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The Metropolitan Museum of Art Symposia Cultures in Contact
The Metropolitan Museum of Art Symposia
Cultures in Contact
From Mesopotamia to the Mediterranean
in the Second Millennium b.c.
Edited by
Joan Aruz, Sarah B. Graff, and Yelena Rakic
T h e M et ropoli ta n Museum of A rt, N ew Yor k
d i s t r i b u t e d b y Ya l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , N e w H av e n a n d L o n d o nMost of the essays published in this volume were presented
at “The Raymond and Beverly Sackler Symposium:
Beyond Babylon: Art,Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second
Jacket illustration: Detail of wall painting with foreign
emissaries bearing gifts. (See Feldman fig. 4, pp. 250 – 51.)
Frontispiece: Ivory pyxis lid (Feldman fig. 7, p. 253)
Contents
Millennium b.c.,” held on December 18 and 19, 2008, and
“The Friends of Inanna Scholars’ Day Workshop,” held Page xviii: Satellite image: The eastern Mediterranean Contributors to the Publication vii
on February 4, 2009. George Bass’ and Cheryl Ward’s essays Page 44: Archaeologist excavating copper ingots at site of
were part of the Charles K. Wilkinson Lectures “Ships and Map of the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean viii
Uluburun shipwreck
Shipwrecks,” held on December 17, 2008. Aslıhan Yener’s Chronologyx
essay is based on a lecture given in the series the Armand Page 72: Basalt stele. Ebla. Old Syrian period. Idlib
Brunswick Distinguished Lectures in Archaeology of The Museum 3003. (See Matthiae fig. 9, p. 104.) Introduction
Raymond and Beverly Sackler Foundation, Inc., held on Page 154: Detail of jacket illustration Joan Aruz xii
December 18, 2008. Gary Beckman’s essay was included in
Page 214: Detail of bronze plaque with animal combats
the Sunday at the Met program “Anatolia in the Time of Acknowledgmentsxvii
(Aruz fig. 20, p. 223)
the Hittites,” held on February 22, 2009. All the lectures
were held at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Page 274: Detail of cuneiform tablet of Edict of
Suppiluliuma I. Ugarit. Late Bronze Age. National the First International Age
The Raymond and Beverly Sackler Symposium and the Museum, Damascus 17.227
Glenn M. Schwartz
Armand Brunswick Distinguished Lectures in Archaeology Page 310: Basalt stele of Hammurabi. Found at Susa. Old
were made possible by The Raymond and Beverly Sackler An Amorite Global Village: Syrian–Mesopotamian Relations in the Second Millennium b.c. 2
Babylonian period. Musée du Louvre, Paris Sb 8
Foundation, Inc. The Scholars’ Day Workshop was made Karen S. Rubinson
possible by the Friends of Inanna. The Charles K.
Wilkinson Lectures were made possible by the many
Copyright © 2013 by The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Actual Imports or Just Ideas? Investigations in Anatolia and the Caucasus 12
New York
friends of Charles K. Wilkinson and of The Metropolitan Eric H. Cline
Museum of Art, New York. The Metropolitan Museum of Art endeavors to respect Aegean – Near East Relations in the Second Millennium b.c. 26
copyright in a manner consistent with its nonprofit
This publication is made possible by The Hagop Kevorkian educational mission. If you believe any material has been Malcolm H. Wiener
Fund and by The Adelaide Milton de Groot Fund, in included in this publication improperly, please contact the Contacts: Crete, Egypt, and the Near East circa 2000 b.c. 34
memory of the de Groot and Hawley families. Editorial Department.
Published by The Metropolitan Museum of Art, First printing
Maritime Trade
New York Cheryl Ward
Mark Polizzotti, Publisher and Editor in Chief All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
Gwen Roginsky, Associate Publisher and General Manager
Seafaring in Ancient Egypt: Cedar Ships, Incense, and Long-Distance Voyaging 46
reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
of Publications electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, Yuval Goren
Peter Antony, Chief Production Manager recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, International Exchange during the Late Second Millennium b.c.: Microarchaeological Study
Michael Sittenfeld, Managing Editor without permission in writing from the publishers.
Robert Weisberg, Senior Project Manager of Finds from the Uluburun Ship 54
The Metropolitan Museum of Art George F. Bass
Edited by Alexandra Bonfante-Warren 1000 Fifth Avenue
Production by Douglas Malicki
Cape Gelidonya Redux 62
New York, New York 10028
Bibliography by Jayne Kuchna and Penny Jones metmuseum.org
Maps on pp. viii – ix, 55, 74, 75, 80 by Anandaroop Roy Interpreting the Archaeological Evidence
Distributed by
Photographs of works in the Metropolitan Museum’s Yale University Press, New Haven and London
Michel Al-Maqdissi
collection by The Photograph Studio, The Metropolitan yalebooks.com /art From Tell Sianu to Qatna: Some Common Features of Inland Syrian and Levantine Cities
Museum of Art, unless otherwise noted. yalebooks.co.uk in the Second Millennium b.c. Material for the Study of the City in Syria (Part Three)
Matériel pour l’étude de la ville en Syrie (troisième partie) 74
Design implemented by Nancy Sylbert, based on a format Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available from the
established by Tsang Seymour Design Inc. Library of Congress. Giorgio Buccellati
Typeset in Bembo Std and Lotus Linotype When Were the Hurrians Hurrian? The Persistence of Ethnicity in Urkesh 84
Printed on 130 gsm LumiSilk Matte Artpaper ISBN 978-1-58839-475-0 (The Metropolitan
Separations by Professional Graphics, Inc., Rockford, Museum of Art) Paolo Matthiae
Illinois ISBN 978-0-300-18503-4 (Yale University Press) Ebla: Recent Excavation Results and the Continuity of Syrian Art 96
Printed and bound by Oceanic Graphic Printing,
Hong Kong, China
Peter Pf älzner
The Elephant Hunters of Bronze Age Syria 112
Claude Doumet-Serhal
Tracing Sidon’s Mediterranean Networks in the Second Millennium b.c.: Receiving,
Transmitting, and Assimilating. Twelve Years of British Museum Excavations 132
K. Aslıhan Yener
Recent Excavations at Alalakh: Throne Embellishments in Middle Bronze Age Level VII 142Art and Interaction: Wall Paintings
Janice Kamrin
Contributors to the Publication
The Procession of “Asiatics” at Beni Hasan 156 Michel Al-Maqdissi, Director of Excavations and Archaeological Studies and Directorate General of Antiquities and
Robert B. Koehl Museums, Ministry of Culture, Syria
The Near Eastern Contribution to Aegean Wall Painting and Vice Versa 170 Joan Aruz, Curator in Charge, Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Christos G. Doumas George F. Bass, Distinguished Professor Emeritus, Texas A&M University, College Station
Akrotiri, Thera: Ref lections from the East 180
Gary Beckman, Professor of Hittite and Mesopotamian Studies, Department of Near Eastern Studies, University of
Manfred Bietak Michigan, Ann Arbor
The Impact of Minoan Art on Egypt and the Levant: A Glimpse of Palatial Art from Kim Benzel, Associate Curator, Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
the Naval Base of Peru-nefer at Avaris 188
Manfred Bietak, Chairman of the Commission of Egypt and the Levant at the Austrian Academy of Sciences,Vienna
Peter Pf älzner
Giorgio Buccellati, Professor Emeritus of Ancient Near East and History, University of California Los Angeles
The Qatna Wall Paintings and the Formation of Aegeo-Syrian Art 200
Annie Caubet, Conservateur général honoraire du Patrimoine, Musée du Louvre, Paris
Art and Interaction: Furnishings and Adornment Eric H. Cline, Professor of Classics and Anthropology, Department of Classical and Near Eastern Languages and
Joan Aruz Civilizations, The George Washington University, Washington, D.C.
Seals and the Imagery of Interaction 216 Christos G. Doumas, Emeritus Professor, University of Athens; Director of Excavations at Akrotiri, Thera
Annie Caubet Claude Doumet-Serhal, Special Assistant, The British Museum, London; Honorary Research Fellow, University
Of Banquets, Horses, and Women in Late Bronze Age Ugarit 226 College London; Director, Sidon Excavations
Robert B. Koehl Marian H. Feldman, Associate Professor, Departments of History of Art and Near Eastern Studies, University of
Bibru and Rhyton: Zoomorphic Vessels in the Near East and Aegean 238 California Berkeley
Marian H. Feldman Yuval Goren, Chair, Graduate Program in Archaeology & Archaeomaterials, Laboratory for Comparative Microarchaeology,
The Art of Ivory Carving in the Second Millennium b.c. 248 Department of Archaeology and Ancient Near Eastern Civilizations, Tel Aviv University
Kim Benzel Janice Kamrin, Assistant Curator, Department of Egyptian Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Ornaments of Interaction: Jewelry in the Late Bronze Age 258 Robert B. Koehl, Professor of Archaeology, Department of Classical and Oriental Studies, Hunter College, New York
Christine Lilyquist Christine Lilyquist, Curator Emerita, Egyptian Art, and former Lila Acheson Wallace Curatorship in Egyptology,
Remarks on Internationalism: The Non-Textual Data 268 The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Paolo Matthiae, Director, Italian Archaeological Mission at Ebla, Syria; Emeritus Professor of Archaeology and History
Literary Evidence for Interaction of Art of the Ancient Near East, Università degli Studi di Roma “La Sapienza”
Marc Van De Mieroop Peter Pf älzner, Professor, Institute for Ancient Near Eastern Studies, University of Tübingen, Germany
Beyond Babylonian Literature 276 Beate Pongratz-Leisten, Professor of Ancient Near Eastern Studies, Institute for the Study of the Ancient World,
Gary Beckman New York University
Under the Spell of Babylon: Mesopotamian Inf luence on the Religion of the Hittites 284 Karen S. Rubinson, Research Associate, Institute for the Study of the Ancient World, New York University
Beate Pongratz-Leisten Jack M. Sasson, Mary Jane Werthan Professor of Jewish Studies and Hebrew Bible,Vanderbilt University, Nashville
From Pictograph to Pictogram: The Solarization of Kingship in Syro-Anatolia and Assyria 298 Glenn M. Schwartz, Whiting Professor of Archaeology, Department of Near Eastern Studies, Johns Hopkins
University, Baltimore
Closing Remarks Marc Van De Mieroop, Professor of Ancient Near East History, Columbia University, New York
Jack M. Sasson Cheryl Ward, Associate Professor and Director, Center for Archaeology & Anthropology, Coastal Carolina University,
“Beyond Babylon”: Closing Remarks 312 Conway, South Carolina
Bibliography320 Malcolm H. Wiener, Prehistorian; Trustee, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; President, Board of Trustees,
Photograph and Illustration Credits 353 Institute for Aegean Prehistory and Study Center for East Crete; Chairman of the Board of Trustees, American School of
Classical Studies at Athens
K. Aslıhan Yener, Associate Professor of Anatolian Archaeology, The Oriental Institute and the Department of Near
Eastern Languages and Civilizations, The University of Chicago; Professor, Archaeology and History of Art Department,
Koç University, Istanbul
viiChristos G. Doumas Akrotiri goes back several centuries earlier.
Great numbers of Early Bronze Age trans-
port amphorae from different parts of the
Aegean indicate that even before the end
of the third millennium b.c. Akrotiri had
Akrotiri, Thera: become a center of trade and transactions,4
a role that obviously strongly inf luenced
the development of its urbanization. It is
Ref lections from also worth noting that, according to the
archaeological evidence, viticulture and
the East
wine making,5 as well as tin-bronze met-
allurgy, were introduced in the Aegean a
couple of centuries before the end of the
third millennium b.c.6 Thera, the southern-
most of the Cyclades, seems to have played a
As soon as systematic excavations in the leading role in these developments, and the
Aegean began, archaeologists there and in sudden appearance of metallurgy evidenced
the Near East eagerly started seeking evi- at Akrotiri by the discovery of crucibles,
dence to prove the traditional dogma “ex molds, tuyeres, and tuyere holders7 sug-
oriente lux.” Gradually, however, material gests that its inhabitants were engaged in
evidence accumulated showing the reci-
procity of contacts and exchanges. Many
and varied are the orientalia that have been
encountered at Bronze Age Aegean sites in
Fig. 2. Ceramic Canaanite amphora inscribed with the Fig. 3. Ceramic Canaanite amphora inscribed with
both Crete and the mainland and islands of
sign tet. Thera, Akrotiri. Late Bronze Age. Museum of the sign kap. Thera, Akrotiri. Late Bronze Age.
Greece,1 and many are the publications ded-
Prehistoric Thera. Cat. no. 3767 Cat. no. 7577
icated exclusively to this subject.2 Discussing
some more from Akrotiri, Thera, without
changing the overall picture, will simply
enhance the role of this island in the inter-
action between the Aegean and the east. the trade of metal. Thera’s strategic situation before the fourteenth century b.c.11 Unless
The deep shafts recently excavated at along the new metals route between Cyprus, our specimen was introduced to the Aegean
Akrotiri between the Late Cycladic (LC) I an inexhaustible source of copper, and via the Black Sea, it probably arrived at
level and the bedrock for the pillars of the Crete’s emerging palatial society brought Akrotiri together with cedar of Lebanon,
new shelter for the Bronze Age city have the maritime community of Akrotiri to the thus marking the beginning of a long tradi-
allowed us to study the site’s stratigraphy vanguard of this commerce and into direct tion of sea contacts between the Aegean
from about the middle of the fifth millen- contact with the eastern Mediterranean and the eastern Mediterranean. During the
nium b.c. until the end of the seventeenth world.8 This activity may explain the pres- Middle Bronze Age the pomegranate
or middle of the sixteenth century b.c., ence of orientalia in the city’s late Middle became a popular iconographic motif, as a
when the city was destroyed by a volcanic and early Late Bronze Age horizons.9 special category of vases indicates (fig. 1).12
eruption and buried under thick deposits of Among the least impressive finds of east- In the following centuries, imports from
pumice and pozzolana.3 Before the excava- ern Mediterranean origin are a few pieces of the Levant and the Near East increased sub-
tions, the wealth and the character of the charcoal recovered from a late third or early stantially. Three complete jars have been
art revealed in the Late Bronze Age ruins second millennium b.c. horizon that include classed as Canaanite by leading experts, and,
were plausibly understood as the outcome specimens identified as cedar of Lebanon as far as I know, no alternative has been
of maritime activities. Our recent investiga- and pomegranate.10 According to archaeo- proposed by those who have orally argued
tions not only confirmed this view but they Fig. 1. Ceramic pomegranate jug. Thera, Akrotiri. botanical evidence, the pomegranate — against this identification.13 Two of these
have also demonstrated that the maritime Middle Bronze Age. Museum of Prehistoric Thera. native to the region south of the Caspian jars are inscribed. On the shoulder of one, a
and mercantile history of the settlement at Cat. no. 9144 Sea — was unknown in the Mediterranean circle with cross-bars had been drawn with
180 181Fig. 4. Ceramic transport ewer a finger on the wet clay (fig. 2).14 The sign is of two equilateral intersecting triangles Fig. 7. Pair of
inscribed with the sign of a not new to the Aegean world. At Akrotiri it (fig. 6). The hexagram, considered a repre- Egyptian wooden
pentagram, or pentalpha. Thera, is known from a number of pithoi designed sentation of king Solomon’s seal but better clappers. Thera,
Akrotiri. Late Bronze Age for liquids.15 It also occurs quite often as known as the Star of David, was also imbued Akrotiri. Late
sign 29 on tablets of the Cretan Linear A with magical properties. Although it is dif- Bronze Age.
script and is identical to sign 77 of the ficult to interpret the presence of both types Cat. nos. 8583, 8584
Mycenaean Linear B.16 The same sign, iden- of stars on an incised wall-plaster fragment
tified with the Old Canaanite letter tet, at Knossos,22 it is interesting that these signs
occupies ninth place in the abecedarium are rather familiar in Minoan contexts,
incised on a thirteenth to twelfth century occurring particularly on clay seal impres-
b.c. sherd from Izbet Sartah. According to sions that “appear to belong to a class of
Frank Moore Cross, this is one of the “earli- design that served some religious, perhaps
est extant tet signs in Old Canaanite.” 17 The talismanic or apotropaic purpose.” 23 The
sign occurs again in the Phoenician Ahiram original provenance of these motifs —
inscription from Byblos, as well as in the eastern or Aegean — is debatable. However, manufacture of faience has been traced back
earliest Greek epigraphic examples of the the fact that they occur in archaeological to late fifth millennium b.c. Mesopotamia,
letter theta. The discovery of the Canaanite contexts in both regions and are associated from where it seems to have spread both
jar at Akrotiri establishes an earlier date for with more or less the same magical proper- eastward and westward.28 Faience objects
the appearance of the sign for the letter tet.18 ties indicates at least an exchange of goods documented in Early Minoan Crete have
Similarly, the sign incised on the other jar and ideas between these areas. These contacts been considered imports from the east, as
(f ig. 3) resembles a trident and occurs in are further confirmed by the discovery of was the technology of making faience,
both the Linear A and Linear B scripts (as objects such as a pair of wooden clappers which rapidly developed on the island.29
signs 54 and 27, respectively).19 It is the sec- (fig. 7),24 various stone vases of Egyptian or The faience items at Akrotiri have also tra-
ond of four signs in a Linear A inscription Syro-Palestinian origin,25 ivory items,26 ditionally been regarded as imports from
on the shoulder of a ewer from Akrotiri20 and two ostrich eggshells transformed into either the east or other parts of the Aegean,30
Fig. 5. Detail of f ig. 4 and resembles the letter kap, which occupies ceremonial vessels (rhyta) by the applica- but the recent discovery of quartz powder at
eleventh place in the Izbet Sartah abecedar- tion of faience attachments (fig. 8).27 The Akrotiri is indicative of local production.31
ium. Cross recognized this sign as a “suitable
archetype for both [the] Greek kappa and the
Gezer kap.” 21 Whatever the origin of these
two symbols, Levantine or Aegean, their
presence on the Canaanite jars indicates that
they were already in use when early attempts
Fig. 8. Pair of ostrich-egg rhyta.
at alphabetic script were made.
Thera, Akrotiri. Late Bronze Age.
Two other incised motifs from Akrotiri
Museum of Prehistoric Thera.
may have some connection with the east.
Cat. nos. 1853, 1854
The first is on a large transport ewer (fig. 4).
Below the handle of this ewer, incised before
firing, is a “pentagram,” a five-pointed star
drawn as one continuous line (fig. 5). Known
Fig. 6. Ivory seal with the sign also as a “pentalpha,” the five-pointed star
of a hexagram. Thera, Akrotiri. was considered in Classical antiquity to be a
Early Middle Bronze Age. magical sign for evoking benevolent spirits
Cat. no. 8385 and averting evil ones. It was used by both
the Pythagoreans and the Freemasons. The
second example is a button-like small ivory
seal found recently in an early Middle Bronze
Age horizon. On its discoid surface is engraved
a “hexagram,” a six-pointed star composed
182 Cultures in Contact Akrotiri, Thera: Reflections from the East 183The gold figurine of an ibex or gazelle Besides iconographic motifs, certain
(fig. 9), associated perhaps with religion, pictorial conventions are common to both
seems totally foreign to Aegean art and Theran and eastern art.43 For example, the
might be an oriental import, possibly from Egyptian pose denoting pain or sorrow,
Mesopotamia.32 Increased contact with the known from the kneeling mourners depicted
east during the Late Bronze Age is also sug- on the walls of funerary monuments at
gested by the remains of insects native to Egyptian Thebes,44 finds echoes in the atti-
the Near East found in stored grains.33 tudes of the so-called Adorants from Xeste 3
Besides the actual presence of materi- at Akrotiri: there, the young woman seated
als or artifacts, glimpses of the east can be on a rock supports her forehead with her left
obtained through artistic themes and motifs. hand, while with her right one she indicates
There is general consensus that the grif- the source of the pain by holding her right
fin was introduced into Aegean iconogra- foot, one toe of which is bleeding.45 The
phy from Syria, with early representations mode of rendering inert or dead human
Fig. 9. Gold f igurine of an ibex or gazelle. Thera, appearing on the Middle Minoan II seal- bodies used in Egypt as early as the Pre
Akrotiri. Museum of Prehistoric Thera. Cat. no. 8226 ings from Phaistos.34 Almost at the same dynastic period46 was adopted by the painter
time, this hybrid creature emerged in the of the Miniature Frieze in the West House
Cyclades as the only decorative theme on to render slain or drowned warriors in the
certain beaked jugs of the Cycladic White Naval Battle scene.47
type (fig. 10).35 It has been suggested that The superimposing of different scenes or
the f lying gallop pose was an artistic inno- the use of lateral layering to represent mov-
vation in the Aegean at the time.36 If this ing figures, as well as the vertical layering
theory is correct, the early depiction of the of static figures to render depth, may also
griffin in this pose on the Middle Cycladic ref lect foreign contacts and inf luences.48 In
jugs may indicate that the creature entered Egyptian art human figures are shown with Fig. 11. Large ceramic pithos in the bichrome style with griff in. Thera,
Aegean iconography through the Cyclades. two left or two right hands or feet, depend- Akrotiri. Middle Cycladic period. Cat. no. 8885
The griffin became a more frequent theme ing on the direction in which they are
during the Middle Cycladic period, as dem- moving.49 Although the Theran painters
onstrated by its monumental depiction on endeavored to deviate from this conven-
large jars decorated in the bichrome tech- tion, often successfully, there are instances,
nique (fig. 11).37 This popularity did not such as the girl gathering saffron, in which
fade in the succeeding LC I period, as the such interventions were apparently not pos-
wall paintings show (fig. 12).38 sible and the Egyptian convention was
The thematic repertoire of the Akrotiri kept.50 Similarly, the standard Egyptian and
wall paintings is even more revealing in Mesopotamian rendering of a cow’s piebald
subjects and motifs with connections to the hide by means of stars with three or four
east. For example, geometric patterns such rounded rays51 is an artistic idiom found
as the spiral or the imitation of marble are also in the art of Thera, exemplified in the
almost identical in Theran39 and Mesopota- West House by the bulls and bull’s-hide
mian40 art. The Theran painters used images shields of the warriors in the Miniature
of f lora and fauna to define exotic landscapes. Frieze in Room 5 and by the shields and
Although the palm tree, the lion, and the palanquins (ikria) decorating the walls of
wild duck were not alien to the Aegean Room 4.52
habitat, they certainly suggest elements of a The personification of animals, totally for-
subtropical landscape when accompanied by eign to Aegean art, is undoubtedly attribut-
Fig. 10. Ceramic Cycladic White bird-spouted ewer papyrus and a leopard, as in the Miniature able to oriental inf luences.53 Representations
with f lying griff in. Melos, Phylakopi. Middle Frieze from the West House.41 Undeniable of monkeys playing musical instruments or
Cycladic. National Archaeological Museum, Athens. too is the oriental inf luence in the depiction dancing must have been observed in the east Fig. 12. Detail of the Miniature Frieze showing a f lying griffin. Thera,
Cat. no. 5777 of animals such as antelopes and monkeys.42 before they were depicted in the Theran Akrotiri, West House. Late Cycladic I. Museum of Prehistoric Thera
184 Cultures in Contact Akrotiri, Thera: Reflections from the East 185wall paintings.54 Moreover, the monkey rather than as an acculturation. The domi- 28. K. P. Foster 1979, pp. 22 – 55. 46. Wolf 1954, p. 26, pl. 5 (above), p. 28, pl. 4.
29. Ibid., pp. 56 – 59; Panagiotaki 1997, pp. 303 – 6; 47. Doumas 1992, p. 29, pl. 26.
serving the Mistress of Animals in the wall nant movement in the early second millen-
Panagiotaki 2000, pp. 154 – 57. 48. Ibid., pp. 24 – 25.
painting of the Saffron Gatherers is probably nium b.c. was from the east to the Aegean. 30. Bichta 2003, pp. 545 – 47. 49. Gaballa 1976, p. 3.
an oriental borrowing.55 This direction was reversed about 1700 b.c., 31. Birtacha et al. forthcoming. 50. Doumas 1992, p. 130, pls. 152, 156; Immerwahr
Iconographic conventions common to when Syria and the Levant experienced 32. Doumas 1999, pp. 172 – 73, pls. 108, 109; Doumas 2005.
Theran and oriental art may reveal a much penetration from the Mediterranean.62 2003a, pp. 55 – 59; Boulotis 2005, pp. 44 – 46; 51. Mekhitarian 1954, pp. 10, 33, 40, 66, 149;
Masseti 2008. Schmökel 1963, pl. 8; Romant 1978, p. 135;
deeper interaction, extending even into the Whether or not one accepts Muller’s sug-
33. Panagiotakopulu 2008. Doumas 1985, pp. 31 – 32.
ideological domain. Although later, dating to gestion, it is beyond doubt that contacts 34. Tzavella-Evjen 1970, pp. 92 – 104; Davaras 1976, 52. Doumas 1992, p. 47, pl. 26.
the twelfth century b.c., the painting in the between the Aegean and the east were p. 128; Immerwahr 1990, p. 30; Hood 2000, p. 22. 53. McDermott 1938, pp. 131 – 37; Rutten 1938, pp. 98,
tomb of Anher-Khaou at Deir el-Medina, established by at least the beginning of the 35. Edgar 1904, p. 109, pl. XIV, 2; Zervos 1957, p. 39, 105; Vandier d’Abbadie 1966, pp. 185 – 88.
Egypt, shows children with partly shaven second millennium b.c., and that their figs. 271 – 73. 54. Doumas 1985, p. 31; Doumas 1992, pp. 128, 132,
36. Crowley 1989, p. 118, n. 2; Immerwahr 1990, figs. 95, 96; Papageorgiou and Birtacha 2008,
heads, exactly as boys and girls are depicted ref lections we encounter in the archaeologi-
p. 30; Poursat 2008, p. 111. pp. 302 – 5.
in the Theran wall paintings.56 It is difficult cal record suggest reciprocal rather than 37. Doumas 2001; Doumas 2003a, p. 51; Boulotis 55. Doumas 1992, pp. 131, 158, fig. 122, p. 165,
to say whether this hair treatment had the hegemonic interaction. 2005, p. 57; Papagiannopoulou 2008a, pp. 436–41; fig. 128.
same meaning in Egypt as it did in Thera, Papagiannopoulou 2008b, pp. 254 – 55. 56. For Anher-Khaou, see Erman 1894 / 1971, p. 219,
where scholars unanimously agree that it 38. Doumas 1992, pp. 48, 65, fig. 32, pp. 131, 159, n. 2; Säf lund 1981, p. 207, fig. 26. For Theran
1. Buchholz 1980; Doumas 1985; Krzyszkowska fig. 122, p. 165, fig. 128. wall paintings, see Doumas 1992, pp. 52 – 57,
designated the child’s stage of initiation.57 1988; Doumas 1992, p. 27; Devetzi 2000; Bichta 39. Ibid., pp. 46, 50, figs. 14 – 17 (imitation of marble), figs. 18 – 25, pp. 112 – 15, figs. 79, 81, pp. 136 – 52,
There is no doubt that the orientalia at 2003; Mikrakis 2007. pp. 128, 132, figs. 93, 94 (spirals). figs. 100 – 116.
Akrotiri and the use of certain iconographic 2. Crawley 1989; Phillips 1997; Cline and Harris- 40. Parrot 1958b, p. 67; Muller 1995, p. 50. 57. Davis 1986; Doumas 1987; Doumas 2000a.
motifs, themes, and artistic conventions are Cline 1998; Karetsou 2000. 41. Doumas 1992, pp. 48, 66 – 67, figs. 33, 34. 58. Muller 1995, p. 51.
evidence of contacts, exchanges, and other 3. Doumas 1999; Doumas 2003a; Doumas 2003b. 42. Ibid., pp. 110, 116 – 19, figs. 82 – 84 (antelopes), 59. Iliakis 1978, p. 618; Muller 1995, pp. 55 – 56.
4. D. E. Wilson, Day, and Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki pp. 111, 120 – 23, figs. 85 – 90, pp. 128, 134, figs. 95, 60. Muller 1995, pp. 55 – 56.
transactions between the Near and Middle 2008, p. 269; Kariotis, Day, and D. E. Wilson 96 (monkeys). 61. W.-D. Niemeier 1991; Bietak and N. Marinatos
East and the Aegean. As Béatrice Muller has forthcoming. 43. Doumas 1985. 1995; N. Marinatos 1998; W.-D. Niemeier and
pointed out, motifs such as the spirals and 5. Doumas 2006b; Doumas 2008c, pp. 41 – 42. 44. Mekhitarian 1954, p. 101. B. Niemeier 1998; Aslanidou 2002; Bietak,
the imitation of marble, themes such as the 6. J. D. Muhly 2004; Bassiakos and Philaniotou 45. Doumas 1985, p. 30; Doumas 1992, p. 136, N. Marinatos, and Palivou 2007b.
stylized papyrus or tree, and scenes such as 2007; J. D. Muhly 2008. fig. 100, p. 142, fig. 105. 62. Muller 1995, p. 56.
7. Doumas 2004b, pp. 418 – 23; Michailidou 2008.
the Sacrifice in the Court of the Palm Tree 8. Doumas 2007, p. 245; Doumas 2008b, p. 28;
appear in wall paintings at the Palace of Doumas 2010, p. 754.
Mari in the Middle Euphrates and at Knos- 9. Bichta 2003.
sos and Thera in the Aegean.58 The organi- 10. Asouti 2003.
11. C. A. Ward 2003, pp. 531 – 32.
zation of the wall surface in three zones,
12. Doumas 2006a; Nikolakopoulou 2010, p. 214.
with the middle one reserved for the main 13. Doumas 1994, p. 161, pls. 83b, 84b; S. Marinatos
theme, and the use of narrow friezes are also 1976, pp. 29 – 30, pl. 49b.
practices common to both regions.59 Taking 14. Doumas 2004a, p. 500, f ig. 1.
into account the earlier date of the examples 15. Doumas 1980, pp. 118 – 20; Doumas 2004a, p. 500,
f ig. 2.
from Mari, which was destroyed by Ham-
16. Platon and Brice 1975, p. 176 (Linear A); Hooker
murabi in 1760 b.c., Muller has suggested 1994, p. 83 (Linear B); Doumas 2004a, p. 499,
that the Aegean parallels were most likely table 1.
the result of inf luences from Mesopotamia 17. Cross 1980, p. 10.
rather than the reverse.60 On the other 18. Doumas 2004a, p. 500.
19. Platon and Brice 1975, p. 177 (Linear A); Hooker
hand, similar motifs and themes occurring
1994, p. 83 (Linear B); Doumas 2004a, p. 499,
in the mural art at sites of a later date, such table 1.
as Alalakh in Turkey, Tel Kabri in Palestine, 20. S. Marinatos 1971, p. 44, pl. 109.
and Tell el-Dab‘a in the Nile Delta, are gen- 21. Cross 1980, p. 11.
erally considered to ref lect Aegean inf lu- 22. Cameron 1979.
23. Ibid., p. 45.
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24. Doumas 2000b, p. 171, pl. 121d; Mikrakis 2007.
relations between the Near East and the 25. Devetzi 2000; Devetzi 2008, pp. 458 – 59, 464 – 68.
Aegean basin from the perspective of mural 26. Bichta 2003, pp. 547 – 49.
painting should be seen as a cultural koine 27. Ibid., p. 542.
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