LOCAL EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS - ON EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION by Dr Anne Rifkin-Graboi, A/P Kenneth Poon, Ms Tay Fann & Dr Manasi Pande Office of ...
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LOCAL EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS ON EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION by Dr Anne Rifkin-Graboi, A/P Kenneth Poon, Ms Tay Fann & Dr Manasi Pande Office of Education Research
TABLE OF
CONTENTS
3 FOREWORD
4 INTRODUCTION
7 KEY INSIGHTS
24 RECOMMENDATIONS
37 CONCLUSION
47 ANNEX
Foreword
T he Office of Education Research (OER)
as the National Institute of Education’s
(NIE) key education research arm, has
been committed for the twelve years it has
been in existence to leading NIE’s efforts in
providing research on education that is timely
and relevant to Ministry of Education (MOE)
officials, policymakers in government and even
other ministries working on related issues.
The aim of the Local Evidence Syntheses
(LES) Series is to make the results of our
research available in a concise and digestible
manner to such interested readers in order
to inform policy formation, programme
design and pedagogical practice in the
education realm in Singapore. It does this by
synthesising our research that is funded by
the Education Research Funding Programme
(ERFP) according to key themes of domestic
interest and according to how they contribute
to their specific fields of research. Key insights
are distilled from the jargon and academic-
speak that makes most academic publishing
opaque and inaccessible. Future directions
are also sought from authors to suggest what
we can do or look out for in order to bring our
education system to the next level.
Professor David Hung
Dean, Office of Education Research
National Institute of Education,
Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore
3
introduction
E arly Childhood Education (ECE) research
focuses upon how young children learn
best and often concentrates upon children
2015, the “Singapore Kindergarten Impact
Project (SKIP)” was launched (Goy, 2015). As
SKIP is the largest and most comprehensive
before Primary 1. A variety of research ERFP 3rd tranche ECE study, much of this
topics may fit the definition of ECE research, LES summarises SKIP findings (see Figure 1
including questions concerning school and Annex A).
and home life, caregiving and pedagogy
practices, child development, and societal SKIP examined Singaporean ECE teaching
and institutional policies and infrastructure. practices and the relations between ECE
ECE research is important because ECE has practices and child outcomes as children
been proposed to prepare children for future progressed from Kindergarten 1 (K1) to
learning opportunities. Primary 1 (P1). SKIP used a variety of
methods to address ECE research questions.
In addition, internationally, high quality ECE For example, to describe Singaporean ECE,
is often considered to provide opportunities classrooms were videotaped for approximately
for upwards social mobility (e.g., Head Start three to four hours to provide a window into
programme in the United States) and so a “typical” preschool day (SKIP 3ERFP-
ECE is a promising mechanism in narrowing 3, i.e., Bautista et al., 2018 [n = 156 video
inequality gaps. Speaking on inequality at a clips], p. 11). Videos were analysed with a
dialogue held by the Institute of Policy Studies number of methodological approaches and
in 2018, Singapore’s then Deputy Prime scales including systems for rating “structural”
Minister Tharman Shanmugaratnam said (e.g., class size, teacher qualifications) and
that to keep social mobility going, we need “process” (e.g., teachers’ instructional and/
to intervene early in life (Baker, 2018). The or emotional support to children) factors.
Government targets to give every child a good To better understand teachers’ views about
start and will double its spending on the ECE quality ECE, teachers were asked about their
sector to $1.7 billion by 2022 (Hong, 2018). opinions and experiences.
This local evidence synthesis (LES) considers As a final example, to identify practices and
all Education Research Fund Programme environments that contribute to children’s
(ERFP) 3rd tranche (2013–2017) ECE learning and development, researchers
projects. In many ways, the 3rd tranche conducted assessments with children to
marked the beginning of ERFP’s focus on measure their social, cognitive, and academic
ECE and coincided with an increased ECE development. As part of this examination, SKIP
governmental focus, announced in the 2012 considered a variety of domains including
National Day Rally speech by Prime Minister socioemotional development, executive
Lee Hsien Loong (Lee, 2012). Thereafter, in functioning, motor skills, mathematics, and
4
introduction
bilingual and language development, as well
as the influence of the home environment.
SKIP also considered whether ECE decreases
early life performance gaps often identified in
those from disadvantaged homes.
Within this review, in-text citations refer to
project numbers, and as appropriate are
supplemented with more specific references
to journal articles and presentations.
When considering the Insights and
Recommendations within this LES, it is
important to bear in mind that with many of
its conclusions are based off of data from
reports and publications arising from the same
large study, namely SKIP. In addition, the
reader should also note that the current LES
represents a review of a small and emerging
focus for ERFP research. For this reason, we
also briefly indicate when our findings align
with other (non ERFP 3rd Tranche) local and
international studies.
5
introduction
Current state of research on early childhood education in NIE
Within the ERFP 3rd tranche, 10 ECE-related projects were identified. Associated reports and
publications were reviewed. The following selection criteria were used to identify these 10 ECE
projects:
1. The Principal Investigator (PI) identified “preschool/early childhood education” as a
primary or secondary area or interest; or
2. The sample consisted of preschoolers; or
3. The abstract bore relation or relevance to ECE.
Of the 10 ERFP 3rd tranche ECE-related projects, 1 was a Tier 2 study and 1 was a Tier 3 study
(see Figure 1). Consistent with the increased interest in ECE, these overall number of studies
represents an increased focus on ECE research. As a point of reference, within the 2nd Tranche,
there were 6 studies related to ECE, and none of these were Tier 3 projects.
3rd Tranche ECE-related Projects
3
2.5 1
2
1.5 1 3
Count
1 2
0.5 1 1 1
0
Baseline Exploratory Experimental Baseline & Exploratory Experimental &
Intervention
Types
Tier 1 Tier 2 Tier 3
Figure 1. Types of 3rd tranche ECE-related projects.
6KEY INSIGHTS
The synthesis provides three broad interrelated insights, all of which suggest the importance of
considering young children from a holistic lens, with the interplay between the child and his/her
environments in mind (see Figure 2). The insights are consistent with an “ecological” framework,
recognising the interplay between children’s immediate experience within (Key Insight #1) and
across domains (Key Insight #2), and their larger social contexts (Key Insight #3).
Figure 2. Key insights consistent with an ecological framework.
7key insights
#1: Young children benefit when adults consider them as unique individ-
uals, with their own needs, abilities and perspectives
A widely used concept within the fields of down complex ideas into simpler forms. To
teaching, learning, and child development is investigate this, the researchers assigned
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development children to four different experimental
(ZPD; Chaiklin, 2003). Simply stated, this conditions. The first group was exposed
zone is the distance between what the child to an animated Mandarin eBook with both
can independently do (actual development sound and motion; the second group to an
level), and what s/he can do with adult eBook with sound (but not motion); the third
guidance or collaboration with more capable to a static eBook with no sound or motion;
peers (potential development level) (Vygotsky, and the fourth to a control condition that
1978). In this way, teachers can advance did not involve a book (i.e., a math game).
development by “scaffolding” children’s Then the researchers examined the degree
learning and by considering what children to which the children in the different eBook
already know. The work in the ERFP 3rd conditions focused on the books. In addition,
Tranche is consistent with this principle, the researchers, in subsequent sessions,
specifically with regards to language and tested things like the children’s vocabulary
literacy outcomes. It additionally shows that (words they know) development and story
to facilitate children’s learning, capturing their retention. Consistent with expectations, the
attention and interest is important. eye-tracking data indicated that children were
more interested (engaged) in the eBooks that
#1a: Children learn when their attention had sound and motion. That is, the children
and interest are engaged spent a greater percentage of time looking at
these books than did the children in the other
Both 3ERFP-5 (i.e., Sun et al., 2019 [n = 102
two eBook conditions. In addition, researchers
children]) and 3ERFP-2 (i.e., Teo, Yan, & Ong,
also found that the children in the sound and
2017 [n = 3 children]) suggest that teaching
motion animated eBook condition were better
strategies that capture children’s attention
able to produce Mandarin words in comparison
and interest may lead to better learning. In
to the other eBook and control conditions.
specific, 3ERFP-5 (i.e., Sun, Loh, & Roberts,
Although this work focused on literacy, it is
2019 [n = 102 children]) hypothesised that
a good example of the importance of noting
since home-based Mandarin usage is on the
the child’s level of understanding, and also
decline, young learners would benefit from
considering their attention and interest level,
stories being enhanced with multimodal input.
and then engaging them at that level. It
In particular they believed that the multimodal
reminds us that making something interesting
approach would engage young learners’
does not need to detract from learning goals,
interest (attention) and also help them break
and can, in fact, enhance them.
8key insights
#1: Young children benefit when adults consider them as unique individ-
uals, with their own needs, abilities and perspectives
In addition, 3ERFP-2 (i.e., Teo et al., 2017 #1b: Recognising and responding to
[n = 3 children]), also suggested children are children’s levels of comfort and knowledge
able to learn when they are actively involved. is important to communication
This work described the behaviour of three
preschool students as a researcher facilitated Together SKIP 3ERFP-3 (i.e., Sun et al., 2020
their discovery of scientific properties like [n = 20 teachers, 173 children]; Vijayakumar,
floating and sinking. The researcher asked Steinkrauss, & Sun, 2020 [n = 5 teachers, 33
questions like, “Which of these (heavy and children]) and 3ERFP-4 (n = 17 caregivers, 17
light) objects sink?” and then asked the children) indirectly support the idea that adults
children to sort objects into those that float can aid Mother Tongue learning by adjusting
and sink, and next to see what happened to their behaviour to respond to young students’
these objects if they put them into a tub of levels of comfort. In particular, these studies
water. As the children explored, they began focus on codeswitching (i.e., alternating
testing their ideas and reclassifying objects between languages). According to 3ERFP-4
into those that floated and those that sank. (n = 17 caregivers, 17 children), codeswitching
This work documented changes in children’s is akin to speakers creating a comfortable
scientific understanding, alongside the space for expression, and, indeed when
children’s active hypothesis generation and this study examined bilingual children in the
testing. The authors suggested that this home setting, their use of mixed languages
type of experiential learning, coupled with (as opposed to only English or only Mother
appropriate pedagogies, may help teachers Tongue) associated with children, on average,
draw children’s attention and heighten using more words each time they spoke.
interests and meaningful learning (3ERFP-2’s
SKIP 3ERFP-3 (i.e., Vijayakumar et al., 2020
Teo et al., 2017 [n = 3 children]).
[n = 5 teachers, 33 children]; Sun et al., 2020
These 3ERFP findings are in keeping with [n = 20 teachers, 173 children]) finds similar
international work finding young children results in the classroom. SKIP 3ERFP-3 (i.e.,
show better memory for personally interesting Vijayakumar et al., 2020 [n = 5 teachers, 33
versus not interesting categories of new words children]) study of five Tamil classrooms found
(Ackermann, Hepach, & Mani, 2019) and that when children understood teachers’
indicating that past experience can influence mixed utterances, children tried to integrate
attention (e.g., Pollak, Klorman, Thatcher, & Tamil in their own responses. These findings
Cicchetti, 2001). Singaporean research (Rifkin- are similar to those SKIP results observed
Graboi et al., 2021) also found preschoolers to in 20 Mother Tongue Language (MTL)
better remember associations when, based on classrooms comprised of 173 students
past experiences, associations are likely to be (114 Chinese; 28 Malay; 31 Indian; Sun et
considered important. al., 2020 [n = 20 teachers, 173 children]).
9key insights
#1: Young children benefit when adults consider them as unique individ-
uals, with their own needs, abilities and perspectives
SKIP researchers found MTL teachers’ that were slightly, but not substantially, greater
greater usage of mixed language utterances than those the children were likely to use
positively related to children using more mixed themselves, also predicted gains in Mandarin
language utterances. This implies that when word understanding (SKIP 3ERFP-3’s Sun
teachers more frequently used codeswitching, & Verspoor, 2020 [n = 31 teachers, 441
children engaged to a greater extent (SKIP children]).
3ERFP-3, i.e., Sun et al., 2020 [n = 20
teachers, 173 children]). However, note that The idea that recognizing and responding to
codeswitching may not promote all aspects of children’s levels of comfort and knowledge
language learning and in fact, SKIP 3ERFP-3 enhances children’s communication abilities
(i.e., Sun et al., 2020 [n = 20 teachers, 173 is consistent with other local evidence and
children]) found teacher codeswitching did not international work. Cabell (2015) found that
promote children’s MTL receptive vocabulary when teachers frequently elicited talk from
(understanding of words), probably because children and/or made efforts to build on a topic
teachers’ frequent habituated codeswitching initiated by children, children’s vocabulary
occurred without clear instructional purposes. (expressing and understanding of words)
These findings indicate codeswitching may grew. A way to assess children’s knowledge
be useful in enhancing children’s language and scaffold their learning in the language
learning, but the effectiveness depends on and literacy domain is via questions (Kintsch,
whether adults consider the child’s point-of- 2005). Tapping on a shared experience (e.g.,
view and the instructional purpose. “Remember when we …” [p. 33]) is also another
scaffolding tip (Hammond, 2001). Broadly, the
Similarly, SKIP 3ERFP-3 (i.e., Sun, et al., notion that comfort is necessary to learning is
under review [n = 31 teachers, 505 children]; also consistent with Attachment Theory (e.g.,
Sun & Verspoor, 2020 [n = 31 teachers, Ainsworth, 1979), which states that children
441 children]) suggest the importance of balance needs for security against needs for
recognizing and responding to children’s pre- exploration, and that when security needs are
existing knowledge. That is, teachers’ usage met, children are free to explore the world. As
of low-level questions (i.e., questions likely to such, recognizing and responding to levels of
be accessible to the learner) when engaging comfort may also have implications for learning
in shared book reading with children with and exploration (Belsky, Garduque, & Hrncir,
limited Mandarin exposure positively predicted 1984). Likewise, Singaporean preschoolers
children’s growth in children’s understanding who experienced more responsive care as
of Mandarin words roughly one year later infants demonstrated greater ease in learning
(SKIP 3ERFP-3’s Sun et al., under review [n = that something, which was potentially scary,
31 teachers, 505 children]). Amongst a subset was not, in fact, dangerous (Tsotsi et al.,
of children, Mandarin mean length utterances 2018).
10#2: To develop children, take a “whole child” approach
According to Chaiklin (2003), in Vygotsky’s in making associations across characters,
model of child development, the “whole child” situations and actions. 3ERFP-5 (i.e.,
is an integral person, in relationship with his/ Sun, 2019 [n = 202 children]) also argued
her environment. In terms of psychological that because many children’s books have
functions (e.g., cognition, emotions), socioemotional content, joint literacy activities
interrelations should be considered instead of often facilitate perspective taking, discussion
each function in isolation (Bodrova & Leong, of socioemotional themes, and insights into
2003; Chaiklin, 2003). The work in the ERFP problem solving. Indeed, 3ERFP-5 (i.e.,
3rd Tranche highlights the interrelations Sun, 2019 [n = 202 children]) found that with
between the various developmental domains increased literacy activities, operationalized
of a child. In practice then, a whole child as the number of Mandarin books at home,
approach should be taken, with consideration as well as the frequency of shared book
of children’s exposure and knowledge (see reading and library visits, children were less
Key Insight #1) in various domains. likely to have socioemotional and behavioural
difficulties. 3ERFP-5 (i.e., Sun, 2019 [n = 202
#2a: (Bilingual) language and literacy children]) focused on children’s experience in
predict socioemotional functioning and one language and socioemotional functioning.
executive control SKIP 3ERFP-3 (i.e., Sun, Yin, Amsah, &
O’Brien, 2018 [n = 805 children]), not only
3ERFP-5 (i.e., Sun, 2019 [n = 202 children]),
found that greater English word understanding
SKIP 3ERFP-3 (i.e., Sun et al., 2018 [n = 805
related to better child prosocial skills, but also
children]; Sun et al., 2020 [n = 20 teachers,
that the longer bilingual children used both
173 children]) all demonstrate ways in which
their languages, the better their prosocial
children’s experiences in the (bilingual)
skills.
language and literacy domain influence their
abilities in domain general abilities, such as In SKIP 3ERFP-3 (i.e., Sun et al., 2020 [n
socioemotional functioning and executive = 20 teachers, 173 children]), children’s
control. For example, 3ERFP-5 (i.e., Sun, bilingual exposure was also found to relate
2019 [n = 202 children]) reasoned that when to executive control. Specifically, exposure to
parents and children engage in literacy “inter-sentential” codeswitching, or switching
activities together, children will have greater languages between sentences, predicted
opportunities for connection and warmth with growth in executive control amongst children
their caregivers, practice in turn-taking, self- with lower levels of such ability at the study’s
regulation, and the expression of ideas, as start. Because exposure to inter-sentential
well as being more likely to receive support codeswitching did not improve vocabulary,
in identifying cause-effect scenarios and it is unlikely this was due to an increase
11key insights
#2: To develop children, take a “whole child” approach
in language abilities. Rather the authors Children’s executive functioning abilities
suggested this finding supports the idea that, were found related to performance in motor,
similar to bilingual exposure, when adults socioemotional, and mathematical tasks.
use inter-sentential codeswitching, children For example, in SKIP 3ERFP-3 (i.e., Khng
are forced to attend to changes in language & Ng, 2019 [n > 1000 children]), executive
requirements and so practice cognitive control functioning, gross motor skills and their
(SKIP 3ERFP-3’s Sun et al., 2020 [n = 20 interaction were associated with children’s
teachers, 173 children]). abilities to recognise others’ emotions and
perspectives. As another SKIP 3ERFP
Besides concurrent links between children’s example, executive functioning and fine motor
(bilingual) language and literacy experience abilities were linked to spelling (i.e., Khng &
and socioemotional functioning, as shown Ng, in press [n = 1248 children]). This
by the 3ERFP studies, in the international finding is consistent with the idea
literature longitudinal relations between these that when young children learn to spell,
two domains have also been observed (e.g., they need fine motor abilities necessary to
socioemotional functioning and language write, as well as executive functioning
development; Clegg, 2015), and in Singapore, abilities to plan and focus without being
bilingual exposure was found to moderate distracted. In fact, the nature of the
associations between language problems and relation between fine motor skills,
socioemotional functioning, with effects only executive functioning and spelling
being observed in monolinguals (Goh et al., suggests that when children are better
2020). Outside of 3ERFP, within Singapore in executive functioning, they require less
research on bilingualism and executive fine motor ability to spell and vice versa, and
functioning, or its precursors, both positive may even imply that fine motor and
(Singh et al., 2015) and nil (Goh et al., 2020) executive functioning skills compensate
effects have been reported. Mixed results are for one another. In other words, boosts to
not uncommon (e.g., as reviewed in Gunnerud fine motor skills could potentially bolster
et al., 2020), and may highlight that “bilinguals” spelling performance when executive
themselves are a highly variable group in functioning is lower, and vice versa.
terms of their language exposure, acquisition Associations between fine motor
and proficiency. With this in mind, the 3ERFP ability, executive functioning, and math
research highlights to us that language and also demonstrate the importance of
literacy, in certain circumstances, likely impact taking a “whole child” approach. In
other important aspects of functioning. math, better fine motor skills associated
with better mathematical performance
#2b: Executive functioning associates with
amongst those with high levels of
a variety of aspects of child development
executive functioning, suggesting that at
this stage of development improving fine
motor skills may enhance
12 mathematical performance amongst those
with good executive functioning, as mightkey insights
#2: To develop children, take a “whole child” approach
improving executive functioning skills amongst In general, as children get older, they are
those with good fine motor skills able to identify increasingly small differences
(SKIP 3ERFP-3’s Khng & Ng, in press [n in phonological units (e.g., syllables, onsets,
= 1248 children]). phonemes). One theory is that an increasing
vocabulary expedites this process, as new
Internationally there is considerable evidence words may differ from known words in only a
that executive functioning, and the related single phoneme (“cat” versus “cap”). However,
construct of attentional capacity, impacts as revealed by SKIP 3ERFP-3 (i.e., O’Brien,
multiple aspects of life such as vocabulary, Mohamed, Yussof, & Ng, 2018, see Figure
mathematics, and learning (e.g., Brock et 3 on the following page), the pace at which
al., 2009; Schmitt, 2019). Similarly, other children acquire these skills is influenced by
local work found working memory associated the type of oral and written language to which
with mathematical growth from preschool they are exposed. Some languages naturally
to Secondary Three (Lee & Bull, 2016), emphasise phonemes. Others emphasise
and lower levels of an aspect of executive syllables. Some languages use alphabetic
functioning termed inhibitory control or self- characters (e.g., c, a, t) that encourage and
regulation predicted future problematic rely upon phonemic development. Others use
behavior, especially in the face of non-alphabetic graphemes (e.g., 猫) more
parenting stress (Tsotsi, Broekman, Sim et closely linked to syllables. Relating to the
al., 2019; see also Tsotsi, Broekman, Shek manner in which language and reading are
et al., 2019). taught, Tamil emphasises phonemes, while
syllables are emphasised for Mandarin and
#2c: The pace at which children acquire
Malay. Indeed, there are three influences to
skills important to any given language
reading—exposure to spoken language (and
may be influenced by the other types of
its structure), the nature of the print to speech
oral and written language to which they are
mapping system of the written language,
exposed
and the instructional focus and/or approach.
As discussed in SKIP 3ERFP-3 (i.e., With bilinguals, there may be cross-linguistic
O’Brien et al., 2018 [n = 612 children]), when influence in any of these three.
children learn to read English, they are
often taught to blend phonemes (sounds)
and identify syllables, which are groups of
sounds that tend to go together. In addition,
children may be encouraged to think
about vocabulary words that they know as
part of the reading process. Depending on
what Mother Tongue they are exposed to,
the usefulness of these approaches may
vary.
13key insights
#2: To develop children, take a “whole child” approach
Figure 3. The relation between phonological awareness, receptive vocabulary, English (EL) and Mother
Tongue reading.
Tamil, Malay and Mandarin are structurally bilingual groups as compared to other bilingual
different languages. As such, it is not surprising groups, that is, syllable identification was a
that children exposed to these varying better predictor of English language reading
languages exhibit differences in the rate at in Malay and Chinese than in Tamil. Finally,
which they acquire building blocks of English the role of vocabulary knowledge in English
reading, such as phonemic awareness, or that reading development was also influenced
the relative influence of such building blocks by Mother Tongue. For example, amongst
upon English reading varies by the type of the youngest EL-CL children vocabulary
Mother Tongue to which a child is exposed. knowledge had a small mediating effect on the
For example, as expected given Tamil’s phonological awareness to reading relation,
emphasis on phonemes, the Tamil bilingual perhaps because the structure of Mandarin
(EL-TL) kindergarteners demonstrated higher emphasises identification of the whole word
sensitivity to English language phonemes and its meaning. The results from SKIP 3ERFP
than the Mandarin (EL-CL) and Malay (EL- 3L were unlikely to be explained by factors
ML) bilinguals. As another example, syllable like age, time in kindergarten, nonverbal
identification had a relatively larger influence reasoning, and mother’s education. These
on English language reading for some factors were included as control variables. In
14key insights
#2: To develop children, take a “whole child” approach
Figure 4. Proportion of NEL areas observed in SKIP’s 695 classroom video clips. Videos
could be classified in more than one area.
summary, the processes used to learn one 只猫 [the word form of 猫, meaning cat, is the
language, owing to its structure, can influence same]).
the way in which children approach learning
across languages. #2d: Not all aspects of child development
receive equivalent amounts of attention in
International literature suggests that the K1 classrooms
processes used to learn one language can
even influence children’s learning of subjects SKIP’s work examining K1 classrooms on one
outside of the language domain. For example, typical day suggested all learning areas did
Le Corre (2016) found that Mandarin not receive equal attention, though it may be
monolingual children learnt the meaning of worth noting that teachers were not instructed
the number one about three to six months to showcase all types of learning areas and
later than English monolingual children, that observations occurred on only one “typical
perhaps because English language marks day” (SKIP 3ERFP-3’s Bautista et al., 2020 [n
the singular/plural distinction (e.g., one cat, = 69 video clips]; SKIP 3ERFP-3’s Bautista,
two cats [notice the difference in word form of Habib, Eng, & Bull, 2019 [n = 36 video clips];
“cat”]) but Mandarin does not (e.g., 一只猫, 两 SKIP 3ERFP-3’s Bautista et al., 2018 [n =
15key insights
#2: To develop children, take a “whole child” approach
156 video clips]). As shown in Figure 4 on the locomotor skills”) as opposed to activities like
previous page, the extent of time teachers running (49.3%,“locomotor skills”) or activities
devoted to different learning areas was not like throwing balls (37.7%,“manipulative
uniform. The least amount of time spent on a skills”) (SKIP 3ERFP-3’s Bautista, Nunez,
learning area was 7% (i.e., on Discovery of Vijayakumar, Quek, & Bull, 2020 [n = 69
the World) and the most was 51.7% (i.e., on video clips]). Focused analyses conducted
Language and Literacy). This disproportionate with video clips from 108 K1 classrooms with
amount of time focused on language and learning centres, suggest areas designated for
literacy is also consistent with the proportion child-centered learning (i.e., purposeful play)
of Learning Centre types observed in SKIP were only used in 36 (33%) K1 class-rooms
3ERFP-3 (i.e., Bautista et al., 2019 [n = 36 (SKIP 3ERFP-3’s Bautista et al., 2019 [n =
video clips]). 36 video clips]). Still, amongst those 33% of
classrooms, almost ¾ of teachers spent some
Furthermore, in only 58.3% of 108 K1 of their time actively facilitating child-centered
classrooms was there evidence of gross learning, and, in general, they tended to do
motor activities, and when observed, a so for relatively long periods of time (SKIP
greater percentage included a focus on 3ERFP-3’s Bautista et al., 2019 [n = 36 video
activities like stretching (62.3%,“non- clips]).
16key insights
#3: Children’s larger context matters. The home environment is clearly
influential and should not be overlooked, though limited aspects of ECE
environments are also predictive of child outcomes.
The Vygotskian perspective on child skills that children bring into K1 influenced
development recognises the child’s social the respective skill level they achieved at the
environment as the “basic source” of end of K1 (SKIP 3ERFP-3 [RQ2b: n = 1537
development (Bodrova & Leong, 2003). Work children]). Not surprisingly, then, children on
from ERFP 3rd Tranche shows the influence of the Kindergarten Fee Assistance Scheme
the child’s environment, and points to aspects (KiFAS) scored significantly lower than other
of home life as important conduits of these children on receptive vocabulary and reading,
effects. both at K1 and at P1, though it is worth noting
that the gap did not widen during this time
#3a: Familial socioeconomic status and (SKIP 3ERFP-3’s Poon et al., 2019 [n= 1455
parenting practices are important to young children]).
children’s development, and ECE does not
appear to mitigate these effects. An explanation linking socioeconomic status
and child outcomes concerns parenting
Within SKIP, socioeconomic status was practices. Higher SES positively related to
important in predicting preschoolers’ executive parents and family members playing rhyming
functioning, numeracy, and language and games and teaching children to recognise
literacy skills. For example, relative to printed numbers (SKIP 3ERFP-3 [RQ2b:
their peers, preschool children on financial n = 1537 children]). Compared to children
assistance showed poorer non-verbal on KiFAS, children not on KiFAS had more
reasoning (SKIP 3ERFP-3’s Poon, Ng, & Chan, books at home and more hours of enrichment
2019 [n = 1455 children]). Such differences (SKIP 3ERFP-3’s Poon et al., 2019 [n = 1455
may, in turn, be important to academic children]). Stimulating home environments, in
achievement. For example, SKIP found higher turn, were associated with better math skills at
non-verbal reasoning scores at K1 related entry to K1 (SKIP 3ERFP-3 [RQ2b: n = 1537
to better literacy and mathematics skills at children]). Higher SES, as well as better home
that time (SKIP 3ERFP-3 [RQ2b: n = 1537 literacy and home numeracy environments
children]), and English language receptive associated with better vocabulary and reading
vocabulary (SKIP 3ERFP-3’s Sun et al., 2018 skills at entry to K1 (SKIP 3ERFP-3 [RQ2b:
[n = 805 children]). In fact, in SKIP, non-verbal n = 1537 children]). SKIP children exposed
reasoning was found to be the strongest to better home literacy environments showed
predictor of early literacy and mathematics significantly more literacy skill growth across
skills at entry to K1, as compared to other factors K1 compared to peers from poorer home
like age of the child at entry to K1, and time literacy environments (SKIP 3ERFP-3 [RQ2b:
spent in K1. In addition, the math and literacy n = 1537 children]).
17key insights
#3: Children’s larger context matters. The home environment is clearly
influential and should not be overlooked, though limited aspects of ECE
environments are also predictive of child outcomes.
Within SKIP, duration of MTL spoken in the development in low SES children. Likewise,
home and MTL media input related to up although children on KiFAS demonstrated
to 26% of the variance in MTL ability (SKIP positive learning trajectories, over time their
3ERFP-3’s Sun et al., 2018 [n = 805 children]) scores continued to be lower than children
Relatedly, a more focused investigation on not on KiFAS (SKIP 3ERFP-3’s Poon et al.,
MTL media input revealed that the number of 2019 [n = 1455 children]). This highlights that
sources of MTL media (i.e., TV programmes, development before kindergarten entry and
videos, audios, eBooks, computer games the factors that influence it are crucial.
via digital devices), but not the number of
hours of media input, related to children’s Other Singaporean evidence suggests that
Mandarin outcomes (3ERFP-5’s Sun & Yin, SES may both influence maternal antenatal
2020 [n = 202 children]). In addition, in SKIP wellbeing, and so, the uterine environment
Mother Tongue shared book reading positively to impact brain and cognitive development
influenced the understanding of Mother (e.g., Chua, Bautista, Tan, Yeo, & Chen, 2018;
Tongue words and reading skills of Chinese Law et al., 2021; Qiu et al., 2017; Rifkin-
and Indian bilinguals, at K1 (SKIP 3ERFP-3 Graboi et al., 2015; Tan et al., 2020) and
[RQ3a: n = 645 children]). At P1, shared book relate to postnatal factors implicated in child
reading positively influenced the Chinese development, including likelihood of breast-
bilingual’s understanding of Mandarin words, milk feeding (e.g., Cai et al., 2015; De Roza
and Tamil reading skills of the Indian bilinguals. et al., 2019; Pang et al., 2019), as previously
Relatedly, in addition to influencing Mandarin discussed language and access to books and
development, an increase in the frequency toys encouraging stimulation (SKIP 3ERFP-3’s
in which parents read to children positively Poon et al., 2019), enrichment programmes
predicts child socioemotional behaviour (e.g., SKIP 3ERFP-3’s Poon et al., 2019,
(3ERFP-5’s Sun, 2019 [n = 202 children]). 2ERFP-13), screen time (e.g., Bernard et al.,
Indeed, when bilingual children were studied 2017; Chia, Tay, & Chua, 2020), and parenting
at home, their use of mixed languages (as “sensitivity” or, hereafter, “responsiveness”
opposed to only English) was associated with (Heng et al., 2018). According to the “Family
children, on average, using more words each Stress Model” (Conger & Donnellan, 2007)
time they spoke (3ERFP-4 [n = 17 caregivers, lower SES parents may feel less certainty
17 children]). Thus, it is reasonable to assume and control over aspects of their lives such
that when children mix languages, they speak as work schedules, sources of income, and
in longer utterances and are more expressive. opportunities for support, and so may have
less cognitive and emotional capacity to
Unfortunately, none of the SKIP studies manage within parent-child relationships.
found that ECE preferentially enhanced Thus, children of comparatively low SES may
18key insights
#3: Children’s larger context matters. The home environment is clearly
influential and should not be overlooked, though limited aspects of ECE
environments are also predictive of child outcomes.
experience less support during opportunities level of comfort and knowledge is important),
for exploration/or greater stress in caregiving some aspects of the classroom environment
situations, and so, in turn, stress-related predicted components of language
neurochemical processes to impact brain development. Namely, SKIP 3ERFP-3 found
regions important to memory, emotion, and relations between children’s MTL language
executive control (Rifkin-Graboi, Borelli, & development and teachers’ codeswitching
Bosquet, 2009). Singaporean work has found (i.e., Vijayakumar et al., 2020 [n = 5 teachers,
responsivity related to worse memory for 33 children]; Sun et al., 2020 [n = 20 teachers,
neutral stimuli and poorer regulation (Rifkin- 173 children]), phrasing of questions (i.e.,
Graboi et al., 2021), and amongst children Sun, Cheong, Toh, & Dickinson, under review
at risk due to neonatal neuroanatomical [n = 31 teachers, 505 children]), and mean
differences, more disorganisation in the length utterances (i.e., Sun & Verspoor, 2020
face of challenge (Rifkin-Graboi et al., 2019; [n = 31 teachers, 441 children]). In addition
but see Cheung & Elliott, 2016, for inverse to measuring codeswitching, questions and
relations between sensitivity and positive mean length utterances, SKIP also more
child outcomes). In sum, SES, via parenting broadly assessed whether instructors created
and the home environment, is likely to exert its a classroom environment and taught in a way
influence before children reach the preschool that facilitated children’s interests and comfort,
years. and scaffolded upon their knowledge.
#3b: Limited aspects of the ECE One of these measures the “Mother Tongue
environment predict child outcomes, Adapted Coding Scheme (MACS)” assessed
particularly within the language domain such constructs during Mother Tongue lessons
and was developed by SKIP researchers.
Some positive relations between classroom The MACS measures concepts such as:
quality, quantity, and child outcomes emerged. teacher input and variety of language, teacher
First, in SKIP children’s mathematics and modelling and scaffolding, adapted speech,
literacy outcomes in K1 related to the duration and positive classroom climate (SKIP 3ERFP-
of time they had been in kindergarten (SKIP 3 [RQ3b: n = 51 teachers, 645 children]).
3ERFP-3 [RQ2b: n = 1537 children]); however, Using data from 51 different preschool
the study did not take into consideration how classrooms, SKIP observed positive relations
children were cared for (e.g., in childcare, family- between children’s MTL receptive vocabulary
based care, etc.) before joining kindergarten, development and higher teacher scores
or children’s preschool experiences prior to on one of the MACS factors (i.e., a factor
K1, which could have also influenced child related to language input from the teacher,
outcomes. Second, as noted in Key Insight language output from the student, and
#1b (Recognising and responding to children’s
19key insights
#3: Children’s larger context matters. The home environment is clearly
influential and should not be overlooked, though limited aspects of ECE
environments are also predictive of child outcomes.
teaching strategies [SKIP 3ERFP-3 [RQ3b: Science and the Environment, and Diversity.
n = 51 teachers, 645 children]). However, Finally, the CLASS focuses more heavily upon
higher teacher’s scores on this same MACS the teacher-student interactions. The CLASS
factor related to fewer students showing high considers three broad dimensions: Emotional
progress in reading over time (SKIP 3ERFP-3 Support (e.g., Is the teacher responsive to
[RQ3b: n = 51 teachers, 645 children]). the child’s emotions and does he/she provide
individualised support?), Organisation (e.g.,
#3c: Higher “quality” classroom Does the teacher provide clear behavioural
experiences and environments, as expectations? Does the teacher ask effective
measured with international tools, did questions? Encourage active participation
not positively associate with children’s and listening?) and Instructional Support
development (e.g., Does the teacher encourage frequent
conversations in the classroom? Does the
When international measures examining
teacher connect concepts and help children
the classroom environment and teacher’s
to integrate new knowledge with existing
behaviour were examined little evidence
knowledge?).
supported positive associations between
quality and child outcomes in SKIP. The SKIP found very few significant relations
international measures SKIP used were the between classroom quality, assessed via the
Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale— ECERS-R, ECERS-E, or CLASS with child
Revised Edition (ECERS-R; Harms, Cliffor, & outcomes in numeracy and literacy. That is,
Cryer,1998), the Four Curricular Subscales SKIP examined associations between quality
Extension to the ECERS-R (ECERS-E; Sylva, as reflected by these international tools and
Siraj-Blatchford, & Taggart, 2003), and the mathematics in four models that included data
Classroom Assessment Scoring System from the start of K1 to end of K1, the start of
(CLASS; Pianta, Lapro, & Hamre, 2007). K1 to middle of P1, the end of K1 to middle
The ECERS-R provides a score concerning of K2, and the end of K1 to middle of P1.
the overall physical classroom (e.g., Is the Likewise, SKIP examined four models with
classroom safe? Are there sufficient and age literacy data. In three of these eight models
appropriate learning materials? Are the learning evidence suggested that quality might play a
materials accessible to children?), the diversity role, and so 15 tests of individual aspects of
of learning materials, and the manner in which quality (i.e., the ECERS-R, ECERS-E, CLASS
adults engage (e.g., Do teachers sit with the Instructional Support, CLASS Emotional
children at lunch? Do teachers informally Support, Class Organisational Support) were
read to children? Do staff model good social examined for associations with the relevant
skills?). The Subscale Extensions have similar growth variables. Yet, in no case was there
foci but are specific to Literacy, Mathematics,
20key insights
#3: Children’s larger context matters. The home environment is clearly
influential and should not be overlooked, though limited aspects of ECE
environments are also predictive of child outcomes.
a positive association between quality and relations between the “ECERS-E” measure
growth, and the only significant relation was and children’s cognitive development, while
between more Emotional Support (measured the “ECERS-R” was found to be more related
by CLASS) in K2 and a decline in early literacy to socioemotional development. Using the
skills from the end of K1 to the middle of K2 “CLASS”, Burchinal (2010) found that higher
(SKIP 3ERFP-3 [RQ2a: n = 1537 children]). quality classrooms predicted better child
outcomes while in lower quality classrooms,
Examinations of quality “profiles” did not quality did not relate to child outcomes or even
suggest notable positive associations. In predicted slightly poorer outcomes. Especially
another set of analyses, SKIP used ratings relevant to Insight #3d below, Burchinal
from the ECERS-R, ECERS-E, and CLASS (2010) proposed the idea of a threshold or
to create “profiles” (i.e., “low”, “mixed” and level of quality that classrooms need to be at
“high”) of K1 classroom quality, and assessed for effects on child outcomes to be observed.
relations between the profiles and child According to the author, findings suggest that
outcomes in mathematics and language instead of there being an upper limit of quality,
development. Significant effects were only above which improvements in child outcomes
observed in the case of language development, are not observed; there may be a minimal limit
and more specifically indicated that children of classroom quality, below which effects on
in classrooms described as “mixed in terms children are not observed.
of ECE quality” (i.e., low on ECERS-R and
ECERS-E but average on CLASS Emotional #3d: The lack of association between ECE
Support and Classroom Organisation) quality, assessed via international tools,
performed better at the end of K1 than and child outcomes may be due to limited
those in “low ECE quality” classrooms on a variance amongst teachers and classrooms
composite score of English language literacy
comprised of tests assessing phonological Within the SKIP study, there were sampling
(sound) awareness, understanding of words constraints that may have limited the extent
and reading skills (SKIP 3ERFP-3 [RQ2b: n = to which variation in Singaporean classroom
1537 children]). quality, defined by the ECERS-R, ECERS-E,
and CLASS scales, was captured. As
Still, in spite of the limited relations between an MOE priority for SKIP was to assess
classroom quality assessed via measures like MOE kindergartens, SKIP purposefully
the ECERS and CLASS and child outcomes selected non-MOE preschools with similar
found in SKIP, internationally, there is evidence sociodemographic (e.g., income and
for this association (e.g., Peisner-Feinberg, education) characteristics. This means that
1999 and Pianta, LaParo, Payne. Cox, & although SKIP included 224 classrooms and
Bradley, 2002). Sylva et al. (2006), found 80 preschools in its assessment of classroom
21key insights
#3: Children’s larger context matters. The home environment is clearly
influential and should not be overlooked, though limited aspects of ECE
environments are also predictive of child outcomes.
quality, schools catering to those in the highest limited opportunities for complex thinking and
economic classes were likely not included. little scaffolding aimed to facilitate children’s
It is possible that if such preschools had elaboration of their own ideas. For example,
been included there would have been more researchers examined a portion of videos
variability between teachers and schools, or taken while students participated in learning
in technical terms, more variance in quality. In activities with a focus on “Aesthetics and
general, greater variability allows for the more Creative Expression” (SKIP 3ERFP-3’s
likely detection of relations between constructs Bautista, Moreno-Nunez, Bull, Amsah, & Koh,
should they exist1. 2018 [n = 156 video clips]) and “Discovery of
the World” (SKIP 3ERFP-3’s Bautista, Moreno-
The average ECE quality ratings on the Nunez, Ng & Bull, 2018, [n = 4 classroom video
ECERS-R, ECERS-E, and CLASS in SKIP were clips]), which are two learning areas in the
only in the below average to moderate range Nurturing Early Learners Framework. Overall
(SKIP 3ERFP-3 [RQ1, n = 224 classrooms], teachers in these videos frequently acted as if
see also Table 1 on the next page). For they already had an end goal already in mind.
example, the quality ratings were in the below They gave detailed instructions, and, when
average range for “Instructional Support” of they did ask questions, they did so in a way
CLASS, suggesting that there was only at best that suggested there was only one correct
minimal evidence that teachers’ conversations answer, perhaps limiting children’s willingness
with pre-schoolers and their actions facilitated to consider alternative possibilities. Similarly,
complex thinking, connection between new and a small qualitative study (Phee, Nirmala, &
existent knowledge, encouraged participation Yu, 2020) examining the verbal behaviour of
and language stimulation, and/or scaffolded six preschool teachers engaged in storytelling
discussions by encouraging children to found that teachers asked almost no “process”
elaborate on their thinking. Qualitative questions, or questions where students were
analyses of the types of conversations that asked to explain why something occurred.
were occurring depict a similar picture of
1
An analogy concerns the known relation between age and height. A study enrolling people between the ages
of 0-40 would clearly find a significant relation between variables, with height increasing as age increases.
However, if the study purposefully only enrolled adults, the relation would not be detected due to the restriction
in the range of the predictor variable.
22key insights
#3: Children’s larger context matters. The home environment is clearly
influential and should not be overlooked, though limited aspects of ECE
environments are also predictive of child outcomes.
Instrument and Overview Categories Measured Observed
Quality
Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale-Revised Space and Furnishings Moderate
(ECERS-R; Harms, et al., 1998)
Personal Care Routines Moderate
• Primarily rates aspects of the physical Language-reasoning Moderate
environment, children’s access to appropriate
resources, and diversity in the learning materials, Activities Below average
though some questions also relate to the ways in
which teachers engage with students Interaction Moderate
Programme Structure Below average
• Items query topics such as: teacher engagement
in learning, routines, and children’s relationships
with one another; access to resources and
materials; sufficient and diverse space for
activities; appropriate variation in routine
The Four Curricular Subscales Extension to the ECERS-R Literacy Moderate
(ECERS-E; Sylva et al., 2003)
Mathematics Below average
• Similar to the ECERS-R in its focus, but more Science and Environment Below average
specifically assesses specific learning areas
Diversity Below average
• Items query topics such as: availability of
developmentally appropriate learning materials;
engagement that facilitates exploration and child-
centred learning; encouragement of diverse
perspectives and harmony across different racial,
gender and national groups
Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS; Pianta et Emotional Support Moderate
al., 2007)
(e.g., positive emotional climate
• Primarily rates the quality of teacher-child between students and within
interactions classroom; teacher responsivity
to student’s feelings, interests,
and needs)
Classroom Organisation Moderate
(e.g., classroom is structured to
set behavioural expectations,
maximize learning opportunities
and child interests)
Instructional Support Below average
(e.g., child-centred teaching,
expands student interests and
ideas, and encourages higher
order thinking and participation)
Table 1. Classroom Quality Scores as Observed in SKIP (SKIP 3ERFP-3 [RQ1, n = 224 classrooms]).
23ReCommendations Based on the Key Insights, we provide recommendations for ECE regarding how the system can do better and ways that research can address knowledge gaps. Each recommendation is tied to at least one of the Key Insights, and as with the Key Insights, Recommendations are interrelated (see Figure 5). Figure 5. Key Insights and Recommendations presented within an Ecological Framework. 24
ReCommendations
How can the system do better?
Encourage teachers and parents to holistic teaching practices. Likewise, many
recognise and respond to differences in parents in Singapore do not understand
children’s levels of comfort, knowledge and purposeful play or why it is important to
interest in multiple areas, via mechanisms learning (3ERFP-6 [n = 30 parents]). One
such as outreach, trainings, and/or step towards encouraging more teachers and
intervention programmes parents to take a child-centered approach,
then, is simply informing them about its
Recognising and responding to children’s importance. Therefore, the system may wish
levels of interest (Key Insight #1a) and to encourage ECE researchers to engage
comfort (Key Insight #1b) may benefit aspects in outreach where they can disseminate
of child development including language, scientific evidence concerning the benefits of
literacy, socioemotional development and taking a responsive approach and incorporate
attentional focus. However, SKIP-3ERFP-3 attendance into such seminars or workshops
(i.e., Bautista, Ng, Munez, & Bull, 2016 [n = into teacher training programmes.
123 teachers]) indicated that not all teachers
in Singapore equally valued child-centered In addition, when caregivers and educators
teaching approaches. Specifically, they found build on children’s strengths and interests,
that the extent to which teachers value the there may be consequences across a variety
different learning areas is related to how of domains. Performance in a given domain
much they also adhere to authoritarian (e.g., is often influenced by expertise, knowledge,
children need to obey) versus child-centered and experience across domains (Key Insight
(e.g., children learn by participating) beliefs. #2). For example, language and literacy
For example, teachers who ranked “Social may impact socioemotional functioning and
and Emotional Development” or “Discovery of executive functioning (Key Insight #2a),
the World” as most important, were more likely and executive functioning and motor skills
than others to endorse child-centred beliefs, may influence multiple aspects of child
while teachers who ranked “Numeracy” development including socioemotional skills,
as most important, were more likely to spelling, and math (Key Insight #2b). Still, not
endorse authoritarian beliefs. Pajares (2016) all areas of child development received equal
argues that teachers’ beliefs influence their attention (Key Insight #2d). The system can
perceptions and judgements, and ultimately, further support caregivers and educators by
their classroom practices. McCarty. Abbott- helping to provide appropriate information and
Shim, & Lambert (2001), for example, found training within and across domains, and, in the
that teachers from low quality classrooms case of ECE settings by providing appropriate
tended to endorse statements that are not physical resources and outdoor spaces.
consistent with progressive ideas concerning
25Recommendations
How can the system do better?
To support responsive practices amongst thinking, and feeling outside of school.
parents and teachers, it is useful to consider Likewise, teachers should also communicate
interventions grounded in Attachment Theory regularly with parents, so that parents may
(Ainsworth, 1979). Such interventions are help expand upon knowledge and skills, and
geared to improving responsive caregiving notice new milestones that children have
and helping caregivers foster security through worked to achieve in the classroom. One way
means such as initiating and maintaining to encourage this is to provide training and
eye contact, noticing the quality of play and support to teachers on engaging parents.
exploration (e.g., children may show they are Engagement is important for teachers and
stressed when they appear to “go through parents to learn about the learning areas and
the motions” or show play more typical of practices children are exposed to both inside
that expressed by younger children), treating and outside of the classroom, and so better
bids for closeness as sincere and necessary, build on strengths and support areas in need
spending time with children to “just play” in of growth.
order to build up a repertoire of trust, letting
children know that you care about them, In addition, preschool educators may benefit
and complimenting children on their efforts from receiving assistance on ways to encourage
so that they understand you have noticed parents to read with their children at home and
and appreciated their hard work (e.g., Juffer, to responsively attend to children’s needs and
Bakermanns-Kranenburg, & Van IJzendoorn, interests, so that children are actively cared for
2015). in child-centered ways in both the home and
school settings. For example, with regards to
Encourage communication amongst reading, drawing on Key Insight #1a, parents
teachers, and between teachers and may wish to allow children to choose books
parents that are interesting to them. Extending from
Key Insight #1b parents may wish to create
Development does not occur in silos. Instead, a comfortable environment for reading, allow
knowledge and skills relevant to one domain children to make mistakes, and use word
can impact another. For example, motor skills that stretch, but do not exceed, the child’s
may impact academic and social development capacity. As a final example, recalling the
(Key Insight #2b). As another example, the international metrics for quality education (Key
way in which MTL is taught impacts English Insight #3c), parents should also use reading
reading development (Key Insight #2c), opportunities to build connections and explore
and home based MTL practices relate to new ideas and feelings. Similar methods can
socioemotional development (Key Insight # be applied for interactions beyond reading-
2a). As such, parents should be encouraged the general principle is that parents need to
to speak with teachers so that teachers can build off of children’s interests, and encourage
better understand what children are learning, them by using scaffolding behaviour that takes
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