History of Educational Policy Making and Planning in Pakistan - Kaiser Bengali Working Paper Series # 40 1999 - SDPI
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History of Educational Policy Making and
Planning in Pakistan
Kaiser Bengali
Working Paper Series # 40
1999All rights reserved. No part of this paper may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or information storage and retrieval system, without prior written permission of the publisher. A publication of the Sustainable Development Policy Institute (SDPI). The opinions expressed in the papers are solely those of the authors, and publishing them does not in any way constitute an endorsement of the opinion by the SDPI. Sustainable Development Policy Institute is an independent, non-profit research institute on sustainable development. WP - 0 4 0 - 0 0 2 - 0 9 5 - 1 9 9 9 - 0 4 3 © 1999 by the Sustainable Development Policy Institute Mailing Address: PO Box 2342, Islamabad, Pakistan. Telephone ++ (92-51) 2278134, 2278136, 2277146, 2270674-76 Fax ++(92-51) 2278135, URL:www.sdpi.org
Table of Contents Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1 National Education Conference: 1947 .................................................................................... 1 National Plan of Educational Development: 1951-57 ............................................................. 2 First Five Year Plan: 1955-60 ................................................................................................. 3 Report of the Commission on National Education: 1959 ........................................................ 4 Second Five Year Plan: 1960-65 ............................................................................................ 5 Third Five Year Plan: 1965-70 ................................................................................................ 5 The New Education Policy: 1970 ............................................................................................ 6 The Education Policy: 1972-80 ............................................................................................... 7 Fifth Five Year Plan: 1978-83 ................................................................................................. 8 National Education Policy and Implementation Programme: 1979 ................................................................................................................... 8 Literacy and Mass Education Commission: 1981 ................................................................. 10 The 10-pint Programme: 1983 .............................................................................................. 11 Sixth Five Year Plan: 1983-88 .............................................................................................. 12 National Literacy Plan: 1984-86............................................................................................ 13 Evaluation of Iqra Pilot Project.............................................................................................. 15 Drop-in Schools: 1986-89 ..................................................................................................... 16 Nationwide Literacy Programme: 1986-90............................................................................ 17 Nai Roshni Schools: 1986-90 ............................................................................................... 17 Seventh Five Year Plan: 1988-93 ......................................................................................... 18 National Education Policy: 1992 ........................................................................................... 20 Eight Five Year Plan: 1993-98 .............................................................................................. 22 National Education Policy: 1998-2010 .................................................................................. 23 Conclusions .......................................................................................................................... 26
The Sustainable Development Policy Institute is an independent, non-profit, non-government policy research institute, meant to provide expert advice to the government (at all levels), public interest and political organizations, and the mass media. It is administered by an independent Board of Governors. Board of Governors: Dr Amir Muhammad Chairman of the Board Dr Abdul Aleem Chaudhry Director, Punjab Wildlife Research Centre Mr Hameed Haroon Pakistan Herald Publications (Pvt.) Limited Mr Irtiza Husain Director, Pakistan Petroleum Ltd Mr Javed Jabbar President, MNJ Communications Pvt. Limited Mr Malik Muhammad Saeed Khan Member, Planning Commission Mr Shamsul Mulk Former Chairman, WAPDA Ms Khawar Mumtaz Coordinator, Shirkat Gah Mr Mohammad Rafiq Head of Programmes, IUCN-Pakistan Dr Zeba Sathar Deputy Resident Representative, Population Council Dr Shahrukh Rafi Khan Executive Director, SDPI Under the Working Paper Series, the SDPI publishes research papers written either by the regular staff of the Institute or affiliated researchers. These papers present preliminary research findings either directly related to sustainable development or connected with governance, policy–making and other social science issues which affect sustainable and just development. These tentative findings are meant to stimulate discussion and critical comment.
History of Educational Policy Making and
Planning in Pakistan 1
Kaiser Bengali
Introduction
Pakistan achieved independence from over a century of British colonial rule in August 1947. The colonial
period did witness some progress in education. However, the progress was largely limited to what
emerged as India. The regions comprising Pakistan were relatively backward in all respects, including in
education. At independence, 85 percent of the population was illiterate and in the more backward regions
of the country, e.g., Balochistan, the literacy rate was even lower, with the rate for rural women therein
being virtually zero.
It was realized then that the task of nation building would not be achieved without an educated and skilled
manpower. And in recognition thereof, a National Education Conference was convened the same year,
which recommended that universalization of primary education should be achieved within a period of 20
years. Since then, universal primary education has remained an important objective of all governments.
And to this end, considerable resources have been expended in creating new infrastructure and facilities
and various projects and schemes have been launched. Yet, the desired progress has not been achieved,
either quantitatively or qualitatively.
Half a century down the road, Pakistan remains a largely illiterate country. Close to two-thirds of the
population and over 80 percent of rural women are still illiterate.More than a quarter of children between
the ages of five and nine do not attend school. And for those who do, the quality of education is seriously
wanting. One 1994 study conducted arithmetic and urdu language tests to grade-3 school children in
Lahore and found that only 33 percent of students in government schools passed both the tests. The same
test conducted in 1996 to test grade-3 students in 5 districts in Punjab found that only 22 percent of the
students in government schools passed both the tests. The same test adminsitered to the teachers did not
elicit an encouraging result either. This paper outlines this process from the education conference in 1947
to the education policy presented in 1998.
National Education Conference: 19472
One of the first attempts in the field of education and literacy was the National Education Conference in
1947. The Quaid-e-Azam, in his message to the Conferences said:
"... the importance of education and the type of education cannot be over-emphasized ...
there is no doubt that the future of our State will and must greatly depend upon the type
of education we give to our children, and the way in which we bring them up as future
1. Research support of The Asia Foundation Basic Education Project, Pakistan, is greatfully acknowledged.
2. Government of Pakistan, Ministry of the Interior (Education Division), Proceedings of the Pakistan Educational
Conference, 1947.History of Educational Policy Making and Planning in Pakistan
citizens of Pakistan ... we should not forget that we have to compete with the world
which is moving very fast in this direction."
The Conference formed a number of committees, including for primary and secondary education and for
adult education. The Primary and Secondary Education Committee “considered it essential that a national
system of education should be based on the strong foundations of free and compulsory primary
education.” It proposed separate pre-primary and primary education stages for children of ages 3 to 6 and
6 to 11, respectively. It also took account of and dwelt on the problems of medium of instruction, teacher
training, physical education, etc.
The Committee on Adult Education pointed out that illiteracy was high at 85 percent and, at the then rate
of increase of literacy, 140 years would be required to liquidate the problem. Highlighting the urgency of
introducing literacy among the masses, including women, it identified the objective of literacy as a means
to further education. “The primary aim of the campaign must be not merely to make adults literate but to
keep them literate”, it stated. It called for the provision of facilities for adult education on the widest scale
and the introduction of a free and compulsory system of primary education to be treated as
complementary to one another. It suggested the setting up of a permanent system of adult education,
closely linked with compulsory primary education, to solve the problem in a period of 25 years.
The Committee’s report was fairly pragmatic in its approach and the language used was matter of fact. It
dwelt on the problems and constraints facing the task and identified issues of training adult school
teachers, teaching materials and literature for adult schools, instruction methodologies, etc. It cautioned
against attempting to draw up a code or prescribe uniform methods or approaches applicable to the
country as a whole and, instead, called for a committee of experts report on questions of teaching
technique and results of experimentation. It also advised against drawing any rigid distinction between
adult education in the strict sense and technical, commercial or art instruction and suggested that adult
students may be provided literacy through subjects of a vocational character.
The report recommended the following stages for the execution of a programme of adult education. The
first 5 years were to be devoted to planning, recruitment of teachers and training. In the sixth year, about
500,000 persons were to be made literate with an annual increase of 300,000 thereafter. It acknowledged
that illiteracy was not confined to the rural areas and a large proportion of the urban population was also
illiterate. It, thus, called on all government departments and all employers and trade unions to ensure that
their employees, workers, and members are literate The question of levying a tax on those employers
who do not make adequate provision for the education of their employees was also presented for
consideration. Other specific proposals included (i) the possibility of making a period of social service
obligatory on all university students and (ii) the use of mechanical aids to learning, such as radio, cinema,
the gramophone, and magic lantern.
National Plan of Educational Development: 1951-573
In 1951, an education conference was held to adopt a six-year National Plan of Educational Development
for the period 1951-57. The Plan was presented as “the first deliberate effort to anticipate and provide for
our requirements in the various fields of education for a period of six years.” Pragmatically again, the
Plan identified problems and constraints facing the task. The principal constraint identified was that of
3. Government of Pakistan, Education Division, Proceedings of The Educational Conference, 1951
2SDPI Working Paper Series # 40
lack of trained teachers, given the fact that almost half the teachers in primary schools were untrained and
the expansion of primary schools would require over 86,000 additional teachers. “It is obvious that we
have to revise the plan in order to provide for more training institutions, for otherwise our education will
remain gravely deficient in quality”, it was stated. It also identified needs for school buildings, teaching
aids, scientific equipment, etc. It acknowledged that two thirds of children in the age group of 6 to 11
were out of school and proposed to establish over 24,000 new primary schools with a total capacity of 3.7
million pupils. It was claimed that at the end of the plan period in 1957, two thirds of the children in the
relevant age group would be enrolled. The plan also proposed to make 2.8 million adults literate every
year through the Village Agricultural and Industrial Development (V-AID) programme; whereby literacy
centres were to be set up and teachers and teaching materials provided.
However, the efforts and expenditures of the decade 1947-57 failed to produce the desired results. A
review of the decade long efforts4 showed that the literacy rate actually remained unchanged or declined,
albeit marginally. "At the end of 1950's, the literacy ratio went down by .1% from 16.4 percent in 1951 to
16.3 percent after a decade". The failure was attributed to the fact that "the administrative and
organizational arrangements were unstable."
First Five Year Plan: 1955-605
The First Five Year Plan was launched two and a half years late in December 1957. It proclaimed that “a
system of universal primary education is imperative. Primary education is essential to prep citizens for the
discharge of their democratic and civic responsibilities and to provide them with equal opportunities for
economic and cultural advancement. It is essential to the nation as a base for the entire structure of
secondary and higher education from which will come leadership in all walks of life and support for
technical development in agriculture and industry.” While no precise targets were established, a universal
system of free and compulsory primary education, including for girls, was expected to be in place in
about twenty years, i.e., by about 1975 to 1980.
The Plan proposed to add 4000 new schools to the 15,602 already in existence in the country6. Additional
schools were also proposed to be built under the Village-AID programme. The number of trained primary
teachers were to be increased from about 75,000 to about 118,500 raising the percentage of trained
teachers in primary schools from about 65 to 85 percent. These additions were estimated to increase
school enrolment by about 600,000 to one million children, and raise the primary enrolment rate from 43
to 49 percent. The quality and content of primary school teaching was recognized as poor and provisions
made for teacher training, curriculum development and provision of teaching aids. “The foundations laid
for primary education during this plan period will permit a rapid advance on a sound and confident basis
towards the goal of universal free compulsory primary education”, it was claimed.
The Plan devoted considerable attention to the organization and management aspects of primary
education. Among other things, it considered "the possibility of constituting local school management
committees and district advisory boards ... elected by members of the community (and which) should be
responsible for providing school buildings, for consulting with the area education officers on the
4. Khwaja, Sarfraz, Eradication of Illiteracy in Pakistan: An Analysis 1947-87, Academy of Educational Planning
and Management, Government of Pakistan, 19??
5. Government of Pakistan, National Planning Board, First Five Year Plan: 1955-60, 1957
6. All figures and discussion for the pre-1972 period relate to the then western wing of the county.
3History of Educational Policy Making and Planning in Pakistan
selection of teachers and the school programme, and for supplementing the school supplies and learning
matereials provided by the directorate"
Report of the Commission on National Education: 19597
The 1959 Education Policy commenced with a harangue on the undesirable attitudes of the people
towards public duty, government, nation-building, manual work and education. It called upon the people
to revise their “concept of government and their relationship to it”, for “a corresponding transformation ...
within government and among its officials”, for “a revision of attitudes on the part of the professional
educator”, for “the traditional views toward education ... held by people ... to be altered”, and so on. It
lamented that less than 50 percent of the children of primary school age were enrolled in schools and
recommended eight years compulsory education to make the “child functionally literate”. Regarding adult
education, the Report admitted that “during the last 30 years a number of campaigns have been launched
to eradicate illiteracy, but only very limited results were achieved”
Defining the objectives of the educational system, it stated that “the reorientation and reorganization of
education in Pakistan which we have suggested will ... provide us with the trained manpower, educated
citizenry, and competent leadership we require”. Stating the objectives of adult education, it said:
"the aim of adult education cannot be anything other than the general aim of all
education, i.e., the development of the individual to his full capacity in his personal and
social life so that he may be a happy, healthy and useful citizen and able to make his
optimum contribution to the community in which he lives ... Starting with the pressing
needs and problems of the community concerned, it may, in the long run, include skills of
reading, writing, speaking, listening, and calculation; vocational skills; domestic skills;
skills of self-expression in arts and crafts; personal and community hygiene; simple and
practical science; civics; economics; spiritual and moral development; and training in
reasoning and scientific thinking."
The lofty aims were, however, qualified thus: "Before these broader aims can be achieved, the population
must be made literate, and therefore the development of a literate population must be the immediate
primary objective of adult education in Pakistan." It further stated that: “We are well aware that ours is
not the first set of proposals for reform of our educational system. Our hope is that it may be the first to be
translated into both prompt and long-term action.”
A target of achieving compulsory universal enrolment in 15 years, i.e., by 1975, was also specified. It
called for curriculum reform to “develop the basic skills in reading, writing and arithmetic, a liking for
working with one’s own hands, and a high sense of patriotism”, for religious education to be made
compulsory, and for teaching in national languages. It also called for improved facilities in school
buildings and furniture and for involving “the local community in the opening, upkeep, and operation of
primary schools.” To achieve mass literacy, it recommended somewhat unique, if not fanciful, strategies
for eradication of illiteracy. It proposed: (i) use of school children as teachers to make their parents
literate, (ii) use of undergraduate college students as adult literacy teachers, and (iii) use of one literate
adult to teach another under the "each one teach one" approach. No target for the literacy rate was
specified.
7. Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education, Report of the Commission on National Education, 1959.
4SDPI Working Paper Series # 40
Second Five Year Plan: 1960-658
The Second Five Year Plan, which incorporated the recommendations of the 1959 Policy, proclaimed
thus:
"Upon education falls the supreme task of preserving the national ideals and building up
the national character on strong foundations of faith, unity and discipline, without which
no nation can aspire to greatness. The essential goals must be to provide an informed
leadership, a responsible citizenry, and trained manpower. It is through the advancement
of education alone that these goals can be achieved. No uneducated community has
progressed far in the modern world, and no educated community with initiative and
leadership has remained backward. An illiterate society clings to customs, traditions, and
outmoded practices; it resists the forces of change which stimulate the acquisition of new
knowledge and new skills. Training of human beings in all fields of endeavour is essential
if a breakthrough is to be effected from a state of chronic backwardness, and the country
is to move rapidly forward towards the attainment of the desired social and economic
goals.”
Evaluating the First Plan performance, it stated that: “Accomplishments during the First Plan period,
though by no means negligible, were in several respects disappointing. No significant improvements in
the quality of school education were made. Primary school enrolment did not increase to the extent
expected. With respect to the training of teachers, it said that "no increase was registered at the primary
level." It further stated that: "The First Plan contemplated 4,000 new primary schools in West Pakistan to
be added ... during the Plan period (only) 2,400 primary schools were opened ... It was anticipated that
during the Plan period enrolment in primary schools would increase by about one million. The actual
increase was only 440,000.”
The Second Plan allocated Rs 990 million or 66 percent of the total 5-year social sector outlay to primary
education. It proposed to raise the proportion of children in the 6-11 age group attending school from 42.3
to 50 per cent by 1965. It provided for the opening of 15,200 new primary schools, in addition to the
18,000 existing ones. These efforts were expected to increase primary school enrolment in west Pakistan
by 1.2 million, raising the primary enrolment rate from 36 to 56 per cent. Improving the curriculum
content, provision of teaching aids, and teacher training also received considerable attention.
The education of girls received special attention. It was stated that “of the 4.7 million children presently
attending primary schools, only 1.1 million are girls. Clearly, girls must be provided with much greater
opportunities for primary education. This will be done both by admitting girls to more of the existing
primary schools, and by ensuring that where separate facilities are required a much larger proportion is
assigned to schools for girls.
Third Five Year Plan: 1965-709
The Third Five Year Plan allocated Rs 2652 million or 5.1 percent of the total 5-year outlay to primary
education. It recognized “the concept of education as a vital national investment and a major
8. Government of Pakistan, Planning Commission, Second Five Year Plan: 1960-65, 1960
9. Government of Pakistan, Planning Commission, Third Five Year Plan: 1965-70, 1965
5History of Educational Policy Making and Planning in Pakistan
determination of the nation’s economic growth.” It set the following objectives of educational planning in
the country:
1. to provide an educational system which would facilitate transition into an era of science and
technology, promote political, social and economic development and bring the country’s spiritual
and cultural heritage into harmony with the contemporary world;
2. to provide the youth of the country with conditions conducive to the full-fledged development of
their individual capacities and character;
3. to raise the quality of education at all levels so that it may properly fulfil its nation building tasks.
Evaluating the Second Plan, it stated that: “Conscious realization of the high positive correlation between
educational effort and the growth of the nation was suitably reflected in the rationale of the Second Plan
which, in financial terms represents a five-fold increase over the First.” It commended the fact that two
million additional children were brought under primary instruction during this period, as against a target
of 1.2 million.
The Third Plan aimed at widening the base of primary education and proposed to increase the primary
enrolment rate from 45 to 70 per cent in 1970. This implied additional enrolment of 2.8 million children
in primary schools by 1970. To this end, 42,500 new schools were proposed to be set up in West Pakistan.
Attention was also focussed on improving retention rates, teacher training, teacher salaries, teaching aids,
and physical condition of schools.
The New Education Policy: 197010
The 1970 Education Policy reaffirmed the government’s commitment “to the objective of universal
elementary education” accepting it as a “basic principle of State Policy in the Constitutions of 1956 and
1962", and of “the Karachi Plan of 1960 (which) proposed ... compulsory, universal and free primary
education as a target for 1980.” However, it also lamented that “the attainment of the goal ... seems to
have receded further and further with the lapse of time and Pakistan today has one of the highest rates of
illiteracy in the world.”
Outlining its basic principles and concepts, it stated that:
“education and training are critical inputs in the economic effort of the nation. Without
harnessing the vast human resources available to Pakistan, the task of sustaining and
accelerating economic development would remain unfulfilled. In this regard, the basic
objectives are, on the one hand, to broaden rapidly the base of education with a view to
attaining the ideal of a universally literate and productive society and, on the other,
ensure a continuous supply of highly trained persons capable of providing imaginative
and creative leadership in different spheres of national activity.”
The Policy aimed at free and universal enrolment up to Class V by 1980, with particular stress on girls
education. It also identified that there were about 100 million illiterates in Pakistan of whom 90 percent
are concentrated in the rural areas. It innovated further to aim at covering 5 million adults and school
leavers by 1975 through (i) requiring all employers, including government, to provide work-oriented
basic education to all of their employees, and (ii) establishment of a National Education Corps. The policy
10. Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education and Scientific Research, The New Education Policy, 1970.
6SDPI Working Paper Series # 40
was never implemented on account of the war with India, secession of East Pakistan, and the collapse of
the military government.
At the time of the emergence of the "new" Pakistan in 1972, the country's literacy status was as follows:
overall literacy rate was 21.7 percent, urban literacy was 41.5 percent, rural literacy was 14.3 percent,
male literacy was 30.2 percent, and female literacy was 11.6 percent. Rural female literacy was 4.7
percent.
The 1972 Population Census revealed literacy rates as follows:
total urban rural
total 21.7 41.5 14.3
male 30.2 49.9 22.6
female 11.6 30.9 4.7
The Education Policy: 1972-8011
The 1972-1980 Education Policy was drafted in a somewhat matter of fact tone and refrained from
philosophical pronouncements. It aimed at “eradicating illiteracy within the shortest possible time through
universalization of elementary education and a massive adult education programme” and at “equalizing
access to education through provision of special facilities for women, under-privileged groups and
mentally-retarded and physically-handicapped children and adults in all areas in general and the backward
areas in particular.”
It declared that “education will be made free and universal up to Class X for all children throughout the
country ... in both Government and privately-managed schools. Private schools will be suitably supported
for the loss of fees incurred by them.” It was anticipated that “primary education up to Class V will
become universal for boys by 1979 and for girls by 1984" and further that “elementary education will
become universal up to Class VIII ... for boys by 1982 and for girls by 1987.” The earlier objective of
compulsory education was discarded. The Policy proposed to construct 61,000 additional class-rooms for
primary classes, train 150,000 teachers, and recruit an additional 75,000 teachers through the National
Literacy Corps.
The 1972 Policy identified 40 million adult illiterates in the country and declared that a "massive literacy
programme will be undertaken in every town, and village (and) literacy centres will be established all
over the country in schools, factories, farms, union council halls and other community places." A target of
establishing 276,000 literacy centres to educate 11 million persons was fixed for the period 1972-80.
The 1972 Policy was overtaken somewhat mid-stream by the military coup d'etat in 1977, leading to
significant shift in priorities. The egalitarian principles enunciated by the ousted government had yet to
see the light of the day in practice. However, they were literally "expunged" under the new dispensation.
The Fifth Five Year Plan was prepared and launched a year later. However, the new education policy was
not announced until two years later in 1979.
11. Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education, The Education Policy, 1972.
7History of Educational Policy Making and Planning in Pakistan
Fifth Five Year Plan: 1978-8312
The Fifth Five Year Plan also lamented the past neglect of primary education thus: “As a consequence of
neglect of primary education, Pakistan has a high illiteracy rate (78 per cent of population above 5 years
was illiterate in 1971). Illiteracy has been a major factor contributing to economic and social
backwardness." It, therefore, claimed to mark “a fundamental reordering of national priorities in favour of
primary education” and aimed at “a comprehensive approach towards primary education, which would
include not only the augmentation of physical facilities but also measures to reduce the drop-out rate,
improvement in the quality of teaching and better supervision.”
The Plan proposed to earmark 33 per cent of the development expenditure for primary education. It also
proposed to raise per capita expenditure on education from Rs. 43 in 1977-78 to Rs. 88 in 1982-83 and,
thereby, increase the outlay on education from under 2 percent to 3.1 per cent of GNP by 1982-83. It
aimed at "increasing enrolment at primary stage so that all boys of Class I age, are enrolled by 1982-83
and universal enrolment for the entire age group (5-9) is attained by 1986-87. An essential feature of the
plan is reduction in the drop out rate from 50 per cent to 40 per cent.”
High priority was also given to rapid expansion in girls education. It stated that "enrolment of girls is
expected to increase at the rate of 9.6 per cent per annum as against 7 per cent for boys. Girls’ schools
will receive priority in the programme for construction and improvement of schools. All schools will be
open for admission of girls and separate girls’ schools shall be opened where essential”. As a result,
“enrolment of girls will be increased by 9.95 lac or from 33 per cent to 45 per cent”, it said.
To accommodate the proposed additional enrolment, the Plan provided for:
“renovation and expansion of 17,166 existing schools. In addition, 12,641 new primary
schools would be opened ... In about 10 per cent of the new schools, furniture will be
provided as an experiment to determine whether seating helps to improve school
performance ... The selection of new schools would be based on detailed survey and
mapping to ensure optimum locations. To ensure that schools are within the easy walking
distance of small children, village and mohallah mosques will be utilized to teach
primary classes both in areas where existing schools are not suitably located, and in
areas which are without schools. Buildings in urban areas will be more intensively
utilized by increasing double shift working which is particularly important if targets for
increased enrolment of girls is to be realized. It was also estimated that about 75,748
teachers -- 45,054 male and 30,694 female -- will be required to cater for the additional
enrolment. To resolve the problem of non-availability of teachers for schools in the rural
area, it stated that “a beginning shall be made towards construction of residences and
5,800 units will be constructed during the Plan period."
National Education Policy and Implementation Programme: 197913
The 1979 Education Policy was presented one year after the launching of the Fifth Five Year Plan, with a
change of target dates. While the Fifth Plan proposed to enrol all boys of Class I age by 1982-83 and
12. Government of Pakistan, Planning Commission, Fifth Five Year Plan: 1978-83, 1978
13. Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education, National Education Policy and Implementation Programme,
1979
8SDPI Working Paper Series # 40
achieve universal enrolment for the entire age group (5-9) by 1986-87, the 1979 Policy proposed to
achieve the same by 1987 and 1992, respectively. In other words, within one year the government had
shifted forward the two targets by 4 and 5 years, respectively.
The Policy was presented as “the first in recognizing the great potentials of our indigenous institutions
and patronizing them for bringing about greater educational development”. It claimed that “deviation
from alien models and building up on what we already have, will make a great impact”. The Policy aimed
at providing “a minimum acceptable level of functional literacy and fundamental education to all citizens
of the country particularly the young, irrespective of their faith, caste, and creed in order to enable them to
participate productively in the total national effort”.
It repeated the lament that "nearly half of nation’s children and two thirds of girls do not go to primary
schools". Inter-provincially, the enrolment ratio was stated to be 32 percent in Balochistan, 52 percent in
NWFP, 59 percent in Sindh, and 56 percent in Punjab. In rural areas, the enrolment ratio was stated to be
30 percent in Balochistan, 50 percent in NWFP, 42 percent in Sindh, and 48 percent in Punjab. Among
rural girls, the enrolment ratio was stated to be 10 percent in Balochistan, 14 percent in NWFP, 16 percent
in Sindh, and 29 percent in Punjab. Low enrolment was said to be further aggravated by high drop-out,
estimated at 50 percent overall and higher for girls on account of in-school and out of school factors.
The Policy presented a 9-point statement of "National Aims of Education" and a 12-point implementation
strategy. The Implementation Programme was ambitious and proposed to:
1. achieve universal Class I enrolment of boys by 1987 and of girls by 1992.
2. eliminate wastage to achieve 60 percent retention rate by 1983 and 100 percent thereafter
3. reconstruct/improve 17,000 existing primary schools
4. open 13,000 new primary schools, mainly in rural areas
5. establish 5000 mosque schools for boys
6. provide equipment to 12,000 existing schools
7. supply text-books to all students at the primary level
8. supply at least one teaching kit to all existing and new schools
9. experiment with different mixes of inputs to determine direction for large scale investment in
primary education
10. carry out a nation-wide school mapping exercise to evolve a process of school location planning
11. undertake a nation-wide survey to determine repair needs of existing primary schools and launch a
programme of repairs
In addition to the 5000 Mosque schools for boys, the Programme also envisaged opening 5000 Mohalla
schools for girls, and 1000 Village Workshop schools to impart training in “mother trades like carpentry,
masonry and agriculture” and focus on “appropriate skill development linked with community needs”.
The anticipated problems and difficulties and resource allocation needs were also detailed in the
Programme.
The importance of institutional, organizational and administrative arrangements was again recognized
with the acknowledgement that “even with the fullest government commitment and allocation of required
financial resources, the objective of universal primary education cannot be achieved in the stipulated time
without effective mobilization of community resources and participation ... (which would) necessitate the
creation of strong management capability at the local levels."
9History of Educational Policy Making and Planning in Pakistan
The Policy also provided for an elaborate adult education programme. It again lamented that “since the
establishment of Pakistan, no serious attempt seems to have been made to launch a viable programme of
adult education in the country, although almost all previous policies and plans have claimed to attach
importance to this issue”. The programme proposed to set up 10,000 adult literacy centres to be sponsored
by the Ministry of Education, Pakistan Television Centres, IRDP markazes, Allama Iqbal Open
University study centres, and social welfare centres. The possibility of a student volunteer corps,
comprising bachelors and masters level students was also envisaged. It was claimed that the programme
will raise literacy levels from 24 percent to 35 percent by 1983 and attain 100 percent literacy by 2010.”
The 1981 population census results regarding the literacy status of the country constituted an evaluation,
without comment, of the educational policies and plans over the three decades since independence in
1947. The literacy status revealed that overall literacy had increased about half a percentage a year since
1972 from 21.7 to 26.2 percent. Over the same period, urban literacy had increased from 41.5 to 47.1
percent, and rural literacy from 14.3 to 17.3 percent. In gender terms, male literacy had increased from
30.2 to 35.1 percent and female literacy from 11.6 to 16.0 percent. Rural female literacy increased from
4.7 to 7.3 percent.
1981 Census literacy rates:
total urban rural
total 26.17 47.12 17.33
male 35.05 55.32 26.24
female 15.99 37.27 7.33
The 1980s was a decade of a series of initiatives in the field of education and literacy. The Literacy and
Mass Education Commission (LAMEC) was established in 1981, the 10-point education programme was
announced in 1983, the Sixth Five Year Plan with an ambitious educational component was launched the
same year, and the two year National Literacy Plan was launched in 1984. In 1985, the Literacy
Ordinance was promulgated, the Iqra Tax was levied, and the Drop-in Schools Programme was launched.
The following year in 1986, the Nation-wide Literacy Programme was launched and, in 1988, the Seventh
Five Year Plan with an equally ambitious educational component was unveiled.
Literacy and Mass Education Commission: 1981
The Literacy and Mass Education Commission (LAMEC) was established in 1981 under the federal
government through a notification14 to pursue its policy goals of achieving mass literacy. The notification
stated:
Whereas Islam assigns great importance to the acquisition of knowledge and makes its pursuit incumbent
upon every Muslim;
And whereas the literacy ratio in Pakistan is so low as to preclude the possibility of benefits from learning
accruing to the people of Pakistan;
And whereas in the programme designed to commemorate the advent of the fifteenth Hijra Century the
launching of a literacy drive is listed as an item of high priority on the agenda of national endeavour;
14. Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education, The Gazette of Pakistan, Part III, February 17: 1981
10SDPI Working Paper Series # 40
And whereas the establishment of a Literacy and Mass Education Commission with sufficient powers is
expedient for the purpose of promoting literacy in Pakistan;
The functions specified included among others:
1. to evolve strategies of formal and non-formal mass approaches for the purposes of eradication of
illiteracy and promotion of functional literacy;
2. to develop plans on literacy and non-formal mass education commensurate with the needs of the
target population and make recommendations to the Federal Government;
3. to organize and launch regular campaigns for the purposes of eradication of illiteracy and promotion
of mass education;
In 1989, LAMEC was reconstituted as National Education and Training Commission and in 1995 it was
renamed as the Prime Minister's Literacy Commission. LAMEC commenced with a budget of Rs 1.03
million. It reached its peak in 19?? with a staff of 17,000 and a budget of Rs ??. Its current staff strength
stands at about 7,400 persons with a budget of Rs 160.94 million.
The 10-point Programme: 198315
In 1983, the Chief Martial Law Administrator addressed a National Workshop on Female Literacy and
announced a 10-point education programme, as follows.
1. An annual drive every summer for literacy and mass education be institutionalized as part of the
national movement for literacy and mass education. All the various educational institutions in the
country and all agencies dealing with education, as well as other agencies such as the Armed Forces,
non-Government organizations such as Guides and Scouts welfare agencies etc. should participate in
this drive.
2. University degrees at the Graduate and the Postgraduate level should not be awarded to the
candidates who have completed the requirements for these degrees and passed requisite
examinations, until they have imparted for this purpose may be the basic Quranic Qaida such as the
"Yassarnal Quran".
3. All Government organizations must arrange to impart literacy to their illiterate employees.
4. Illiterate prisoners who learn to read and write or those of the educated ones who appear and qualify
in the public examination next higher to the one which they had already qualified, should be granted
remission in their sentences.
5. Arms Licenses, Driving Licenses and similar other licenses and permits should be granted only to
literate persons.
6. incentives and rewards be given to the communities i.e. villages, wards or mohallas which achieve
hundred percent literacy, e.g. preference in the allocation of roads, dispensaries/health centres or
provision of electricity.
7. Rewards and incentives such as trophies and shields be given to the persons with outstanding
achievement in the field of literacy and mass education. Outstanding work at the national level be
recognized through Civil Awards or Pride of Performance medals.
8. Governments grants to all social welfare institutions be made conditional upon their undertaking
literacy/adult education programmes.
9. All deeni madaris should be requested to provide education at least in the understanding of the Quran
in addition to reading the Quran nazra.
15. Khwaja, Sarfraz, Eradication of Illiteracy in Pakistan: An Analysis 1947-87, Academy of Educational Planning
and Management, Government of Pakistan, 19??
11History of Educational Policy Making and Planning in Pakistan
10. The media, that is the radio and the T.V., be used more often and more effectively in the service of
education in general, and of adult education in particular.
Sixth Five Year Plan: 1983-8816
The same year, the Sixth Five Year Plan was launched which proclaimed: “Education is the most vital
investment for any programme of socio-economic development. Its neglect can cost generations. No
uneducated society has ever achieved the heights of economic and political power. No educated society
has ever been left behind in the relentless march of history.” Incidentally, almost the same statement had
also been made in the Second Plan.
Reviewing past performance, including that of the predecessor Fifth Plan, it again repeated the lament
that:
“thirty-five years after independence, Pakistan has a literacy rate below 25 per cent and
less than half the primary schools going age children are in schools. These indices place
Pakistan amongst the least developed nations ... At the scale at which it persists,
illiteracy is a blot on our social image and the chief impediment to our long-term
economic and technological advance."
Continuing the lament, it said that: “Except for the Second Plan, the performance of education sector in
the planned and non-plan period ending 1977-78 remained utterly deficient.” In the Fifth Plan period,
“despite higher investment ... enrolment increased only marginally. Worse, the participation rate actually
declined from 54 per cent in 1977-78 to 48 per cent in 1982-83 and the female participation rate remained
far less than the coverage. The share of government expenditure on education as a proportion of the GNP
also declined from 1.8 per cent in 1977-78 to 1.5 per cent in 1982-83."
The Sixth Plan claimed to approach primary education:
“with the earnestness and urgency that it has always deserved but never received.
Serious efforts will be made to institute universal education by ensuring that all boys and
girls of the relevant age group get enrolled in class-I latest by the terminal year of the
Plan. The timing for the attainment of this goal in various parts of the country will
however, depend on the present level of enrolment in the respective areas and their state
of preparedness towards the attainment of this goal. A minimum of five years of schools
will be made obligatory to begin with and the tenure will gradually be raised to 10
years."
The Plan targeted to raise the participation rate of children in primary schools from 48 per cent in 1982-83
to 75 per cent in 1987-88. This implied that over 5 million additional children were to be provided with
primary schooling, an increase of over 80 per cent over the base year enrolment of 6.8 million children.
Larger increases were planned for the more neglected sections for rural areas and for the girls.
Mass literacy received special attention as in the earlier policies, but for the first time in a five year plan.
“A marked, short-term improvement in literacy would necessarily require programmes covering the mass
16. Government of Pakistan, Planning Commission, Sixth Five Year Plan: 1983-88, 1983
12SDPI Working Paper Series # 40
of the illiterate population which has already gone past the primary school age”, it stated. It announced
the launching of a mass literacy programme, aimed at “a coverage of 15 million persons, the greatest
concentration of which would be on women in rural areas.”
A sum of Rs 7.8 billion was provided for primary education and mass literacy programmes, compared
with an outlay of Rs 1.4 billion during the Fifth Plan period; an increase of five and half times. Fifty per
cent of this amount was to be provided under the programmes of the Provinces and other executing
agencies, while the remaining fifty per cent was earmarked for Special Development Programme of
Primary Education. It was expected that “through the proposed Federal grants for Special Primary
Education Programme the momentum for the expansion of primary education will gain the desired
impetus.”
The major components of the programme were:
1. utilization of mosques to accommodate Classes I to III of new schools and over-crowded existing
schools;
2. provision of school buildings both for existing and shelterless schools and for classes IV and V after
completing class III from mosque schools;
3. construction of sheds/buildings in urban areas to supplement the space available in the mosques for
opening new schools;
4. introduction of the system of mixed enrolment in all new and existing schools in classes I to III;
5. provision of separate girls schools wherever mixed enrolment is not possible;
6. provision of two teachers in each mosque school including the Imam, and one teacher each for class
IV and V in all schools against the present system of one
7. or two teachers for all five classes;
8. creation of a separate implementation agency for primary education at Federal, Provincial and
subsequent levels.
National Literacy Plan: 1984-8617
One year after the launching of the Sixth Plan, an ambitious 2-year National Literacy Plan: 1984-86 was
launched at a cost of Rs 317 million to make 2.2 million persons literate and raise the literacy rate from
26.2 to 33 percent. The plan envisaged opening over 25,000 literacy centres, which were to be
implemented federally by LAMEC with assistance from the Provincial Literacy Council concerned, and
non-government voluntary organizations. Projects launched included:
1. Afternoon School projects.
2. Iqra projects
3. Razakar Muallim projects.
4. Mosque projects.
5. NGOs Volunteer Literacy Corps projects
6. Sipah-e-Idrees projects.
7. Social Welfare Agencies Literacy projects
8. Literacy Village projects.
9. Azafi Literacy Centres projects
17. Government of Pakistan, Literacy and Mass Education Commission, PC-1, National Literacy Programme 1984-
86, 1985
13History of Educational Policy Making and Planning in Pakistan
1. Afternoon Literacy Centres were afternoon classes in existing schools. One thousand such centres to
cater to 120,000 participants were opened in selected districts at a total cost of Rs.9.25 million.
2. Iqra Centres were opened in selected katchi abadis, in all the jails in the country, and in nationalized
and private industrial units. The administrative responsibility of the centres rested with the Provincial
Literacy Council in each province, while the coordination of the programme lay with LAMEC and
its field staff. LAMEC was also responsible for the payment of salary at Rs 250 to the teacher at each
of the centres. In all, about 170 centres were to be opened to benefit 12,800 persons at a total cost of
Rs. 3.08 million. About 50 centres were to be opened in katchi abadis, 70 in jails, and 100 in
nationalized industries. In all, about 4000 persons in katchi abadis, 4800 persons in jails, and 4000
persons in nationalized industries were expected to be made literate. In the first year, 1984-85, 99
centres were opened where 6122 persons were made literate. These comprised 22 centres in katchi
abadis, 39 in industrial units, and 38 in jails. The number of participants were 463, 1932, and 3727,
respectively.
3. Razakar Muallim Centres were to be set up by in-service and retired teachers and other educated
persons in their respective villages Minimum qualifications for registering as Razakar Muallim was
matriculation, they were paid Rs. 250 per month, and they were required to teach a least 20 persons.
A total of 4000 such centres were to be opened with a target of rendering 240,000 persons literate at
a total cost of Rs. 26.0 million. In the first year, 1984-85, 1150 centres are claimed to have been
opened; of which 1000 were in Punjab and 150 in the other three provinces.
4. Mosque Literacy Centres were to be set up to run integrated Urdu-Arabic literacy courses by the
mosque imam, who was to be paid a monthly honorarium of Rs. 250. A total of 4000 such centres
were to be opened to cover 240,000 persons at a total cost of Rs. 26.0 million. The programme was
to be managed by the Auqaf Department under the coordination of LAMEC. In the first year, 1984-
85, 850 centres are claimed to have been opened.
5. NGO's Volunteer Literacy Corps covered youth and women's organizations, such as, Boy Scouts,
Girl Guides, Farm Guides, Janbaz Forces, National Cadet Corps, Women Guards, All Pakistan
Women's Association (APWA), and Pakistan Air Force Women's Association (PAFWA), which
were to organize regular literacy campaigns through their respective organizations. A total of 5050
such centres were to be set up to benefit 159,000 persons at a total cost of Rs. 7.30 million in the first
year, 1984-85, 356 centres are claimed to have been opened with a coverage of 9350 participants.
6. Sipah-e-Idrees was to comprise ex-soldiers and members of Janbaz Force to promote literacy
through 16000 centres to be controlled by General Head Quarters and district Soldier Boards. A total
of 640,000 persons were to be made literate at a cost of Rs 67.6 million to be borne by LAMEC.
7. Social welfare agencies registered with the provincial Social Welfare departments were to set up
2000 literacy centres to cover 175,000 persons at a total cost of Rs. 5.65 million. in the
8. first year, 1984-85, 139 social welfare agencies are claimed to have joined the programme,
benefitting 3811 participants.
9. Literacy Villages were to be set up in selected areas to impart literacy to all inhabitants so as to
achieve 100 percent literacy therein. These villages were to serve as model Literacy Villages. A total
of 240 such Literacy Villages were planned to cover 28,800 persons at a cost of Rs. 2.22 million.
10. Azafi Literacy Centres were to be set up by public and private agencies with financial assistance
from LAMEC. A total of 1000 such centres were to be opened to cover 120,000 participants at a cost
of Rs. 9.25 million
A number of other heroic schemes were also included and financial allocations made for them. These
were Literacy Trade Centres, on all the roads of the country; Open Air Schools under "the shade of a
tree"; and Students Literacy Drive, which lasted from June to August 1984 and is claimed to have been
participated in by 116,000 students. The Plan was a failure and even LAMEC's Chairman admitted that "it
14SDPI Working Paper Series # 40
had to abandon the first ever attempt to implement National Literacy Programme prematurely because of
its conceptual inadequacies and improper supervision system."18
In 1985, the Literacy Ordinance19 was promulgated prohibiting an illiterate person from obtaining a
passport or a driving license. The Ordinance was never enacted and lapsed after 120 days. The same year,
the federal Budget for the year 1985-86 introduced a new tax, called the Iqra Tax, as a 5 percent charge
on all imports to finance education and literacy projects. More often than not, the funds generated through
the new tax were diverted to other (usually non-productive) expenditures.
Evaluation of Iqra Pilot Project20
An official evaluation of one of the schemes, the Iqra Project, provided a damning account of its results. It
stated:
“The major aim of the project was to literate people through direct relationship between
the teacher and the taught at any suitable place and time of their own choice. The
teachers were given the incentive of Rs 1000/= as honorarium provided the neo-literate
could qualify a literacy test conducted by the LAMEC ... The project was introduced
between 1986-87 and the LAMEC claimed that approximately 18882 illiterates became
literate through the project.”
The analysis of data obtained through a survey of 10 percent of neo-literates showed that:
“65% of the people could not provide any evidence prescribed by the evaluation team of
their illiteracy status prior to joining the project ... 1503 registration forms out of a total
sample of 1635 were checked ... 356 cards had either incorrect names or numbers. The
Form-B of the registration form which indicates the literacy status of the wards of the
parents could not be traced out for 306 cases. 429 identity cards of the learners had
signatures. National identity cards of 122 persons could not be traced out ... This leads to
the assumption that only 27.48% were found to be really illiterate before joining the IPP
and the remaining 72.52% were probably already literate because they had signed their
names on registration forms ... 82% neo-literates could read and write the minimum level
prescribed by the evaluation team but as 65% enrolled in the programme (were) assumed
to be (already) literate, hence the literacy ratio of neo-literates is not more than 17%.
Through another source 72.52% were assumed to be already literate according to the
information provided by District Registration Office, which means that only 9.48% ...
were made literate under the project.”
Commenting on the validity and reliability of the data, “majority of the researchers reported that:
1. Most of the neo-literates could not prove their identity.
2. As the literacy tests were conducted through written material, the tests were leaked before time.
3. Interview could not take place in privacy because of interference of the LAMEC staff.
18. Government of Pakistan, Literacy and Mass Education Commission, Progress Report, 1988
19. Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Justice and Parliamentry Affairs, Gazette of Pakistan, March 1985
20. Government of Pakistan, Academy of Educational Planning and Management, Evaluation of Iqra Pilot Project,
1989
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