KICKING THE GAS HABIT: HOW GAS IS HARMING OUR HEALTH - CLIMATECOUNCIL.ORG.AU - Climate Council
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KICKING THE GAS HABIT: HOW GAS IS HARMING OUR HEALTH CLIMATECOUNCIL.ORG.AU
Thank you for
supporting the
Climate Council.
The Climate Council is an independent, crowd-funded organisation
providing quality information on climate change to the Australian public.
Published by the Climate Council of Australia Limited.
ISBN: 978-1-922404-23-7 (print)
978-1-922404-24-4 (digital) Professor Hilary Bambrick
Climate Councillor
© Climate Council of Australia Ltd 2021.
This work is copyright the Climate Council of Australia Ltd. All material
contained in this work is copyright the Climate Council of Australia Ltd
except where a third party source is indicated.
Climate Council of Australia Ltd copyright material is licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Australia License. To view a copy of this
license visit http://creativecommons.org.au. Dr Kate Charlesworth
Climate Councillor
You are free to copy, communicate and adapt the Climate Council of
Australia Ltd copyright material so long as you attribute the Climate Council
of Australia Ltd and the authors in the following manner: Kicking the gas
habit: How gas is harming our health.
Authors: Professor Hilary Bambrick, Dr Kate Charlesworth, Dr Simon
Bradshaw and Tim Baxter.
Dr Simon Bradshaw
Acting Head of Research
—
Cover image: Gas flare above Kwinana, Western Australia. Use licensed
through Shutterstock. Image credit: Hugh Warren.
This report is printed on 100% recycled paper.
Tim Baxter
Senior Researcher
(Climate Solutions)
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CLIMATE COUNCIL i
Contents
Key findings...................................................................................................................................................................................... ii
Recommendations......................................................................................................................................................................... iv
1. Introduction...............................................................................................................................................................................1
1.1. What role does gas play in climate change? 3
Box 1: What do we mean by human health ‘risk’? 4
2. Extraction and processing: impacts on local communities ...................................................................................... 6
Box 2: Forms of unconventional gas in Australia 8
2.1 Risks to water 11
2.2 Air pollution 12
2.3 Health impacts 15
Case Study 1: Early evidence from Queensland’s Darling Downs 20
3. Burning gas in our homes and schools.......................................................................................................................... 22
3.1 Health impacts 24
Box 3: Impact of gas cooking on childhood asthma comparable to household smoking 25
Case Study 2: Unflued gas heaters in NSW schools 27
Box 4: Vanessa’s story 31
4. Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................................................. 33
Case Study 3: Powering past gas in the Australian Capital Territory 35
References....................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
Image credits..................................................................................................................................................................................40
ii KICKING THE GAS HABIT:
HOW GAS IS HARMING OUR HEALTH
Key findings
1 2 3
Unconventional gas Burning gas at home can Children and poorer households
development, including harm our children's health. are at highest risk from, and
fracking, is exposing most likely to be harmed by,
Australian communities to › Far from the “clean and natural” gas production and use.
unnecessary health risks. image that the gas industry
markets, the use of gas for › Gas production and use poses
› Gas extraction and processing heating and cooking indoors additional risks for babies and
involves many hazardous carries many health risks. children. At the production
substances including those phase there is mounting
that cause cancer, interfere › Cooking with gas is estimated evidence of associations
with hormones, trigger asthma to be responsible for up to 12% of between living close to
and contaminate the local the burden of childhood asthma unconventional gas extraction
environment through airborne in Australia. A child living with and impacts upon early-life
pollution and wastewater. gas cooking in the home faces development. Within homes,
a comparable risk of asthma to the indoor air pollution from gas
› Unconventional gas extraction, a child living with household used for heating, cooking and
including coal seam gas and cigarette smoke. hot water disproportionately
shale gas, with or without risks children’s health.
fracking, introduces further › Better ventilation, including
risks to human health. modern extraction fans over › In addition, poorer households
stoves, flues for gas heaters are more exposed to the
› There is growing overseas and other safety measures like harmful effects of gas
evidence of health impacts on ensuring appliances are properly appliances: they are less able
communities living close to gas serviced or opening windows to afford proper maintenance,
wells, including on reproductive can reduce – but not eliminate – and more likely to be renting
and respiratory health. these risks. or living in public housing
where they rely on old, poorly
› Evidence of negative health maintained gas appliances.
impacts in Australia is emerging,
and while independent research,
free of any ties to the gas industry,
from here is limited, this is
consistent with overseas studies.
› Continued expansion of gas
across the country puts more
Australians at risk of adverse
health impacts.
KEY FINDINGS iii
4 5
Gas is a polluting fossil fuel. Clean energy alternatives like
Governments can prevent solar and wind are the key to a
health issues, and reduce prosperous, healthy future for
harm, by helping households, all Australians.
and the country, get off gas.
› Australia does not need to rely
› While today’s gas may have once on gas for domestic energy
been a welcome upgrade from security or for export revenue.
still dirtier fuels such as town As the sunniest and windiest
gas, wood, coal or kerosene, gas inhabited continent on Earth,
appliances have fast become Australia is blessed with some
a poor and polluting cousin to of the world’s best renewable
more efficient and healthier energy resources – enough to
electric alternatives. support both our own energy
needs and a large renewable-
› Simple, practical policy steps powered export industry.
from governments like ending
mandatory gas connections for › Renewables, like solar and
new residential developments wind, backed by storage, like
– as has occurred in the ACT batteries and pumped hydro,
– and incentives that help now offer the cheapest sources
people replace gas appliances of electricity for Australians.
with electrical alternatives, will
speed up the switch already › For households, shifting from
underway and promote better as to efficient electric appliances
health outcomes. can save money over time
and be good for our health,
while reducing burdens on the
healthcare system.
climatecouncil.org.au
iv KICKING THE GAS HABIT:
HOW GAS IS HARMING OUR HEALTH
Recommendations
1 2
Transitioning out of gas production. Helping families, schools and workplaces
move off gas.
Australia must rapidly move beyond fossil fuels,
both for domestic use and exports, including Governments also have an important role to play
gas. Renewable energy, backed by storage, offers in helping homes, schools and businesses move
the best path to affordable and reliable electricity progressively away from gas and on to healthier,
for homes and industry. Over time, gas used in cleaner alternatives, and in particular to support
manufacturing processes can be replaced by people on lower incomes. Existing technologies
renewable alternatives. including heat pumps and induction cookstoves
provide efficient electric alternatives to gas for
As first steps to a future beyond gas, the federal, heating and cooking respectively. Gas users
state and territory governments should: should be strongly encouraged to switch to electric
alternatives once existing appliances reach the
a) Rule-out public funding for new gas end of their life, if not sooner.
developments and associated infrastructure.
Governments should also remove any policies that
b) Ban further unconventional gas development. actively encourage use of gas.
c) Implement an economic recovery that State and territory governments should:
maximises opportunities for jobs and prosperity
in clean energy, energy efficiency, ecosystem a) Provide incentives for homes, schools and
restoration and other climate solutions. businesses to switch to electric appliances,
including subsidies for low-income households.
d) Impose stringent monitoring for emissions,
leaks, flaring and care of decommissioned wells. b) Phase out gas connections in new residential
developments and remove any planning rules
. that require new residential developments to be
connected to gas. This includes removing rules
that restrict local governments from banning gas
connections in new residential developments.
c) Introduce planning rules and building regulations
that encourage installation of non-gas-powered
heating and cooking – such as induction
cooktops, reverse cycle air conditioning or
electric heat pumps for water – in all new homes.
RECOMMENDATIONS
KEY FINDINGS v
2 (Continued) 3
Helping families, schools and workplaces Improving gas safety.
move off gas.
Recognising that it will take time for all households
The New South Wales government should join to transition away from gas, households using gas
other Australian Governments by: should be encouraged to take practical steps to
improve safety and minimise the health risks.
a) Accelerating the replacement of unflued
gas heaters in NSW public schools with zero Federal, state and territory governments, in
emissions alternatives like reverse cycle air consultation with health professionals, should:
conditioning and heat pumps.
a) Develop and implement effective public
Local governments should: education campaigns to ensure all Australians
are aware of the dangers of indoor gas burning,
a) Phase out gas connections in new residential and the importance of safety checks, servicing,
developments via local planning regimes. and adequate ventilation. Where these exist,
significantly expand their reach.
b) Lead the transition away from gas by
switching council-owned buildings and b) Introduce mandatory servicing and safety
facilities to renewable electricity. checks on gas appliances in public housing
and rental properties.
climatecouncil.org.au
1 KICKING THE GAS HABIT:
HOW GAS IS HARMING OUR HEALTH
1. Introduction
Decades of aggressive marketing The good news is, with new, cleaner and
to Australians has led to several cheaper technology available now, this fossil
misconceptions about gas. The fuel is simply no longer needed. Like coal and
reality is that it is far from clean. kerosene before it, gas no longer has a place in
Gas is a polluting fossil fuel that is our homes, schools and communities.
already harming our health, well-
being and, of course, the climate. Gas extraction and consumption is directly
With more gas in the mix, this risk impacting the health of Australians today.
of harm only increases. Relying on gas for our energy needs
poses multiple threats to human health,
through exposure to known environmental
contaminants. It is these health risks –
associated with both the production and
consumption of gas in Australia – that are
the subject of this report.
The first part of this report considers gas
production. The basic requirements of good
health include enough clean air, food and
water. For communities living close to gas
wells, these essentials may be compromised
as they are exposed to contaminated air,
surface water and groundwater, chemical
additives used during drilling and hydraulic
fracturing, and compounds used in or
generated through the extraction process.
Relying on gas for our
energy needs poses multiple
threats to human health.
Figure 1: The risks to health from gas are unfairly distributed and often fall on the most vulnerable groups.
The second part of this report looks at gas provides incentives for people to move off gas,
consumption, focusing specifically on the stops automatic new gas connections in new
hazards of gas use in cooking and indoor home builds and embarks on an education
heating. Household gas use is a major source campaign to minimize the health risks.
of indoor air pollution and a significant
contributor to disease burden among The author team wishes to thank our expert
Australians, in particular young children. reviewers Professor David Shearman,
As is shown in the report, using gas at home Professor Melissa Haswell and Adjunct
can create a comparable risk of childhood Associate Professor Marion Carey who
asthma as from household smoking. provided formal and informal feedback
and suggestions on the draft report. Any
This report also highlights how these health remaining errors in the report are those
risks of gas are unfairly distributed. Just like of the author team, and the reviewers’
the other impacts of fossil fuel consumption participation in the feedback process does
and climate change, they are borne not indicate any endorsement of its contents,
disproportionately by poorer households, in whole or in part. We also wish to thank
young people and First Nations groups. Gas the many external experts who offered their
production and use has a greater impact on time, advice and expertise in less formal
children and babies; low-income households ways. Finally, we wish to acknowledge the
may not be able to afford gas alternatives; and input of the broader Climate Council team
renters often have little choice over what sort including the Councillors and staff.
of appliances are in their homes.
The Climate Council acknowledges the
Given current proposals to massively Traditional Custodians of the lands on
expand the gas industry in Australia, it is which we live, meet and work. We wish to
vital that Australians understand the health pay our respects to Elders past and present
consequences of these plans, as well as the and recognise the continuous connection
healthier alternatives available. Among other of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
things, the report recommends Australia people to Country.
rapidly transitions out of gas production,
3 KICKING THE GAS HABIT:
HOW GAS IS HARMING OUR HEALTH
1.1. What role does gas play
in climate change?
Gas is not clean. From floods to bushfires, up the price of electricity right across the
Australia is in the grip of a climate crisis. grid even in instances where gas is not
Extracting and burning more gas creates technically setting the wholesale price of
greenhouse gases that escalates risk and power (McConnell and Sandiford, 2020).
puts more Australians in harm’s way. That For those vulnerable Australians struggling
is because gas is a fossil fuel. In fact, even to pay their energy bills, the role of gas in
before it is burned, gas causes climate harm. driving up the price of energy has very
The main component of gas, methane, is real public health consequences by further
a greenhouse gas nearly 100 times more entrenching poverty.
potent than carbon dioxide in the short
term. Along the entire gas supply chain It is time to get off gas. We do not need
large quantities of methane are emitted. new gas when renewables are cheaper and
cleaner. Seismic shifts in the economics
Gas is keeping Australia’s emissions high. of renewables over the past decade mean
Gas is the fastest growing fossil fuel in the new gas infrastructure is not needed. The
world and is increasingly a contributor cost of the core components of lithium ion
to climate change. The rapid growth of batteries, used for battery storage, have
Australia’s export gas industry is the main fallen by nearly 90% in the past decade,
reason that Australia’s total greenhouse gas from $1,100 per kilowatt hour in 2010 to a
emissions have remained stubbornly high mere $156/kWh in 2019 (BloombergNEF,
over the past several years (Climate Council, 2019). The Australian Energy Market
2020a). Right now, Australia is not counting Operator sees a steadily shrinking role
the true contribution of gas towards climate for gas over the next 20 years (Australian
change (Climate Council, 2020b). Once Energy Market Operator, 2020). Wind and
this is corrected for, the supposed climate solar powered generation, even after being
benefit of gas often disappears. backed by storage, are the cheapest forms
of new electricity generating infrastructure
The gas industry is driving up energy (CSIRO, 2020).
prices for everyday Australians. The
growth of the gas industry has been driving
up the price of energy for most Australians
in recent years – and in some instances
prices have tripled. Burning gas in power
stations is often the most expensive
form of electricity generation in use in
Australia’s large grids (Australian Energy
Market Operator, 2021). When the price
of gas increases, this drives up the price
of gas-powered generation, and so drivesFigure 2: The growth of Australia’s export is a massive new source of greenhouse gas emissions and has been driving up
energy bills.
BOX 1: WHAT DO WE MEAN BY HUMAN HEALTH ‘RISK’?
Climate change has clear, negative impacts on cooktops in the family home and the proportion
Australians’ health (IPCC, 2014). While these of children with asthma. Looking at the larger
climate risks to health are pressing, the focus of trend allows health professionals to identify
this report is narrower and focuses on the risks to patterns that may not otherwise be evident.
human health from direct and indirect exposure
to contaminants produced by gas production In addition, as is also shown in the report, gas
and consumption. cooktops are known to produce contaminants
that are known to increase the risk of childhood
Adverse health outcomes occur because of a series asthma: in particular, nitrogen dioxide and certain
of complex interactions between exposure to the forms of particulate matter, such as PM2.5. As a
contaminants, pre-existing health conditions, and result, it is possible to make connections between
exposure to many other sources of environmental the presence of gas cooktops in the home and the
pollution and disease. As a result, on an individual burden of childhood asthma at the level of the
level it is often difficult – and sometimes overall population.
impossible – to demonstrate that bad health has
been caused specifically by exposure to gas. For The process used to establish health risks from
example, it is highly unlikely that any parent gas is the same as the process for identifying
would be able to prove that their child’s asthma many other well-known risks to human health.
was caused by the presence of a gas heater in For example, poor physical fitness and an
their home. unhealthy diet do not always lead to heart disease.
However, it is very well-understood by the
However, as discussed elsewhere in the report, medical community that these greatly increase
epidemiological studies looking at populations the risk of heart disease.
more broadly than the individual have found
clear associations between the use of gas5 KICKING THE GAS HABIT:
HOW GAS IS HARMING OUR HEALTH
Figure 3: Illustrative exposure pathways between emissions source and health impact in gas fields.
HOW CONTAMINATION
AFFECTS HUMAN HEALTH
The pathway from an emissions source can be
complex and diffuse, but there are a few key elements.
SOURCE EMISSIONS EXPOSURE DOSE HEALTH EFFECTS
Emissions sources are The emission is the The exposure is the The dose is the amount The health outcome
those sites where specific chemical specific pathway (or of the contaminant occurs as a result of the
contaminants are contaminants that pathways) through which is absorbed by, dose, and any specific
released. The released has been released which a person is or otherwise affects, vulnerabilities and
contaminants may from the source, as affected by the the individual who is pre-exisiting conditions
affect air, water, or soil. well as its quantity contaminant. exposed. in the individual.
and concentration.CHAPTER 02 6
EXTRACTION AND PROCESSING: IMPACTS ON LOCAL COMMUNITIES
2. Extraction and
processing: impacts
on local communities
Concerns over potential health risks of In Australia, commercial production of coal seam
gas development – especially concerns gas began in the Bowen Basin in Queensland
over the impact of unconventional gas in 1996 (Department of Agriculture, Water and
development – are not new. That said, the Environment, 2021), a decade or so after it
unconventional gas extraction remains began in the United States. Shale gas production
a relatively young industry, albeit one is more recent, beginning in the United States
that has seen extraordinary and rapid in the 2000s. The shale gas industry is still in
growth. While much remains to be its infancy in Australia with major shale gas
understood, recent analyses from the developments planned, including in the Beetaloo
peer reviewed literature are painting Basin in the Northern Territory and Canning
an increasingly clear picture of the Basin in Western Australia.
negative impacts of gas extraction on
the health of people living nearby. As With diffuse exposure to industrial processes
shown in this section, negative impacts and contaminants of the kind used in the
include – most concerningly – impacts unconventional gas industry, there is an
on foetal and infant health. inevitable lag between any harmful exposures
and the ability to see trends in adverse health
outcomes in those communities living near
the industry.
In Australia, the primary vehicle for
researching the impact of the gas industry,
including its health impacts, is a body that
is funded and overseen by the gas industry
itself (Ogge, 2020): the Gas Industry Social and
Environment Research Alliance (GISERA). This
is a particularly inappropriate vehicle to deliver
impartial and robust research into the impact of
the country’s growing gas industry. Given the
negative health impacts identified elsewhere in
the peer-reviewed literature, small scale, studies
performed under the auspices of the industry –
and not subjected to full academic peer-review
– like those released by GISERA in the past
several years (GISERA, 2020) are not sufficient
to assess the industry’s safety.7 KICKING THE GAS HABIT:
HOW GAS IS HARMING OUR HEALTH
WHAT IS GAS, AND HOW IS in the short term once all impacts are
AUSTRALIA’S GAS EXTRACTED? considered (Climate Council, 2020b). Around
one quarter of the heating of the atmosphere
The vast majority of gas produced is of seen since 1750 is attributable to the release
ancient origin, and burning this fossil fuel of methane into the atmosphere (Etminan et
for energy is a major contributor to climate al., 2016). Along the gas supply chain, large
change. While small amounts of biomethane quantities of methane are released to the
from landfills and agricultural wastes are atmosphere, both intentionally – as part of
produced and used, and ‘town gas’ – a routine operations – and inadvertently, along
manufactured energy source produced from the full length of the supply chain (Climate
coal – was historically piped into Australian Council, 2020b). Cumulatively, these releases
homes instead, almost all of the gas used for add a significant additional burden to the
energy today is methane sourced from deep, climate impact of the industry.
naturally-occurring underground reserves.
Australia’s gas reserves vary greatly in their
As well as being a fossil fuel – and releasing quality and accessibility. The degree of risk
carbon dioxide when burned – this methane to human health of any individual project
is a powerful greenhouse gas in its own can be approximated by dividing projects
right. Methane heats the atmosphere by into two categories: ‘conventional gas’ and
around 100 times as much as carbon dioxide ‘unconventional gas’.
Figure 4: Unconventional gas extraction, such as is occurring at this coal seam gas site in Queensland, brings new risks to
human health.CHAPTER 02 8
EXTRACTION AND PROCESSING: IMPACTS ON LOCAL COMMUNITIES
‘Conventional gas’ is found in porous rock and adverse impacts to human health.
formations that are capped by another type Australia’s existing offshore gas reservoirs,
of rock that does not allow the gas to escape such as those found in Bass Strait or off
naturally. Once the layer of rock that is the coast of Western Australia, are all
holding the gas in place is penetrated, the conventional, as are several of the onshore
high pressures found underground will push resources in Western Australia, South
gas up to the surface toward the wellhead. Australia and Queensland.
Despite the name, conventional gas projects
can pose extraordinary technical challenges. ‘Unconventional gas’ is found in more
By definition, additional high-risk activities complex and difficult-to-access geologies.
like dewatering and fracking (explained As a result, it requires considerably more
below) are not ordinarily needed to access complex processes to be accessed and may
conventional gas. However, conventional present additional risks. There are three
gas, particularly when extracted offshore, main types of unconventional gas that are
still comes with substantial risks to the local either under production in Australia today,
environment. On top of this, conventional or under active consideration: coal seam
gas extraction adds greenhouse gases to gas, shale gas, and tight gas. These are
the atmosphere, driving climate change described in Box 2.
BOX 2: FORMS OF UNCONVENTIONAL GAS IN AUSTRALIA
Coal seam gas (CSG) holds methane adsorbed on economically viable quantities. The proposed
underground coal seams. This gas is often held Beetaloo Basin development in the Northern
in place by rock and ancient groundwater (‘fossil Territory is primarily shale gas and there are
water’), and to extract the gas this water must be further potential sites for shale gas production
removed in a process known as ‘de-watering’. right across the country, including in the Canning
As a result, CSG poses significant risks for local Basin inland from Broome in Western Australia.
users of groundwater. This includes farmers and
sensitive environments downstream, particularly Tight gas is like shale gas in most ways, but the
if the water is extracted from the aquifers that methane is found in sandstone or limestone
farmers rely on or if produced water is not rather than shales. As with shale gas, tight gas
managed appropriately. CSG extraction often uses extraction almost always requires fracking. There
fracking (described below) to increase the supply is very little tight gas production in Australia, but
of gas, but this is not always required for CSG. several potential sites for tight gas production
The large quantities of gas being extracted from have been identified, including in the Darling
Queensland’s Surat Basin is CSG (as discussed in Basin in western New South Wales. The Cooper
Case Study 1), as is the recently approved Narrabri Basin, which extends across the border of South
Gas Project in New South Wales. Australia and Queensland and currently produces
significant quantities of conventional gas, also
Shale gas holds methane in clay-rich, layered holds significant amounts of tight gas. Some of
rock formations known as shales. Within these this tight gas is being extracted.
shales, the gas is contained in small pores that
do not allow the gas to flow freely. Fracking is
almost always required to access shale gas inFigure 5: Unconventional gas development requires many individual wells to be drilled over a large area, as seen in this aerial
photo of Queensland’s Western Downs.
Like most other gas-producing countries, This includes naturally occurring radioactive
Australia has historically relied on accessing materials (NORMs), polycyclic aromatic
its conventional gas reserves. Many of the hydrocarbons (PAHs), heavy metals and
technical interventions required to conduct volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as
unconventional gas extraction have only benzene as well as residual lubricants and
been mastered in the past few decades. other chemicals used in the drilling process
The majority of new gas developments (Esswein et al., 2014; Price and Adams, 2016).
proposed for Australia are unconventional The quantity of wastewater produced varies
gas projects, particularly coal seam gas greatly across the forms of gas extraction, and
and shale gas. As noted in the previous across different well sites. Large quantities
section, development of these harder-to- of water are being brought to the surface
access unconventional reserves involves through the process of extracting gas. This
more complex and potentially hazardous water often contains high amounts of salt,
techniques, such as fracking. which can harm the productivity of soils and
agricultural lands.
Some risks are common to both
conventional and unconventional gas. Unconventional gas extraction amplifies the
For instance, the wastewater produced in health risks associated with conventional gas
gas extraction often contains naturally and introduces a number of additional ones.
occurring chemicals that are harmful to Unconventional reserves are typically spread
human health. While naturally occurring over a large area, requiring many wells to be
underground, these chemicals can be drilled. Where water is scarce, as in many
hazardous when brought to the surface. regions of Australia where unconventional
gas development is underway or proposed,
both de-watering and hydraulic fracking
may reduce the volume of water available
for local farmers and communities (Rosa et
Gas extraction produces al., 2018). As a result, the extraction of gas
exacerbates the water shortages associated
significant wastewater with drought. This drought is itself
exacerbated by climate change for much of
which contains many the continent’s most fertile land (Abram et
al., 2020), and the heating of the climate is
potentially harmful driven by the consumption of fossil fuels like
gas (Friedlingstein et al., 2020).
contaminants.CHAPTER 02 10
EXTRACTION AND PROCESSING: IMPACTS ON LOCAL COMMUNITIES
Evidence is building that negative
health impacts from unconventional
gas are being felt today.
WHAT IS ‘FRACKING’? Contamination of land and water – whether
as a result of an accident or negligence
One commonly discussed intervention – is almost inevitable given the scale of
needed to access unconventional gas is extraction activity in Australia. Incidents
hydraulic fracturing, also known as ‘fracking’. have already occurred, including an
Fracking is a process that poses significant instance where a groundwater aquifer was
risks to local communities. As discussed contaminated in New South Wales Pilliga
further below, many of the chemicals used region by coal seam gas operations in the
in fracking are known environmental area (Carey et al., 2014). This led to higher
contaminants and this includes various than normal levels of uranium and heavy
cancer-causing agents, as well as substances metals in the groundwater. That said, given
that interfere with hormone production and that much of the activity with fracking
development. Fracking is often, though not occurs underground, many incidents may
always, required to access unconventional not be detected, or even detectable, until
gas. While these cause-effect pathways are after remediation becomes impossible.
complex and diverse, there is early evidence
that the negative effects of fracking are being Alongside more serious risks such as
felt already by communities living nearby. permanent groundwater contamination,
there are also insidious and chronic risks to
To access fossil fuel reserves in more difficult communities living near unconventional
geologies, the process of fracking injects gas operations. Cumulatively, these
immense quantities of water, loaded with insidious risks can have a larger impact than
sand and potentially harmful chemicals a single point-source incident because that
underground to crack open otherwise they are diffuse throughout the community.
inaccessible reservoirs. The precise mix of
chemicals used in any particular instance is
often confidential, even from landholders,
and disclosed only to various state and
territory regulators. However, broader
industry and government disclosures,
including through environmental impact
statements, often include a range of
chemicals that can be harmful to human
health, given sufficient exposure (Ground
Water Protection Council and Interstate Oil
and Gas Compact Commission (US), 2021).11 KICKING THE GAS HABIT:
HOW GAS IS HARMING OUR HEALTH
2.1 Risks to water
Many of the health concerns with the There are a number of ways in which people
production phase of unconventional gas may be exposed to potentially harmful
relate to the contamination or depletion of waterborne chemicals in unconventional gas
water resources (Haswell and Bethmont, production. These are what epidemiologists
2016). Chemicals present in wastewater – call ‘exposure pathways’. The fracturing
both naturally occurring and introduced process may, in some instances, lead
– include substances known to harm to contamination of aquifers, with the
reproductive capabilities and/or interfere contaminated groundwater then ingested by
with fetal, infant and child development humans or livestock (DiGiulio and Jackson,
(Elliott et al., 2017a), carcinogens (Elliott et 2016). Similarly, spills during the handling of
al., 2017b) as well as agents that interfere hydraulic fracturing chemicals or wastewater,
with the body’s hormone systems and so including leakage from wastewater ponds,
may interfere with growth and development may contaminate both surface and
(Kassotis et al., 2016). groundwater resources (US EPA, 2016).
This wastewater may be dealt with in Inadequately treated water may be discharged
different ways, all of which are potentially into rivers or used for irrigation. While the
harmful (Davies et al., 2015). The wastewater risk is more remote, there is also potential that
may be injected back into the ground or over time humans may become indirectly
held in unlined pits, with the risk of it exposed to these chemicals through the
contaminating productive groundwater foods we eat (Navi et al., 2015). Another path
resources. It may also be evaporated from for contamination of the local surroundings
large holding ponds and in certain instances occurs when old or abandoned wells lose
used for irrigation of agricultural lands or their integrity (Davies et al., 2014). Where this
discharged into rivers (Sun et al., 2019). occurs, it creates additional opportunities
for exposure, such as through leakage of
contaminants into soils and groundwater.CHAPTER 02 12
EXTRACTION AND PROCESSING: IMPACTS ON LOCAL COMMUNITIES
2.2 Air pollution
People living near unconventional gas the development of ground level ozone or
operations may be directly exposed to smog, leading to additional health risks
airborne pollutants including volatile (Coram et al., 2014). Excessive ground-level
organic compounds and poly-aromatic ozone can cause or exacerbate a variety
hydrocarbons evaporated from wastewater, of respiratory problems, including asthma
diesel fumes from trucks and machinery, and reduced lung function (Srebotnjak
and sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide and Rotkin-Ellman, 2014). Ground-level
from flaring. In addition, reactions between ozone can spread out over a large distance,
airborne pollutants from unconventional affecting people well beyond the immediate
gas mining, including volatile organic vicinity of unconventional gas operations
compounds and nitrogen oxides, can (Field et al., 2014; Manisalidis et al., 2020).
produce significant quantities of ground- Other pollutants can affect the heart, lungs
level ozone (Field et al., 2014). and nervous system as well as interfering
with the proper development of the body,
Airborne pollution is emitted at most stages including through affecting the balance of
of gas production, including the operation hormones in the body (Colborn et al., 2011).
of heavy machinery during well site
preparation and drilling, the venting and Air pollution from gas operations poses
flaring of gas, and evaporation of wastewater potentially serious health risks for workers
(Field et al., 2014). This means that there are (Coram et al., 2014). Although not well-
a number of different pathways for human assessed in Australia, there are many paths
exposure to the contaminants. through which a worker might be exposed
to toxic or otherwise harmful materials,
These pollutants can have a diverse range including the diverse range of chemicals used
of impacts on the human body. Along with operationally and through inhaling airborne
the direct risks, many of the emissions silica from sand used during fracking.
sources from gas production can precipitatePATHWAYS FOR CONTAMINATION
FROM THE
UNCONVENTIONAL GAS
INDUSTRY ARE COMPLICATED
There are many ways that gas extraction activity can lead to
adverse health outcomes in communities living nearby.
Vast quantites of water Where used, fracking
are trucked into well chemicals are also
sites, reducing available trucked in, many
water elsewhere and potentially toxic, Groundwater and used
producing significant with risks of spillage fracking fluid are
roadside emissions. or accidents. handled in a number of
ways, all of which pose
potential soil, water and
air contamination risks.
Naturally occurring groundwater often When groundwater is drained, and fracking fluid is
needs to be drained at scale. This reduces drawn back up, it brings up natural contaminants
available water for other purposes. that otherwise would not reach the surface.
Where fracking occurs, water,
sand and fracking chemicals are
injected under pressure deep into
the rock in order to free gas that
wouldn't otherwise be accessible.
Fracking creates many fine cracks in rock allowing
gas that would otherwise be trapped to escape.
Fracking fluid is then drawn back to the surface
where it may be treated, or left to evaporate.
Figure 6: There are many possible pathways for contamination from gas extraction.Where there is early evidence of poor health outcomes in an area
exposed to these risks, it is essential that well-resourced, substantial
research with full site access is conducted to uncover their cause.
This research must be completely independent of the gas industry.
The processing and transport of gas
requires significant venting and flaring
of gas, producing additional pollution.
Primary air pollutants from gas processing
can lead to the creation of secondary
pollutants, like ground-level ozone or
smog, which can travel long distances.
Communities living nearby are exposed to a wide
Whether through negligence or honest error,
range of possible risks and pathways to poor health.
fracking chemicals may escape their target area,
This can complicate efforts to identify which
leading to groundwater and soil contamination.
contaminant created an adverse health outcome.15 KICKING THE GAS HABIT:
HOW GAS IS HARMING OUR HEALTH
2.3 Health impacts
Plausible biological pathways exist between of the problems documented overseas are
pollution from unconventional gas beginning to be seen here. This is discussed
development and several observed health in Case Study 1.
problems. Studies often observe a rise in
health problems soon after the time at which Some of the documented associations
unconventional gas development began. between unconventional gas development
The incidence or severity of problems often and detrimental health impacts are
increases the closer people are to gas wells summarised in the next section.
(indicating a ‘dose-response’ relationship).
Taken together, these realities give strong There are now many studies finding
grounds to conclude that gas developments significant and concerning links between
may be harmful to health. This creates an oil and gas development and adverse health
urgent imperative for fully independent outcomes in communities living nearby,
research into the impact of the industry, both in Australia (McCarron, 2018; Werner
free from the influence of the gas industry. et al., 2018) and in the USA (Deziel et al.,
To date, funding for this research – and site 2020). However, there is a critical need for
access to extraction infrastructure in order further research into the specific pathways,
to conduct it – has been limited. The main including for impacts on infant and prenatal
exception to this is those studies conducted health. As noted above and in Box 1, there
by research bodies with clear links to the gas are many possible exposure pathways for
industry (Ogge, 2018). environmental contaminants present as
a result of gas extraction. Understanding
The tremendous growth in unconventional which of these is leading to the specific
gas extraction in Australia over the last five adverse health outcomes will allow for more
years has occurred against the growing targeted treatment, mitigation and – where
body of evidence from the United States necessary – remediation. However, as
that such practices increase risks to the discussed in Case Study 1, substantial, well-
health of local populations. While the funded, and truly independent research into
evidence from Australia has many gaps, the health impacts of the gas industry has
there are concerning indications that many been limited in Australia.
Substantial, well-funded, and
truly independent research on the
health impacts of unconventional
gas is essential and urgent.CHAPTER 02 16
EXTRACTION AND PROCESSING: IMPACTS ON LOCAL COMMUNITIES
REPORTED ASSOCIATIONS
BETWEEN GAS EXTRACTION
AND POOR HEALTH
ASSOCIATIONS - ADULT ASSOCIATIONS - BABY
MIGRAINES & FATIGUE INFANT MORTALITY
SKIN CONDITIONS CONGENITAL HEART
DEFECTS AND OTHER
BIRTH DEFECTS
UPPER RESPIRATORY
TRACT INFECTIONS
LOW BIRTH WEIGHT
ASTHMA
CANCER
BLOOD & IMMUNITY
CONDITIONS PRE TERM BIRTHS
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Figure 7: Illustrative exposure pathways between emissions source and health impact in gas fields.17 KICKING THE GAS HABIT:
HOW GAS IS HARMING OUR HEALTH
INFANT AND PRENATAL HEALTH
Reproductive health and Pre term births
risks to infants and fetuses
Babies born pre-term have a higher risk of
A 2016 review of 45 studies from around early death, cerebral palsy, impaired learning,
the world into the impact of oil and gas vision and hearing problems, and chronic
mining upon workers and nearby residents health issues (Saigal and Doyle, 2008; Vogel
concluded there was ample evidence for the et al., 2018).
disruption of female and male reproductive
hormones, as well as moderate evidence for Studies from Pennsylvania and Texas
increased risk of miscarriage, preterm birth, published in 2016 and 2017 respectively
birth defects, prostate cancer, and decreased found a small but statistically significant
semen quality (Balise et al., 2016). The review association between a mother’s proximity
looked only at conventional gas extraction, to unconventional gas developments and
due to the lack of similar studies dealing the likelihood of a pre term birth (Casey et
with unconventional extraction available al., 2016; Whitworth et al., 2017). A follow-
at that time. The review authors concluded up study from Texas suggests that there is
that unconventional gas extraction is likely a particularly strong association between
to have an impact upon reproductive health extremely pre term birth – births at less than
and birth outcomes due to the large number 28 weeks’ gestational age – and proximity to
of substances that interfere with hormone unconventional gas extraction (Whitworth
production and development present in et al., 2018).
hydraulic fracturing.
It is worth noting that other cohort studies
Infant mortality elsewhere in the United States – that have
found associations between gas, or oil and
A 2017 study from Pennsylvania found that gas development and either congenital heart
while the number of early infant deaths defects (McKenzie et al., 2014) or low birth
across the State had declined over the period weight and small for gestational age infants
of the study, there had been a significant (Tran et al., 2020) – have not been able to find
increase in the number of early infant associations between proximity to oil and
deaths among communities living in the gas extraction and pre term birth. However,
most heavily fracked counties in the State. pre term birth is not a single phenomenon,
Further analysis of the results suggests that and has many separate causes that present
these early infant deaths may have been in different ways (Moutquin, 2003; Vogel et
linked to elevated concentrations of naturally al., 2018). These studies did not differentiate
occurring radioactive materials (NORMs) in between degrees of prematurity.
drinking water, resulting from the dispersion
of wastewater from gas wells (Busby and Recently, a study from Texas looked at birth
Mangano, 2017). An association between outcomes among women living within 5
unconventional gas developments and early kilometres of flaring from unconventional oil
infant deaths was also found in a 2017 study and gas development (Cushing et al., 2020).
from Texas (Whitworth et al., 2017). The study found that exposure to a high
number of flares was associated with a 50%
higher odds of preterm birth.Figure 8: Many of the most confronting associations between gas extraction and human health involve the health of infants
and babies at birth.
Low birth weight Congenital heart defects
and other birth defects
A large study from Pennsylvania, where
there has been prolific use of hydraulic Observing over 120,000 mothers and
fracturing to tap into the state’s rich infants, a 2014 study from Colorado – a
shale gas reserves, based on more than a region with a large shale gas extraction
million birth records from 2004 to 2013 industry close to residential areas – found
and published in 2019 found a “decrease a higher incidence of congenital heart
in the health of infants born to mothers defects among infants whose mothers
living up to 3 kilometres from a hydraulic lived close to gas wells (McKenzie et al.,
fracturing site”, with the impacts most 2014). A subsequent study performed
severe for those whose mother lived within in Pennsylvania in regions with and
one kilometre of a site. Babies whose mother without unconventional gas developments
lived within that one-kilometre radius were concluded that rates of congenital
25% more likely to have a low birth weight birth defects were higher in areas with
(Currie et al., 2019). Two earlier studies from unconventional gas development. That said,
Pennsylvania in 2015 and 2018 respectively this latter study struggled to find causation
also found an association between low birth once long-term trends – unconnected to
weight and proximity to unconventional unconventional gas development – were
gas developments (Hill, 2018; Stacy et al., taken into account (Ma et al., 2016).
2015). An earlier study investigated this
issue in Colorado and struggled to find an
association there (McKenzie et al., 2014).19 KICKING THE GAS HABIT:
HOW GAS IS HARMING OUR HEALTH
CHILD HEALTH
Childhood asthma Cancer in children and young people
The relationship between childhood asthma Many chemicals used in gas extraction
and unconventional gas development is are known carcinogens, particularly those
highly plausible given the pollution that is used in fracking. While more research is
known to be created by these developments. needed to identify the specific pathways for
Several airborne pollutants associated with exposure and the chemicals responsible,
unconventional gas development, including overseas studies have shown associations
formaldehyde, ozone and particulate matter, between living near gas extraction activity
are known asthma triggers. and elevated risk of cancer in early life.
Another study from Pennsylvania published A 2017 exploratory study from Colorado
in 2018, showed that children exposed found an association between the rate of
to unconventional gas developments acute lymphocytic leukemia among people
bore a consistently higher risk of being aged 5-24 years and their proximity to gas
hospitalised for asthma compared with wells (McKenzie et al., 2012). Children and
children who were not exposed. The study, young people aged 5–24 years diagnosed
which covered the period 2003-2014, with this type of blood cancer were
showed children faced a 25% greater risk of more likely than those diagnosed with a
being hospitalised for asthma during the non-hematologic cancer to live within
3-month period when a well was drilled. 16.1-kilometers of an active oil and gas well.
Significantly, the results also demonstrated
increased odds of hospitalisation from Gas developments produce several known
asthma could be associated with increased carcinogens, including benzene – a volatile
emissions of some known asthma triggers organic compound that is associated with
(Willis et al., 2018). A more recent study from increased risks of leukemia. The presence of
the same research team – this time in Texas these carcinogens in the operations of the
– also found increased odds of asthma industry, and the elevated rates of cancer in
in unconventional and conventional gas the local community, demonstrates a clear
extraction regions (Willis et al., 2020). need for further inquiry.
These effects aren't limited to children.
A large study from 2016 in Pennsylvania,
showed people with asthma living closer
to gas wells had substantially higher risk
of suffering asthma attacks (Rasmussen
et al., 2016). The pattern was present
during all stages of the development: from
preparing the site, to drilling and fracking,
to producing the gas, and was strongest
during the production stage.CHAPTER 02 20
EXTRACTION AND PROCESSING: IMPACTS ON LOCAL COMMUNITIES
OTHER HEALTH IMPACTS
In addition to the studies described above, The results of a household survey in
a number of other health conditions have Washington County, Pennsylvania showed
been reported among people living close that reported skin conditions were more
to unconventional gas developments, than four times as common in households
including: upper respiratory tract infections, located less than a kilometre from a gas well
migraines and fatigue (Tustin et al., 2017), compared to those more than 2 kilometres
urinary tract problems (Denham et al., from a gas well (Denham et al., 2019;
2019), blood and immune conditions Rabinowitz et al., 2015). As some of these
(Werner et al., 2018, 2017), skin conditions conditions are relatively common, and not all
(Denham et al., 2019), and a host of other the studies ideally designed, these reports are
respiratory, circulatory and neurological not conclusive but raise the need for further
conditions (Alahmad and Khraishah, 2020; investigation (Adgate et al., 2014).
Jemielita et al., 2015; McAlexander et al.,
2020; McCarron, 2018).
CASE STUDY 1: EARLY EVIDENCE FROM QUEENSLAND’S DARLING DOWNS
The Darling Downs, west of Brisbane, is Health impacts from coal seam gas developments
known for its prime agricultural land, beautiful have been a major concern in the local community
landscapes, historic towns, and wineries. It is since the industry arrived in the early 2000s
also ground zero for the extraordinary expansion (Hutchinson, 2013). The industry’s growth
of Australia’s unconventional gas industry. coincided with complaints from residents about
health issues they believed they were suffering
The Surat Basin, which spans central southern because of coal seam gas developments. A 2013
Queensland including the Darling Downs and investigation by the Queensland Government’s
central northern New South Wales, is home Department of Health concluded that a clear
to a substantial share of known coal seam gas link could not be drawn between these health
reserves in Australia. Production began in complaints and coal seam gas activities
2004/5 and between 2013/14 and 2015/16 alone, (Queensland Health, 2013).
production increased almost fivefold, primarily
to meet the demand of Curtis Island’s three large A series of studies based on hospitalisation rates
gas export terminals (Department of Natural in that region from 1995-2011 found that people
Resources and Mines, 2017). In February 2019 the living in areas with coal seam gas developments
Queensland Government gave the green light were more likely to be hospitalised for neoplasms
to a massive further exploitation of the Surat (tumours) and blood/immune diseases than areas
Basin, approving the $10 billion Surat Gas Project of regional Australia without coal seam gas (Werner
(Ludlow, 2019). et al., 2016), and that there was a significant
increase in hospitalisations for respiratory diseases
among children (Werner et al., 2018).21 KICKING THE GAS HABIT:
HOW GAS IS HARMING OUR HEALTH
CASE STUDY 1: CONTINUED
A separate study in 2018, based on hospitalisation cover the more severe forms of illness. This
rates from 2007-2014, observed that the growth approach will invariably underestimate the actual
in gas production, and the accompanying burden of ill-health in the community. Many
surge in local emissions of nitrogen oxides, who have been exposed to unconventional gas
carbon monoxide, particulate matter (PM10), production contaminants will not – or will not yet
volatile organic compounds and formaldehyde, – be unwell enough to require hospitalisation.
was accompanied by a marked increase in
hospitalisations for acute respiratory and As in other parts of Australia, there was very little
circulatory conditions (McCarron, 2018). It investigation into the possible human health
concluded that the “the burden of air pollution impacts of the coal seam gas industry in the
from the gas industry on the wellbeing of the Darling Downs before the industry was approved,
Darling Downs population is a significant public and there has been little resourcing provided to
health concern”. fully independent research since.
Such observations are more than sufficient to As noted above, the small-scale research overseen
trigger a need for truly independent, whole-of by the gas industry – such as the kind released
basin studies to get to the bottom of the impacts last year (GISERA, 2020) – are unconvincing
being felt by those living in proximity to a massive attestations of the industry’s safety given observed
expansion of unconventional gas extraction. trends. Truly independent, well-resourced and
peer-reviewed studies –conducted with full access
It is important to note that studies of this kind – to extraction sites and infrastructure – is required.
looking at hospitalisation rates only – will mostly
Figure 9: The scale of unconventional gas development through Darling Downs is immense, as are the opportunities
for environmental contamination.CHAPTER 03 22
BURNING GAS IN OUR HOMES AND SCHOOLS
3. Burning gas in our
homes and schools
Far from the healthy, natural image that Gas stoves and heaters were long ago
is promoted, the use of gas for heating established as a major source of indoor air
and cooking has many well-known pollution, in particular nitrogen dioxide
health risks in our homes and schools. (Chauhan, 1999). Young children suffer high
As with other burdens posed by the exposure to household air pollution as they
consumption of coal, oil and gas, these ordinarily spend a larger part of their day at
health risks – including asthma and home than older children and most adults
carbon monoxide poisoning – fall first, (Vrijheid, 2013). When added to the higher
and hardest on young people, poorer vulnerability of young children’s developing
households, and the most vulnerable. bodies, this means that the impacts are felt
first and hardest by young children (Royal
College of Physicians, 2016). Lower-income
households are also at greater risk due to a
number of factors including smaller homes,
more people sharing a home, and inadequate
ventilation (Adamkiewicz et al., 2011).
Harmful indoor air pollution from gas
appliances – space and water heating, as well
as cooking – can be reduced, though not
eliminated, through proper ventilation. This
includes exhaust fans over stoves – especially
modern rangehoods – and ducts to remove
waste gases from water and space heaters,
which are known as flues (Knibbs et al., 2018).
Their effectiveness depends greatly on the
type of exhaust fan or flue and of course on
Appropriate their proper use and maintenance (Parrott et
al., 2003). Even where present, flues (see Figure
ventilation can 11) can become blocked or otherwise rendered
ineffective. As well, even where modern
reduce the impact rangehoods are installed above cooktops, they
are often not used due to the noise they create.
of harmful indoor Nearly all gas burned in Australia today
air pollution, but
is fossil methane; a fossil fuel that drives
climate change. In addition to producing
carbon dioxide when burned, and driving
not eliminate it. the heating of the planet, burning fossil gasYou can also read
