017 that was introduced
                                                     xxvii                           xxix
                million shots to 1.7 million people.                  80 degrees C.                                  instead of leaving it up to regional           after a measles outbreak.xxxi
                                                                                                                     authorities, who are usually responsible       xxxii
                In June, Italy, Germany, France and the                                                              for local healthcare.
                Netherlands agreed to pay AstraZeneca 750                                                                                                           A study surveyed a random
                million euros for 300 million doses (with the                                                                                                       sample of Italian citizens
                                                                                                                     The task force is reportedly planning          during the early days of the
                option to buy an additional 100 million) of the
                                                                                                                     where injections will be carried out: as       pandemic in Italy (n=968) and
                vaccine they are developing with Oxford
                                                                                                                     well as at existing vaccination clinics and    then surveyed a second
                University.
                                                                                                                     doctors' offices, the health service could     random sample of citizens
                                                                                                                     set up large-scale, temporary centres in       (n=1004) during the early
                Italy also has a local vaccine candidate, ReiThera,
                                                                                                                     the same way it has created drive-through      days of Italy’s reopening on
                which began a Phase 1 clinical trial of their
                                                           xxviii                                                    coronavirus testing sites.                     their willingness to receive a
                vaccine candidate GRAd-COV2 in August
                                                                                                                                                                                            xxxiii
                                                                                                                                                                    vaccine for COVID-19.
                                                                                                                     Regional authorities have been asked to        59% of the respondents in
                                                                                                                     identify suitable storage facilities as well   phase 2 reported a
                                                                                                                     as sites that could potentially immunise       willingness to receive a
                                                                                                                                                           xxvii
                                                                                                                     some 2,000 people within 15 days.              vaccine. Willingness to
                                                                                                                                                                    vaccinate was positively
                                                                                                                                                                    correlated with trust in
                                                                                                                                                                    scientific research as well as
                                                                                                                                                                    attitude towards vaccine’s
                                                                                                                                                                    efficacy.
 Greece         Greece has joined the COVAX Facility as a             As of 1 November 2020 the Greek Health         Greece plans to set up more than 1,000
                                                                                                                                         xxxvi
 (10 million)   member of “Team Europe”, and will secure doses        Minister has stated that together with the     vaccination centres.
                in proportion to its population. Greece’s             National Vaccine Committee they are
                government has committed an additional 1.5            working on their COVID-19 vaccination
                                                 xxxiv                     xxxv
                million euro to the COVAX AMC                         plan.

  COUNTRY             DEVELOPMENT AND PROCUREMENT                                    GOVERNANCE                                     STRATEGY                          PUBLIC ATTITUDES AND
 (Population)                                                                      (Taskforce, Plans)                    (Doses, Target groups, Timelines,              COMMUNICATION
                                                                                                                                     Delivery)

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Global Health Governance Programme
21 November 2020

 Spain           Spain has joined the COVAX Facility as a member        A working group has been coordinating        Regarding who will qualify to get             In August, according to a
 (47 million)    of “Team Europe”, and will secure doses in             with central and regional authorities on a   immunized first, Spanish Health Minister      national survey of 1033
                                                                                                          xliii
                 proportion to its population.                          vaccination plan for the country.            has said that while the working group has     participants conducted by the
                                                                                                                     to determine these parameters, the            Carlos III Health Institute, 30%
                 There are 4 pre-clinical vaccine candidates being                                                   logical thing would be for the elderly and    of respondents expressed
                                    xxxvii                                                                                                              .xliv
                 developed in Spain                                                                                  healthcare workers to be the first.           doubts about whether they
                                                                                                                                                                   would be vaccinated against
                                                                                                                                                                                     xliv
                 Spain has been chosen as the manufacturing site                                                                                                   the coronavirus.
                 for two vaccines:
                 (i) Novavax, an American pharma company, has
                       selected Spanish biopharma group Zendal to
                       produce its vaccine xxxviii
                 (ii) Biofabi (whose parent company is Zendal)
                       will reserve manufacturing capacity for CEPI-
                       designated COVID-19 vaccines between Nov
                       2020-May 2022; the estimated production is
                                          xxxix
                       500 million doses
                 (iii) Moderna has tapped the Spanish Pharma
                       Industrial Services to produce the vials (fill
                       and seal) of their vaccine to be
                       commercialised outside the USxl xli xlii

 Austria         Austria has joined the COVAX Facility as a             Austria is currently setting up a national   The Ministry of Health is prioritising
 (8.8 million)   member of “Team Europe”, and will secure doses         vaccination strategy in coordination with    people who are at the greatest “personal
                 in proportion to its population.                       the European Union.                          or systemic risk” for the first dose of the
                                                                                                                     vaccine. Health workers and people with
                 Three Austrian companies working on vaccine                                                         serious medical conditions that make
                 candidates including (i) Themis Bioscience (ii)                                                     them vulnerable to the virus as well as
                                             xlv
                 Valneva and (iii) Polymum.                                                                          people over the age of 70 would be
                                                                                                                     prioritised. Austria is likely to set up
                                                                                                                                                   xlviii
                 In July, Austria provided €2 million in funding for                                                 mobile vaccination teams.
                 the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness
                 Innovations to advance the development of
                                                      xlvi xlvii
                 vaccines and equitable distribution

  COUNTRY              DEVELOPMENT AND PROCUREMENT                                     GOVERNANCE                                   STRATEGY                          PUBLIC ATTITUDES AND
 (Population)                                                                        (Taskforce, Plans)                  (Doses, Target groups, Timelines,              COMMUNICATION
                                                                                                                                     Delivery)

                                                                                                                                                                                               8
Global Health Governance Programme
21 November 2020

 US              The U.S. has invested over $12 billion USD in         Operation Warp Speed is a public–private       CDC has established a work group to              In a global survey, 75% of the
 (360 million)   COVID-19 vaccine R&D via Moderna, Johnson &           partnership, initiated by the U.S.             review evidence for prioritising critical        respondents from the US
                 Johnson, Novavax, Astra-Zeneca, and Pfizer; in        government to facilitate and accelerate the    population groups. These groups may              agreed that they will take a
                                                                                                                              li
                 domestic manufacturing; and in domestic               development, manufacturing, and                include :                                        COVID-19 vaccine if it is
                 distribution efforts, securing 100s of millions of    distribution of COVID-19 vaccines,             • Critical infrastructure workforce              proven safe and effective and
                                                                                                      xlix                                                                           liii
                 doses of potential vaccine candidates for the         therapeutics, and diagnostics.                 • People at increased risk for severe            is available.
                 American people for potential distribution by                                                          COVID-19 illness
                                xlix
                 January 2021.                                         On 29 October, CDC released a detailed         • People at increased risk of acquiring or
                                                                       COVID-19 vaccination playbook outlining          transmitting COVID-19
                 US has secured 300 million doses from                 the entire process of distribution,            • People with limited access to routine
                 AstraZeneca, 100 million doses each from Pfizer,      administering and monitoring the safety of       vaccination services
                 Novovax, and GSK/Sanofi, upon successful              vaccines, including priority populations and
                                                l                                              lilii
                 approvals and authorisations. US has not              public communication.
                 participated in COVAX facility.

 Canada          On September 25th, PM Trudeau pledged a $440          On August 5th, 2020, the federal               The National Advisory Committee on               Concerns abound over
 (38 million)    million investment to COVAX, of which half will       government (including the Minister of          Immunization (NACI) has published                vaccine hesitancy and
                 towards purchasing vaccines from COVAX for            Innovation, Science and Industry and the       preliminary guidelines on key                    inadequate communications
                 Canadians, specifically. liv                          Minister of Public Services and                populations:
                                                                                                                                    lviii
                                                                                                                                                                       from health authorities about
                                                                                                                                                                                 lix
                                                                       Procurement) announced the                     -    people of advanced age;                     vaccines.
                 As of Oct. 23rd, 2020, the federal government         establishment of the COVID-19 Vaccine          -    people living with high-risk
                 had pre-ordered and secured 358 million doses         Task Force, an advisory panel of                    conditions;
                 of potential COVID-19 vaccines, including 76          multidisciplinary experts in immunology,       -    healthcare workers, including those
                 million doses alone from Medicago Inc., a             pharmaceutical industry, and vaccinology.           who care for the elderly/ work in
                 Quebec-based biotech company who are                  The task force is supported by the National         LTC; essential service workers who
                                                                                                     lvii
                 currently running two clinical trials authorized by   Research Council of Canada.                         cannot work virtually (e.g.
                 Health Canada. The remaining doses have been                                                              firefighters, grocery store staff, etc.);
                 purchased from AstraZeneca, Moderna, and                                                             -    those who live/ work in settings
                        lv
                 Pfizer.                                                                                                   where physical distancing is
                                                                                                                           challenging, healthcare infrastructure
                 As of Nov. 6th, 2020 there are four vaccine                                                               is lacking, and/ or where infection
                 candidates for COVID-19 being investigated in                                                             could have disproportionate
                 clinical trials authorised by Health Canada (i.e.                                                         consequences compared to the
                 the department of the Government of Canada                                                                general population (e.g. Indigenous
                 responsible for federal health policy).lvi                                                                reservations)

  COUNTRY              DEVELOPMENT AND PROCUREMENT                                    GOVERNANCE                                      STRATEGY                           PUBLIC ATTITUDES AND
 (Population)                                                                       (Taskforce, Plans)                (Doses, Target groups, Timelines,                    COMMUNICATION
                                                                                                                      Delivery)

                                                                                                                                                                                                  9
Global Health Governance Programme
21 November 2020

 Canada                                                                                                          On Nov. 5th, 2020, the Department of
                                                                                                                 Public Works and Government Services
                                                                                                                 released an “Invitation to Qualify” for any
                                                                                                                 potential Logistics Service Providers
                                                                                                                 (companies) to apply to be considered for
                                                                                                                 the execution of the Government of
                                                                                                                 Canada’s COVID-19 vaccine logistics
                                                                                                                           lx
                                                                                                                 strategy.
 Mexico          Mexico has already signed deals with Pfizer,                                                    The first to receive the vaccine would be
 (128 million)   AstraZeneca and CanSino for sufficient doses to                                                 medical staff and the most dangerous
                 inoculate 117m of its 127m people by the end of                                                 cases such as patients with underlying
                                                       lxi                                                                    lxiii
                 2021, if those vaccines get approved.                                                           conditions.
                 On Oct. 10th, 2020, the Mexican government
                 announced a nearly $160 million to the COVAX
                 facility.

                 UNAM (Mexico’s main public university), the
                 Mexican Social Security Institute, and private
                 vaccine R&D company Laboratorio Avimex are
                 collaborating on a domestic COVID-19 vaccine
                 candidate that, as of early September, was ready
                                          lxii
                 to enter phase 1 trials.

                 Mexico has agreed to host human trials of seven
                 Covid-19 vaccines to strengthen relations with
                 pharmaceutical companies in case limited
                 production capacity leads to a battle for doses.
 South Korea     South Korea will buy 20 million doses through      The 5th meeting of a pan-government          The South Korean government have set           There is a high willingness to
 (51 million)    COVAX, enough for 10 million people, and 40        support committee for the treatment of       the target of securing enough vaccine          accept a COVID-19 vaccine in
                 million doses from private drug-makers including   COVID-19 and development of a vaccine        doses for all 50 million citizens, with a      South Korea (exceeding 80%),
                 AstraZeneca, Novavax, Pfizer, Moderna and          held on August 21st made reference to a      minimum national target of 70%                 with strong trust from in
                                                                                                                                                         lxiv                         .
                 Johnson & Johnson. Local corporations engaging     ‘two-pronged’ approach involving (1) local   coverage, to acquire herd immunity.            central government liii
                 in clinical trials for the development of (five)   corporation support and (2) international
                 therapeutic treatments and (three) vaccine         community.
                 candidates are receiving government funding
                 (estimated $83 million).
  COUNTRY                DEVELOPMENT AND PROCUREMENT                              GOVERNANCE                                    STRATEGY                          PUBLIC ATTITUDES AND
 (Population)                                                                   (Taskforce, Plans)                   (Doses, Target groups, Timelines,              COMMUNICATION
                                                                                                                                 Delivery)

                                                                                                                                                                                         10
Global Health Governance Programme
21 November 2020

 Taiwan          The Taiwan government will allocate US$635.6           In April, the government-sponsored             Priority groups for the vaccine include        The government of Taiwan
 (23 million)    million for the development or procurement of a        National Health Research Institutes (NHRI)     health professionals, senior and more          has secured high levels of
                                                                                                                                            lxv
                 COVID-19 vaccine.                                      established a “national team” for              vulnerable citizens.                           public trust for their
                                                                        facilitating development of vaccines and                                                      responses to coronavirus. In
                 Under the agreement with Pfizer and BioNTech,          treatments for coronavirus (COVID-19).                                                        Taiwan, YouGov polls in May
                 Taiwan can acquire up to 30 million COVID-19                                                                                                         showed that public trust in
                 vaccine doses, with 10 million expected to be          In June, the health minister announced a                                                      the government and
                 delivered in the first quarter of 2021.                new special task force will be formed to                                                      healthcare professionals on
                                                                        speed up the development of a COVID-19                                                        COVID-19 was very high – at
                                                                                                                                                                                 lxvi
                 Taiwan has also joined the COVAX Facility.             vaccine.                                                                                      over 80%. Over the years,
                                                                        lxv
                                                                                                                                                                      the government, particularly
                 Two local vaccine candidates have been                                                                                                               the Digital Ministry led by
                 developed in Taiwan and are currently being                                                                                                          Audrey Tang, has worked to
                 tested. Although, challenges for vaccine trials in                                                                                                   increase a direct dialogue
                 Taiwan include lack of standard parameter for                                                                                                        between government officials
                 evaluating vaccine productivity and number of                                                                                                        and citizens and responding
                 subjects required for representing vaccine safety                                                                                                    to disinformation across
                 as no locally acquired COVID-19 cases since May,                                                                                                                       lxvii
                                                                                                                                                                      media channels.
                 2020.
 Japan           Japan is on track to have 521 million doses of five    In August, Japan’s coronavirus task force      Japan will prioritize administering
 (126 million)   different vaccines in 2021, compared with a            drafted vaccination guidelines, prioritising   coronavirus vaccines to certain groups of
                                            lxviii
                 population of 126 million.        Apart from joining   medical workers, older people and those        the population. Those wishing for a
                 the COVAX Facility, the Japanese government has        with underlying illnesses. The task force      vaccine will be inoculated for free at
                 pledged a budget of ¥671.4 billion and signed          will also consider whether pregnant            health care facilities by submitting special
                 agreements with AstraZeneca and Pfizer, to             women, emergency responders and staff at       coupons to be distributed by local
                 receive 120 million doses of vaccines from each        public health centers should be included in    municipalities. They will also receive a
                                                                                                            lxxi
                 company, when successfully developed.                  the priority group for vaccination.            certificate upon vaccination, according to
                                                                                                                                     lxxii
                 Negotiations with Moderna for 40 million or                                                           the ministry.
                 more additional dose are underway. Japan also
                 has a local vaccine candidate currently being
                         lxix
                 tested.

                 Novavax have granted Takeda a license to
                 manufacture and commercialise its vaccine in
                 Japan, with a preliminary estimate of 250 million
                                                    lxx
                 Novavax to be produced each year.
  COUNTRY              DEVELOPMENT AND PROCUREMENT                                     GOVERNANCE                                     STRATEGY                          PUBLIC ATTITUDES AND
 (Population)                                                                        (Taskforce, Plans)                    (Doses, Target groups, Timelines,              COMMUNICATION
                                                                                                                                       Delivery)

                                                                                                                                                                                             11
Global Health Governance Programme
21 November 2020

 Hong Kong       Hong Kong has procured COVID-19 vaccine doses          The government has in place a scientific       Hong Kong government health adviser,             A preprint study on nurses’
 (7.5 million)   from at least two types of vaccine candidates          committee on vaccine-preventable               said he expected the vaccination schedule        hesitancy to accept a COVID-
                 from the list of 9 CEPI potential vaccines, to cover   diseases, responsible for tracking             will be similar to the seasonal influenza        19 vaccine in Hong Kong
                 35% of its population. Hong Kong has also joined       candidates in the final stage of               vaccine, in which the elderly, chronically ill   suggested that only around
                                                                                                         lxxiv
                 the COVAX Facility. The University of Hong             development around the world.                  patients, and medical workers will be the        63% participants (of a sample
                                                                                                                                         lxxv
                 Kong/Xiamen University have a dual COVID-                                                             first vaccinated.                                of 1203) had an intent to opt-
                 19/influenza nasal spray, CEPI-supported,                                                                                                              in for a COVID-19 vaccine,
                                                lxxiii
                 preclinical vaccine candidate.                                                                                                                         when it becomes
                                                                                                                                                                                   lxxvi
                                                                                                                                                                        available.
 Singapore       Singapore plans to secure vaccine doses through        Singapore's 14-member COVID-19 vaccine         Priority to protect individuals who are          There is a high willingness to
 (5 million)     its partnership with the COVAX Facility. The           expert committee was unveiled on Nov 12,       most vulnerable or at high risk from the         accept a COVID-19 vaccine in
                 country also has a local vaccine candidate being       to assess the effectiveness and safety of      disease, as well as those who may be             Singapore (exceeding 80%),
                         lxxvii lxix
                 tested.                                                the vaccine and identify priority groups for   more likely exposed to infection, while          with strong trust from in
                                                                                     lxxviiilxxix                                                                                             liii
                                                                        vaccination.                                   working progressively towards a high level       central government.
                                                                                                                       of vaccination in the population.

                                                                                                                                                                                                 12
Global Health Governance Programme
21 November 2020

References:

i
   Oxfam. 2020. Small group if rich nations have bought up more than half of the future supply of leading
COVID-19 vaccine contenders. https://www.oxfam.org/en/press-releases/small-group-rich-nations-have-
bought-more-half-future-supply-leading-covid-19
ii
    Lazarus, J.V., Ratzan, S.C., Palayew, A. et al. A global survey of potential acceptance of a COVID-19
vaccine. Nat Med (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-1124-9.
iii
    Elgot J and Sample I. 2020. UK scrambles to buy 5m doses of Covid breakthrough vaccine
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/16/uk-in-advanced-discussions-to-buy-moderna-covid-
vaccine
iv
    Bingham K. The UK Government's Vaccine Taskforce: strategy for protecting the UK and the world. The
Lancet. 2020 Oct 27. https://www.thelancet.com/action/showPdf?pii=S0140-6736%2820%2932175-9
v
    Devex. UK joins COVAX scheme on deadline day. Accessed 2020 Nov 9. https://www.devex.com/news/uk-
joins-covax-scheme-on-deadline-day-98132
vi
    Department of Health and Social Care, Government of the United Kingdom. JCVI: updated interim advice on
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https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/priority-groups-for-coronavirus-covid-19-vaccination-advice-
from-the-jcvi-25-september-2020/jcvi-updated-interim-advice-on-priority-groups-for-covid-19-vaccination
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     Financial Times. Less than half UK population to receive coronavirus vaccine, says task force head. Accessed
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viii Government of the United Kingdom. A statement regarding Kate Bingham and the Vaccine Taskforce.
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ix
    WHO, 2020. DRAFT Landscape of COVID-19 Candidate Vaccines - 3 November 2020. [online] p.3. Available at:
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x
    Gavi.org. 2020. COVAX Commitment Agreements. [online] Available at:
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xi
    GAVI: The Vaccine Alliance, 2020. Key Outcomes: COVAX AMC. [online] Available at:
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xii
     https://www.rki.de/EN/Content/infections/Vaccination/Vaccination_node.html
xiii
     https://www.dw.com/en/germany-to-set-up-hundreds-of-vaccination-centers-from-december-report/a-
55605652
xiv
     Bundesministerium für Gesundheit, 2020. Durchführung Und Organisation Der COVID-19 Pandemieimpfung
In 2 Phasen. p.1.
xv
     Bundesgesundheitsministerium. 2020. Chronik Zum Coronavirus SARS-Cov-2. [online] Available at:
 [Accessed 7
November 2020].
xvi
     Ibid.
xvii
      https://www.dw.com/en/germany-to-set-up-hundreds-of-vaccination-centers-from-december-report/a-
55605652
xviii
       Markovitz, G. and Russo, A., 2020. Survey Shows Rising Vaccine Hesitancy Threatening COVID-19 Recovery.
[online] World Economic Forum. Available at:  [Accessed 7 November 2020].
xix
     Ellyatt, H., 2020. Four European Nations To Pay $843 Million For Astrazeneca’S Coronavirus Vaccine. [online]
CNBC. Available at:  [Accessed 5 November 2020].
xx
     https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-france-trials-idUSKBN26M6CH
xxi
     https://www.connexionfrance.com/French-news/France-sets-out-future-Covid-19-coronavirus-vaccine-
vaccination-priority-plan-for-at-risk-and-vulnerable-workers-and-people
xxii
      Ministry of Health, 2020. VACCINS CONTRE LE SARS-Cov-2: UNE STRATEGIE DE VACCINATION.
xxiii
       Ibid.
xxiv
       Ibid.
xxv
      Ibid.

                                                                                                              13
Global Health Governance Programme
21 November 2020

xxvi
       Ibid.
xxvii
        https://www.thelocal.it/20201118/how-italy-is-preparing-for-a-covid-19-vaccine
xxviii
        Angela Betsaida B. Laguipo, B., 2020. Italy Starts Human Trials Of Potential COVID-19 Vaccine. [online]
News-Medical.net. Available at:  [Accessed 5 November 2020].
xxix
       https://www.thelocal.it/20201118/how-italy-is-preparing-for-a-covid-19-vaccine
xxx
      Salute, M., 2020. Covid-19 Vaccine Will Be Free, 1St Doses In Autumn Says Speranza. [online] Salute.gov.it.
Available at:
 [Accessed 5 November 2020].
xxxi
       Nugent, C. and Ducharme, J., 2018. Why Is Italy's Government Trying To Overturn A Lifesaving Vaccination
Law? Here's What To Know. [online] Time. Available at: 
[Accessed 6 November 2020].
xxxii
       Mezzofiore, G., 2018. Why Italy's U-Turn On Mandatory Vaccination Shocks The Scientific Community.
[online] CNN. Available at:  [Accessed 6 November 2020].
xxxiii
        Palamenghi, L., Barello, S., Boccia, S. and Graffigna, G., 2020. Mistrust in biomedical research and vaccine
hesitancy: the forefront challenge in the battle against COVID-19 in Italy. European Journal of Epidemiology,
35(8), pp.785-788.
xxxiv
        GAVI: The Vaccine Alliance, 2020. Key Outcomes: COVAX AMC. [online] Available at:
 [Accessed
7 November 2020].
xxxv
       TornosNews.GR. 2020. Greek Minister: We Are Drafting The Coronavirus Vaccination Business Plan |
Tornosnews.Gr. [online] Available at:  [Accessed 7 November 2020].
xxxvi
        https://in.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-greece-vaccination/greece-makes-vaccination-plans-
urges-patience-as-covid-cases-rise-idUSKBN27Y2IR
xxxvii
         WHO, 2020. DRAFT Landscape Of COVID-19 Candidate Vaccines - 3 November 2020. [online] p.3. Available
at:  [Accessed 6 November 2020].
xxxviii
         Mitchell, D., 2020. Spain Will Manufacture The U.S. Novavax Vaccine Against Covid-19. [online] Euro
Weekly News Spain. Available at:  [Accessed 6 November 2020].
xxxix
        Gavi.org. 2020. CEPI Expands Global Manufacturing Network, Reserving Manufacturing Capacity For More
Than 1 Billion Doses Of COVID-19 Vaccines. [online] Available at:  [Accessed 6
November 2020].
xl
    Mitchell, D., 2020. Spain Will Manufacture The U.S. Novavax Vaccine Against Covid-19. [online] Euro Weekly
News Spain. Available at:  [Accessed 6 November 2020].
xli
     Thisistherealspain.com. 2020. Spain, Again Chosen To Produce The Vaccine To Combat Covid-19. [online]
Available at:  [Accessed 6 November 2020].
xlii
      thinkSPAIN. 2020. Two Spanish Companies Manufacturing Covid Vaccines. [online] Available at:

[Accessed 6 November 2020].
xliii
       https://english.elpais.com/society/2020-11-10/spain-hopes-to-have-pfizer-vaccine-for-10-million-people-
by-early-2021.html
xliv
      https://english.elpais.com/society/2020-08-26/30-of-spaniards-have-doubts-about-being-vaccinated-
against-covid-19-poll-reveals.html
xlv
      Eine Information des ÖVIH – Österreichischer Verband der Impfstoffhersteller, 2020. Virtueller Medien-
Workshop: Impfstoffentwicklung Gegen Covid-19. [online] Vienna: APA Press Center. Available at:
 [Accessed 7
November 2020].

                                                                                                                 14
Global Health Governance Programme
21 November 2020

xlvi
      Pharmashots.com. 2020. Austria Donates €2 Million To CEPI To Support COVID-19 Vaccine Programmes |
Pharmashots. [online] Available at:  [Accessed 7 November 2020].
xlvii
       CEPI. 2020. Austria Donates €2 Million To CEPI To Support COVID-19 Vaccine Programmes – CEPI. [online]
Available at:  [Accessed 7 November 2020].
xlviii
       https://www.thelocal.at/20201112/when-will-the-coronavirus-vaccine-be-available-in-austria
xlix
      US Department of Health and Human Services. Fact Sheet: Explaining Operation Warp Speed. Accessed
2020 Nov 9. https://www.hhs.gov/coronavirus/explaining-operation-warp-speed/index.html
l
   US Centers for Disease Control. Frequently Asked Questions about COVID-19 Vaccination. Accessed 2020 Nov
9. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/faq.html
li
    US Centers for Disease Control. COVID-19 Vaccination Program Interim Playbook for Jurisdiction Operations.
Accessed 2020 Nov 9. https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/imz-managers/downloads/COVID-19-Vaccination-
Program-Interim_Playbook.pdf
lii
     US Department of Health and Human Services. From the Factory to the Frontlines: The Operation Warp
Speed Strategy for Distributing a COVID-19 Vaccine. Accessed 2020 Nov 9.
https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/strategy-for-distributing-covid-19-vaccine.pdf
liii
     Lazarus, J.V., Ratzan, S.C., Palayew, A. et al. A global survey of potential acceptance of a COVID-19
vaccine. Nat Med (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-1124-9
liv
     CBC News. Canada snapping up COVID-19 vaccines at expense of poorer countries, experts say. Accessed
2020 Nov 8. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/covid-19-vaccines-canada-covax-insufficient-
contribution-global-health-experts-1.5741693
lv
     CBC News. Trudeau announces plan to purchase 76 million doses of Canadian-made COVID-19 vaccine.
Accessed 2020 Nov 4. https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/trudeau-vaccine-rapid-tests-1.5774309
lvi
     Medicago. MEDICAGO SIGNS AGREEMENTS WITH THE GOVERNMENT OF CANADA TO SUPPLY UP TO 76
MILLION DOSES OF ITS RECOMBINANT PLANT-DERIVED COVID-19 VACCINE. Accessed 2020 Nov 4.
https://www.medicago.com/en/newsroom/medicago-signs-agreements-with-the-government-of-canada-to-
supply-up-to-76-million-doses-of-its-recombinant-plant-derived-covid-19-vaccine/
lvii
      Government of Canada. Government of Canada announces major steps in treating and preventing COVID-19
through vaccines and therapies. Accessed 2020 Nov 5. https://www.canada.ca/en/innovation-science-
economic-development/news/2020/08/government-of-canada-announces-major-steps-in-treating-and-
preventing-covid-19-through-vaccines-and-therapies.html
lviii
      Government of Canada. Preliminary guidance on key populations for early COVID-19 immunization.
Accessed 2020 Nov 8. https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/immunization/national-advisory-
committee-on-immunization-naci/guidance-key-populations-early-covid-19-immunization.html
lix
     Global News. Hesitancy over a COVID-19 vaccine may threaten public health. Accessed 2020 Nov 8.
https://globalnews.ca/news/7446769/vaccine-hesitancy-covid-19-public-health-threat/
lx
     National Research Council Canada. COVID-19 response: Building the infrastructure. Accessed 2020 Nov 8.
https://nrc.canada.ca/en/covid-19-response-building-infrastructure
lxi
     https://www.ft.com/content/8beceb2f-14b1-4071-9283-0307159feff2
lxii
      NBC News. Mexico aims to produce its own coronavirus vaccine. Accessed 2020 Nov 9.
https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/mexico-aims-produce-its-own-coronavirus-vaccine-n1239500
lxiii
      https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/mexico-signs-deal-to-secure-covid-19-vaccine/2005415#
lxiv
      Korea.net. Gov’t eyes COVID-19 vaccines for at least 70% of population. 2020.
http://www.korea.net/Government/Current-Affairs/National-
Affairs/view?affairId=2034&subId=5&articleId=189029&viewId=56467
lxv
      https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3922322
lxvi
      https://theconversation.com/what-coronavirus-success-of-taiwan-and-iceland-has-in-common-140455
lxvii
       https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/09/15/taiwans-unlikely-path-to-public-trust-
provides-lessons-for-the-us/
lxviii
       https://www.livemint.com/news/world/why-japan-ordered-covid-vaccines-four-times-its-entire-
population-11598591799334.html
lxix
      NIH Clinical Trials. Study of COVID-19 DNA Vaccine (AG0301-COVID19). 2020.
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lxx
      BioPharma. Takeda sets up deal to distrubte Moderna’s COVID-19 vaccine in Japan .2020.
https://www.biopharma-reporter.com/Article/2020/08/31/Takeda-sets-up-deal-to-distribute-Moderna-s-
COVID-19-vaccine-in-Japan

                                                                                                           15
Global Health Governance Programme
21 November 2020

lxxi
      https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/08/22/national/japan-medical-staff-elderly-coronavirus-vaccine/
lxxii
       https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/11/10/national/science-health/prioritize-older-people-
administering-coronavirus-vaccines/
lxxiii
       News.gov.hk. Vaccine procurement plan explained. 2020.
https://www.news.gov.hk/eng/2020/09/20200918/20200918_140407_591.html
lxxiv
       https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/health-environment/article/3101028/hong-kong-health-experts-
say-delay-astrazeneca
lxxv
       The Standard. Vaccine first buy good for 35pc of Hongkongers. 2020.
https://www.thestandard.com.hk/section-news/section/11/222652/Vaccine-first-buy-good-for-35pc-of-
Hongkongers
lxxvi
       Kwok KO, Li KK, Wei WI, Tang KH, Wong SYS, Lee SS. Are we ready when COVID-19 vaccine is available?
Study on nurses′ vaccine hesitancy in Hong Kong. medRxiv 2020. Preprint.
lxxvii
        World Health Organization. 172 countries and multiple candidate vaccine candidates engaged in COVID-19
Global Access Facility. 2020. https://www.who.int/news/item/24-08-2020-172-countries-and-multiple-
candidate-vaccines-engaged-in-covid-19-vaccine-global-access-facility
lxxviii
        https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/health/who-should-be-first-to-get-access-to-vaccine
lxxix
       https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6W0V5L9gs8U

                                                                                                           16
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