London electric vehicle infrastructure delivery plan - The Mayor's Electric Vehicle Infrastructure Taskforce - Transport ...
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London electric
vehicle infrastructure
delivery plan Supported by
The Mayor’s
Electric Vehicle
Infrastructure
June 2019 Taskforce
Contents
Mayor’s foreword 4 The delivery plan
4.1 Challenges
Executive summary
4.2 Guiding principles
1 Introduction and aims
4.3 Defining what is needed
1.1 Introduction
5 What can we do to make
1.2 Supporting policies this happen?
towards zero emission
5.1 Facilitate smoother installation
1.3 What London is already and match supply with demand
doing to support EV
charging infrastructure 5.2 Reduce energy barriers
1.4 The Mayor’s EV 5.3 Share knowledge and maximise
Infrastructure Taskforce potential of legislation
2 The current situation 5.4 Charter of commitments
in London
Glossary
2.1 Electric vehicles
2.2 Charging infrastructure Appendix A – Detailed modelling
assumptions and approach
2.3 User experience
Appendix B – Principal author: Zero
3 User needs Carbon Futures
3.1 Understanding charging needs
3.2 Modelling potential demand
to 2025
we must move away from petrol and There’s no shying away from the fact
diesel cars, and towards electric and that expanding our public charge
hydrogen vehicles. Bringing about this points will be challenging. London’s
sea change won’t be easy, but with land is always in high demand, our
the right political will and ambition I’m streets are often narrow and we have
confident we can pull it off. to work with 35 different planning
authorities. But we know there is a
I’m proud that London is one of real appetite to cut harmful emissions
the first major cities in the world and propel London towards a greener
to publish a detailed and future. Thanks to our taskforce’s hard
independently-assessed climate work, we have tapped into the energy,
action plan that outlines how we enthusiasm and expertise of more
will comply with the Paris Agreement. than 140 organisations to plan for the
A big part of this plan is aiming for all cutting-edge infrastructure London
new cars and vans on our roads to be needs. It is a world-leading piece of
zero emission from 2030. work that will ensure that London
can continue to lead from the front,
Mayor’s foreword This is a radical, but necessary step. blazing a trail for others to follow.
Car ownership continues to decline
in London, but we must do more With so much at stake, we simply
London’s air is so dirty and polluted we’re taking action – not only in now to help unleash an electric can’t afford to slip into reverse gear. In
it amounts to nothing less than a response to our dangerous air, but also vehicle revolution across our fact, now is the time to really put our
serious public health crisis. It breaches to address the climate emergency that city. Through our Electric Vehicle foot down and accelerate our city’s
legal limits and blights the lives of threatens the long-term security and Infrastructure Taskforce, the public transition to zero emission vehicles.
Londoners, resulting in thousands wellbeing of every Londoner. and private sector have worked This plan will enable us to do just
of premature deaths every year side-by-side to expand London’s that. This is crucial because ultimately
and causing a range of lethal and The action we’ve already taken public charge points and to make our efforts will mean cleaner air, a
debilitating illnesses, including cancer, includes: cleaning up our bus and sure they are well used, in the right greener city and healthier lives for all
heart disease and dementia. As an taxi fleets, promoting walking, locations and future-proofed for Londoners, not to mention a better
adult I developed asthma, which investing record sums in cycling, and tomorrow’s technology. and more sustainable future for our
doctors tell me is likely to be linked encouraging more Londoners to use planet and generations to come.
to air pollution. public transport by freezing fares The past year has seen more than
and introducing more affordable bus 1,000 new charge points installed
But what makes me most angry is tickets. We’re working to a target of at petrol stations, town centres
the impact London’s filthy air is 80 per cent of trips to be walking, and retrofitted into street lighting
having on the health of our children. cycling or public transport by 2041. columns. Our world-famous cabbies
To our shame, in some parts of our now drive more than 1,700 electric
city there are children growing-up We’ve also rolled out the world’s taxis and Transport for London runs
with stunted lungs and chronic first ever Ultra Low Emission Zone, Europe’s largest electric bus fleet. Sadiq Khan
respiratory conditions because of which is the toughest emission We’ve also created a new multi- Mayor of London
exposure to poor air quality. This is standard in operation anywhere on million-pound fund to support small
simply unacceptable. earth. However, if we aspire to truly businesses, charities and low-income
transform the quality of our air – and Londoners switch to cleaner vehicles
The task of finding solutions to this preside over a steep and meaningful including electric.
scourge is urgent. So, at City Hall, reduction in our carbon emissions –
4 5
Executive summary of the vehicles and charging
infrastructure, the behaviour of
drivers is still evolving, making
much longer to charge a vehicle.
In both cases, on-street provision
needs to be carefully balanced
it challenging to plan for future against concerns about meeting
Through this delivery plan, we believe we can infrastructure needs. accessibility needs, and the density
of street furniture and traffic on
be confident there is a clear way to provide the The London context London’s roads, in line with the
right type and amount of charging infrastructure London is recognised as one of 25 Mayor’s Transport Strategy.
EV capitals that together are home
to serve London’s needs. to around half of all EVs worldwide.3 There has been significant public
Sales of EVs, both pure battery electric investment in charge points in London
(BEV) and plug-in hybrid (PHEV), in from the origins of London’s first public
Background London are growing year on year. In charging network, Source London in
2018, EVs accounted for 2.81 per cent 2011 to the lamppost and freestanding
of sales in London – higher than the charge points being installed today
The Mayor’s Transport and the UK now plug-in, and one in every UK average of 2.13 per cent.4 via the Go Ultra Low City Scheme
Environment Strategies set out a 36 for London. However, barriers (GULCS).6 Transport for London (TfL)
clear commitment to zero emission to more widespread uptake remain. EVs in London are supported by a has also committed to installing 300
road transport, and to a zero carbon Consumer awareness and perception, range of charging infrastructure, rapid chargers by the end of 2020. The
city by 2050. This is a priority given range, availability of vehicles and cost ranging from rapid DC chargers, to private sector is investing as well, and
the significant impact London’s toxic of vehicles are all factors, but the slow to fast AC chargers.5 The current the commercial case is set to improve
air has on health and social justice for availability of charging infrastructure – mix of charging infrastructure helps further, with growing zero emission
Londoners. The Mayor has declared real or perceived – is considered to be to accommodate today’s technology fleets of taxis, private hire and other
a climate emergency and his ambition the most immediate barrier to tackle and to facilitate different uses. Rapid key user groups. However, initiatives
is for every new car or van registered at the city level. The Committee on chargers are costly per unit but offer to remove barriers and improve the
in London to be zero emission from Climate Change has recently reported the fastest charge time, whereas slow conditions for accelerating investment
2030, meeting the ambition of the that the expansion of EV charging to fast AC chargers cost considerably are critical to facilitate and speed up
Committee on Climate Change and networks and grid capacity is key to less to purchase and install, but take growth in this sector.
sooner than the national goal of facilitating growth of EVs.2
2040 as set out in the Government’s
Road to Zero.1 To achieve this will Private home (or workplace) charging
require a significant shift in mindset, is expected to be preferred for many Figure 1
vehicles and infrastructure, supported car owners across the UK, as well as London’s transition to
by legislation. having some particular advantages as zero emissions
set out in Road to Zero. This is also the
London has a growing electric bus case in London, but there will also be
fleet, zero emission-capable taxis and an important role for public charging
other electric vehicles (EVs) such as infrastructure, both because of car-
private hire and vans already in use owning homes without off-street Private vehicles Buses Taxis
on London’s roads, in greater numbers parking, a rising gig economy, and 20,600 165 1,700
than any other UK city. high-mileage vehicles such as taxis and EVs ZE ZEC
private hire that will require charging
Numbers of EVs are increasing, with throughout the course of a day. Owing
one in every 47 new cars registered in to the rapidly changing technology
1 The Road to Zero: Next steps towards cleaner road transport, HM Government, 2018 4 Plug-in EV = Battery electric (BEV) + Plug-in Hybrid (PHEV); vehicle segments include cars,
www.gov.uk/government/publications/reducing-emissions-from-road-transport-road-to- motorcycles and LGVs, DfT Statistics, Datasets VEH0130, VEH0131, VEH0150, VEH0260,
zero-strategy VEH0354, VEH0454
2 www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Net-Zero-The-UKs-contribution-to- 5 Rapid DC is defined here as DC50kW+ (CCS + CHAdeMO/Supercharger) or AC 43kW+.
stopping-global-warming.pdf Slow to fast AC is defined here as a 3-22kW charger. See Glossary for further details
3 www.theicct.org/publications/ev-capitals-of-the-world-2018 6 www.londoncouncils.gov.uk/our-key-themes/transport/roads/gulcs
6 7
Image 1
The Mayor addressing
delegates at the launch of the
EV Infrastructure Taskforce
The Mayor’s EV Infrastructure Taskforce
In May 2018, the Mayor established The taskforce has been informing and long-term requirements, progressing yy Individual meetings with groups
a world-first EV Infrastructure steering the development of a delivery towards the Mayor’s Transport of taxi stakeholders, private hire
Taskforce with experts from both plan, to identify and deliver the level Strategy goal of a zero emission stakeholders, car manufacturers and
the public and private sector who and type of charging infrastructure transport network by 2050. EV infrastructure investors
collectively have the knowledge to that London will need to accelerate
help unlock barriers to expanding the switch to EVs up to 2025. The Since May 2018, we have held a yy Round-table discussions with charge
charging infrastructure and focus is on the medium rather than series of taskforce workshops to point manufacturers and operators,
accelerating the switch to EVs in the long term, as taskforce members inform the delivery plan, discussing car and van sharing representatives,
the Capital. The taskforce consists agree that, due to rapid change in this user needs, land and energy issues, and a business leaders’ round-table
of representatives from business, industry, to make firm plans now for and financial models. We held meeting organised by taskforce
energy, infrastructure, Government the longer term is not advisable. The further, more targeted, stakeholder member, London First
and London boroughs and, over the decisions we take now, and the level meetings and round-table discussions
past year, they have been supported and type of provision installed in the to solidify our understanding of
by contributions from more than 350 medium term, will help to shape the specific user needs and what
stakeholders from in excess of way the switch to EVs grows across stakeholder groups wanted the
140 different organisations. London, and therefore influence the taskforce to deliver. These included:
8 9
The delivery plan
As it is likely there will be a mix of
This report recognises that
both types of chargers the numbers of
infrastructure is currently a
chargers are likely to be somewhere in
barrier, be it real or perceived,
between these ranges. It is important
to the switch to EVs, although
to note that the wide range in the
it should be noted that there
numbers of charge points is largely
are other barriers that will have
driven by commitments from the
a large influence. Notably, EV
private hire sector to transform their
supply in the UK is currently a
fleets to be zero emission and other
constraint, and unless this issue is
factors such as the cost and supply
resolved, this will continue to be
of vehicles improving. The total
a limiting factor. It may mean that
number of rapid charge points
our low EV growth scenario, or
required would reduce further should
even lower, is a real possibility.
charging speed capability of new
vehicles increase to accommodate
The modelling for this plan gives ultra-rapid charging (100-150kW+).
us confidence the current delivery
schedule in London by the private These estimates have been derived
and public sector, consisting of over from a modelling exercise, which took
300 rapid charge points and over into account uncertainties including
3,500 slow to fast chargers by the the rate of the switch to EVs, charging
end of 2020, will be sufficient to deal behaviour and charger utilisation.
with the expected uptake of electric Because of the uncertainties of these
vehicles. By 2020, using prudent EV variables, and so to avoid the risk
uptake assumptions, we could need of ‘predict and provide’, the taskforce
around 200 to 400 rapid charge points did not recommend a prescriptive,
and 3,400 to 4,700 slow to fast charge target-based approach to 2025.
points. By 2025, with EV uptake in line Instead, the focus is on addressing
with the Mayor’s Transport Strategy the barriers to scaling up existing
and London’s 1.5 degree plan, this infrastructure in a way that takes
could rise to between 2,300 to 4,100 account of the need to ensure
rapid charge points and 33,700 to London’s streets are ‘Healthy Streets’7
47,500 slow to fast charge points. The and do not contribute to congestion.
expectation of the taskforce is that the
numbers of points suggested in the A common concern is that EVs will
report would be delivered primarily by put too much strain on the power
the private sector but further support supply and will cause the system to
from the Government may be needed. fail. However, evidence provided by
the National Grid and local distribution
networks suggests that this can be
effectively overcome through better
coordinated and ‘smarter’ use of our
power networks.
Image 2
Shirley Rodrigues, Deputy
Mayor for Environment and
Energy, addressing delegates
7 The Healthy Streets Approach is the system of policies and strategies to help Londoners at the launch of the EV
use cars less, and walk, cycle and use public transport more (see content.tfl.gov.uk/healthy- Infrastructure Taskforce
streets-for-london.pdf)
10 11
Table 1: Six central challenges to delivering more EV infrastructure:
The overall insights, findings and recommendations of the taskforce are:
yy We are frontier planning, with many – To improve the spread of these across
Category Challenge unknowns and rapidly changing London, the next phase of delivery
technology. Our findings must be should focus on at least five flagship
Land and energy 1. Ability to secure suitable charge point locations given competing demands understood within this context. EV rapid hubs, one in each sub region of
and London’s limited land availability
driver behaviour is evolving and we must London, with the first by 2020, subject
2. Long lead times and complexity of installation be cautious to avoid stranded assets to funding and EV growth. These
3. Cost of energy grid upgrades
(out of date technology). This is the would be in off-street locations, easily
first time a city has undertaken such a accessible and with high throughput
Operational/users 4. Lack of confidence in the availability of convenient charge points (ie, perception comprehensive exercise to understand
that all are already in use or broken down, or not in convenient locations) likely future EV infrastructure needs and – To improve overall coverage of
5. Unfamiliarity with the experience of charging – perception that it is confusing, it is hoped that others will also benefit rapid chargers, additional rapid
complicated and inconvenient from the work of the taskforce chargers should be prioritised to serve
Investment 6. Uncertainty about what type of charger is needed, concerns about obsolescence – London’s town centres.9 This could
uncertainty reluctance to invest until there is more confidence in the charging model yy Public charge points should be open be in the form of hubs or single rapid
to all, with a few exceptions, notably chargers, to primarily serve commercial
for taxis in central London and other needs. As suitable sites along TfL’s
specific, priority groups that need roads are increasingly difficult to
We have identified six central type of likely infrastructure needed
extra support due to mandatory find, we expect future sites to be on
challenges to delivering more EV against a charter of commitments
requirements and operational needs. This borough roads (or off-road)
infrastructure (see Table 1). to roll out EV infrastructure and
increases public confidence in charging
support for the industry.
infrastructure and also boosts utilisation, – The private sector should adopt these
This delivery plan for EV infrastructure
and therefore financial viability approaches going forward, and TfL will
in London seeks to address these A key aim of the taskforce is to
also be doing so for the remainder of
challenges. We must provide consider what market conditions are
yy Different types of chargers currently the 300 rapid chargers it will install in
clarity for the medium term (to needed to embolden a commercial
suit different user needs, and a mix of London by the end of 2020
2025), and inspire confidence that market and maximise the value of
rapid and slower chargers will continue
infrastructure will no longer be cited public funding. London has already
to be needed to 2025. However, For slow to fast AC chargers
as a barrier to transition to EVs for been subsidising EV infrastructure and
different approaches are suggested for – The focus is on a) uplifting volume,
those vehicles that need to use the role of the public sector is now
rapid chargers and slower chargers: b) reducing the streetscape impact of
London’s roads. This plan sets out beginning to move towards providing
chargers, and c) exploring new models
the framework, clarifying where we strategic direction and facilitation. For rapid chargers
around deployment off-street (eg, car
should focus our efforts. It includes This is not about distorting business – The proposed focus is on the
parks in or around residential areas)
actions to facilitate installation, models, but rather unblocking a development of rapid charging hubs,8
tackling the known challenges number of strategic barriers that which we see as serving primarily
– The future favoured deployment model
around land and energy issues, have been identified. high-mileage/business users who
is strategic and demand-led, (not
and finally it sets out the scale and need fast and available charging.
desire-led) in order to improve
Multiple charge points in known
commercial viability and enable the
locations serve to increase consumer
private sector to take over delivery
confidence that they will find a reliable
and available charger
8 Defined as ‘a minimum of six rapid chargers enabling simultaneous charging of six+ vehicles’
– further definitions of types of rapid hubs can be found in Chapter 4
9 Town centres as defined in the London Plan (approx. 200)
12 13
Table 2: Enablers to facilitate charge point delivery
Category Enabler Date
Facilitate 1. Deliver London’s first rapid charging hub and support the From 2020
smoother roll-out of additional rapid charging hubs – in collaboration with
installation and the private sector
match supply
with demand 2. Support shared business charging infrastructure Ongoing
3. New pan-London Co-ordination Body to facilitate and oversee Initiate in 2019
charge point installation
Reduce energy 4. New online tool/ ‘heat mapping’ to identify energy grid constraints June 2019
barriers and where new charging capacity will be cheaper and easier
5. Explore alternative and smart power supply options, such as battery Ongoing
storage, mobile charging and private wire networks
Share knowledge 6. Publish guidance on charge point installation for both public and 2019/20
and maximise private sector
potential of
legislation 7. Publish guidance on future-proofing EV infrastructure to 2019/20
encourage investors
8. Promote better standardisation of charge points and vehicles, Ongoing
interoperability of systems and data sharing
challenges to provision. However, if we We believe that this delivery plan,
are to meet the scale of infrastructure with the identified enablers, research
we might need in London – in any of and the charter of commitments,
the modelled scenarios – we also need should provide confidence to fleets,
investment and commitment from the businesses and London residents
private sector. that there is a clear way forward to
delivering the right type and amount
As part of this delivery plan, we of charging infrastructure to serve
set out a number of commitments London’s needs, accelerating the
from both the public and private switch to zero emission transport.
sector, gathered in a charter. This
demonstrates the ambition and
commitment to support the
Image 3 What can we do to make this happen? delivery plan. However, more
Q&A session at the must be done, and the final purpose
launch of the EV of this work is to initiate a call to
Infrastructure Taskforce
The situation is complex, there are identified above. The following set of action, requesting more private sector
numerous stakeholders involved ‘enablers’ has been developed and are organisations based or working in
and the Mayor of London has summarised in Table 2. More detail on London to come forward with their
limited powers and cannot impose how they will be taken forward is set own commitments to be part of the
infrastructure deployment. However, out in Chapter 5. EV revolution in London, making it the
there are a number of ways we leading EV city both in the UK
can help facilitate charge point These activities will facilitate EV and globally.
installation and unblock the barriers infrastructure by tackling current
14 15
1 Introduction
and aims
The Mayor set up the EV Infrastructure
Taskforce to address one of the key barriers
to London’s EV transition.
1.1 Introduction
In his transport and environment the aspirations of the Committee
strategies, the Mayor has set out on Climate Change. This ambition
his ambition for London to be the lies in an overarching approach of
greenest city in the world, alongside encouraging sustainable travel. The
his vision for transitioning to a zero Mayor’s Transport Strategy sets the
carbon future with a zero emission direction in terms of supporting
transport network by 2050. This is sustainable travel and, in particular,
a priority given the significant impact efforts to reduce overall car use and
London’s toxic air has on health to enable more people to travel by
and social justice for Londoners, walking, cycling and public transport.
as well as the climate related to The health benefits of this are
carbon emissions. multiple, from having more exercise Service. Business innovation has oversight, in the same way as the Image 4
and reducing health impacts, to also been forthcoming, with electric planning of an urban bus network Zero Emissions Capable
At the national level, the Government cleaner air with reduced tailpipe delivery services from Gnewt, UPS or congestion charge scheme. taxi pulling in to use a
rapid charger
has set out its aims for zero emission exhaust emissions, as well as the city and DPD, and demonstration projects However, the Mayor has very limited
transport in the Road to Zero, in which being a cleaner and more attractive such as e-FLEX12 to look at the vehicle powers to deliver on the strategy
it calls for at least 50 per cent – and as place to live and visit. to grid charging market. London as it would require designating
much as 70 per cent – of new car sales boroughs are progressing innovative existing premises and highway for
and up to 40 per cent of new van sales For unavoidable trips, accelerating the schemes such as variable parking the provision of charge points. The
to be ultra low emission10 by 2030. By switch to EVs is critical to delivering charges, zero emissions streets, and exception is that an elected mayor
2040, no new conventional petrol or this vision. London is already making Neighbourhoods of the Future trials. can make a request to the Secretary
diesel cars/vans will be sold in the UK. progress with its growing fleets of of State to set regulations that
Zero Emission Capable11 (ZEC) black A recent report by the International require large fuel retailers to provide
The Mayor’s ambition is to accelerate cabs, electric buses and electric Council on Clean Transportation charge points, but this was only
this target and to work towards all support fleets being used by Transport has recognised London as one of 25 enabled in the 2018 Automated and
new cars or vans registered in London for London (TfL), the London Fire prestigious EV capitals, which together Electric Vehicles Act and is yet to
to be zero emission by 2030, meeting Brigade and the Metropolitan Police are home to around half of all EVs in be tested. Otherwise, powers are
the world. broadly limited to the Mayor’s spatial
development strategy, the London
10 Ultra low emission vehicles (ULEVs) are defined by OLEV as vehicles that emit less than
75g of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the tailpipe, for every kilometre travelled
1.2 Supporting policies towards Plan, which can only set requirements
11 Zero Emission Capable taxis are defined by TfL as ‘having CO2 emissions of no more
zero emission for new developments.
than 50g/km and a minimum 30-mile zero emission range’ tfl.gov.uk/info-for/taxis-and- The roll-out of charge points in
private-hire/ the Capital requires clear strategic
12 www.london.gov.uk/decisions/md2332-e-flex
16 17
To facilitate new investment in The draft London Plan sets out vehicles, including electric. The introduced in April 2019 and, by
charging infrastructure, Government requirements for EV charging facilities ULEZ will be expanded to the rest 2021, only full EVs will qualify.
is seeking to introduce a concept in residential development to provide of inner London in 2021. Emissions These policies strongly indicate the
of charging infrastructure rights. 20 per cent ‘active’ and 80 per standards will also be tightened in direction of travel in London and are
The Act also seeks to improve the cent ‘passive’13 provision of electric 2020 for heavy goods vehicles via already influencing travel and vehicle
experience of using charge points by charging. Retail car parks must provide changes to the Low Emission Zone purchase choices.
enabling Government to mandate rapid charge facilities, and operational (LEZ) which covers most of Greater
a common minimum method of parking must provide suitable charging London. A van scrappage scheme has Since January 2018, TfL has only
accessing public charge points, infrastructure for EVs or other Ultra also been put in place to help support been licensing new taxis (black
allowing charging without a pre- Low Emission Vehicles (ULEVs). New these initiatives. cabs) that are ZEC and has offered
existing contract; to compel operators or re-provided petrol stations must a decommissioning fund – recently
to make the geographic location of provide rapid charge hubs or hydrogen There is a commitment in the Mayor’s significantly enhanced – to take
their charge points publicly available; refuelling facilities. Transport Strategy and the London out of circulation some of the older
and to mandate minimum technical Environment Strategy to support cabs that are the most polluting.
specifications for connectors to Further specific supporting policies boroughs wishing to implement Zero Soon, PHVs will also be subject to
ensure greater interoperability. This is by the Mayor of London include the Emission Zones (ZEZs), and to create similar emissions-based qualifications
strongly supported and we would like introduction of the Ultra Low Emission a ZEZ in central London by 2025. A to be issued licences – as detailed in
to see this carried out to improve EV Zone (ULEZ) in central London from new, phased, Cleaner Vehicle Discount the timeline below.
driving and charging experience. April 2019 to incentivise cleaner to the Congestion Charge was also
Figure 2
Timeline of key
related policies
Mayor’s Transport
Strategy 2018
All newly All newly All PHVs All newly
Road to Zero licenced taxis are licenced (under 300 TfL rapid licensed for registered cars All taxis
Strategy 2018 zero emissions 18 months old) charge points first time and LGVs are and PHVs All newly registered London-wide
capable (ZEC) PHVs are ZEC installed are ZEC zero emission are ZEC HGVs are zero emission ZEZ
January 2018 January 2020 December 2020 2023 2030 2033 2040 2050
April 2019 2020 October 2021 2025 2030 2040 2050
Central Ultra First town centre Zero Expanded ULEZ Central At least 50% new car Inner London All new cars
Low Emission Emission Zone (ZEZ) London ZEZ sales (and up to 40 per ZEZ and vans in
Zone (ULEZ) cent of new vans) to be UK to be zero
LEZ tightening in ultra low emission emission
October 2020
13 Active spaces are fully wired and connected ready-to-use points at parking spaces. Passive
provisions require the necessary underlying infrastructure to enable simple installation and
activation of a charge point at a future date. See TfL website for further detail (tfl.gov.uk/info-
for/urban-planning-and-construction/transport-assessment-guide/guidance-by-transport-
type/electric-vehicle-charging-points)
18 191.3 What London is already doing to 2014 to enable improvement and yy 155 electric and 10 hydrogen fuel 1.4.2 Taskforce remit
support EV charging infrastructure expansion of the scheme without cell buses already on the network At the launch, it was agreed that the
Alongside the requirement that any further reliance on public subsidy. specific objectives of the taskforce
new taxi being presented for licence TfL no longer manages the network. yy A further 90 electric buses would be to:
would need to be ZEC from January due to join the fleet by the end
2018, TfL committed to putting in Further expansion of public slow of 2019 yy Evaluate research and analysis
300 rapid charge points by the end of to fast charging has more recently regarding the level of charging
2020, using £17.8m14 of funding from been set up via the Go Ultra Low yy From 2020, all new single-decker infrastructure required in London,
the Office for Low Emission Vehicles City Scheme. GULCS is managed by buses procured for new contracts accounting for regional and
(OLEV). TfL reached an intermediate TfL, the Greater London Authority will be zero emission national policies
milestone late last year by achieving (GLA) and London Councils, who are
150 rapid charge points in the ground together rolling out even more street These funding streams have been key yy Explore the barriers and issues
in November 2018. Around half residential charge points, having in supporting the public charge point to delivering charging infrastructure
of these are dedicated to taxis, in received capital funding from OLEV network in London to date, but as in urban areas by contributing
support of ZEC taxis. The vast majority (awarded in January 2016) which is numbers of EVs rise, we need to have to, and analysing, the outputs from
of this initial batch of rapid chargers match funded by boroughs. a better understanding of how many the workshops
have been sited along TfL’s roads A total of £5.2m of the OLEV funding more will be needed and who should
(TfL manages approximately five per is allocated for residential slow deliver these. yy Consider the role of the public
cent of London’s roads, known as the on-street charge points and a new and private sector in facilitating a
Transport for London Road Network framework has been set up, including 1.4 The Mayor’s EV competitive market and partnership
or TLRN). This has enabled the high standards for operators to Infrastructure Taskforce working, including land owners,
speedy establishment of the core of meet. Much of the funding is going We are now at a critical point in charge point service providers and
a strategic network, and we are now towards the smaller and more cost- the delivery of EV infrastructure, vehicle manufacturers
beginning to see some rapid charge effective lamppost charge points, where we need to look at
points go in along borough roads. and GULCS has already achieved its implementation beyond the initial yy Share any relevant knowledge or
estimated target of 1,150 on street pump-priming that public funding can, research with the wider taskforce
Historically, to provide slow charging residential charge points by the end or should, provide. This will require group, and keep abreast of any
for all, the ‘Source London’ EV of 2020. industry, businesses and the public pertinent industry developments
charging scheme was established by sector to come together to develop a
TfL in May 2011. The scheme brought The GLA has also begun to provide shared understanding of how, yy Inform and steer the development
together a number of disparate public charge points for its own fleets, when and where the next phase of a shared EV infrastructure
and private charging networks from and has committed in the Mayor’s of charging infrastructure will be delivery plan (this document),
across the Greater London area to Transport Strategy for all cars in delivered in the Capital. This can explaining the most effective
form a single, publicly accessible the GLA support fleets to be zero only be achieved with cross-sector methods for delivery and the
charging network for EV drivers. emission capable by 2025. The expertise and partnership working, scale of infrastructure required
TfL initially acted as the operator Mayor’s Transport Strategy also set and this is the remit of the Mayor’s
of the scheme, with responsibility an objective for zero emission buses, EV Infrastructure Taskforce. yy Share, promote and gain stakeholder
for managing the Source London pledging that TfL will have a 100 per commitment to the delivery plan
consortium and providing back office cent zero emission fleet by 2037 at the 1.4.1 Who are the taskforce?
systems and services for members. latest (this includes more than 9,000 At a launch event on 31 May Heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) were
Under the stewardship of TfL, the operator-run buses). The transition 2018, the Mayor of London considered to be out of scope, as the
scheme grew from around 200 charge effort is well under way, with: invited industry leaders from technology for these vehicles is not
points in 2011 to more than 1,400 in 16 organisations to join the EV well developed and therefore they are
2014. The management and operation yy All new double-deck buses Infrastructure Taskforce, chaired by unlikely to be a significant user group
of the source London network was procured for new contracts the Deputy Mayor for Environment over the next five years, which is
transitioned to the commercial needing to be hybrid, electric and Energy, Shirley Rodrigues. the timescale the delivery plan
operator IER Bolloré in September or hydrogen by 2018 considers. Their needs for charging
14 This funding pot is made up from OLEV grants under the following funding streams: National
Infrastructure Plan, the Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ) Taxi Competition and a contribution
from the Go Ultra Low City Scheme (GULCS) scheme
20 21Taskforce members: and space required means that they Workshop 1 on understanding
are unlikely to fit the charging models user requirements gave a greater
– British Electrotechnical for cars and vans. The taskforce has understanding of typical user
and Allied Manufacturers’
Association (BEAMA)
however included engagement with characteristics, revealing that private
the freight industry to understand users mostly travelled under 10 miles
– Cross River Partnership their charging needs and barriers to a day whereas most commercial
take-up for a range of vehicles, which users travelled under 75 miles a
– Energy UK has informed the findings of the day. Different users experienced
– Federation of Small
delivery plan. different challenges such as parking
Businesses (FSB) and streetscape-related issues, and
Electric bicycles, scooters and had varied commercial requirements
– Freight Transport alternative fuels have separate (importance of depot as well as
Association (FTA) and distinct needs that are outside in-transit ‘opportunity’ charging).
the core focus of the taskforce,
– London Councils
which is about providing charging Workshop 2 on land and power
– London First infrastructure for EVs. Also out of constraints discussed, in terms of
scope are autonomous vehicles, which land, the issues around planning
– Mayor of London are being considered separately from consent, use of permitted
– Office for Low Emission
this workstream by TfL, as it was felt development rights, shared land
Vehicles (OLEV) that within the timeframe (to 2025) it assets, utilising off-street spaces out
is unlikely that we will see significant of hours and the merits of
– Ofgem change in London’s vehicle make-up. partnerships or consortium
approaches. In terms of energy,
– Royal Automobile Club
1.4.3 Stakeholder discussions we explored the realities of smart
(RAC) Foundation
During 2018, TfL and the GLA charging and energy storage
– Royal Institution of organised a series of major EV solutions, demand management
Chartered Surveyors (RICS) Infrastructure Taskforce events, and ‘time of use’ incentives,
including three key workshops, and issues around information
– Society for Motor round-table discussions and a regarding network capacity.
Manufacturers and
Traders (SMMT)
range of one-to-one meetings to
engage as widely as possible with Workshop 3 on market models
– Shell UK stakeholder groups. and financing focused on how
important charge point utilisation
– SSE Enterprise The three workshops were facilitated is and how this could be maximised.
– Transport for
in London between July and October We also covered the importance of
London (TfL) 2018 to consult a wider group of reliability and minimising maintenance
stakeholders on the need for public costs, the benefits of delivering
– UK Power Networks charging facilities in London to 2025, alongside existing services, realistic
(UKPN) the current barriers and potential payback periods, including lease
solutions for roll-out, and the terms, as well as future-proofing.
associated business case challenges The audience felt that public funds
and opportunities they present. should be used primarily where little
commercial opportunity exists –
for social provision, equality and
good coverage.
Image 5
The Mayor of London
and members of the EV
Infrastructure Taskforce at the
launch event at City Hall in
May 2018
22 23Figure 3 Lease / land owners
Example of the
breadth of stakeholders
consulted for the EV
Infrastructure Taskforce
Car and van share London boroughs
Consultants
Suppliers
Users
Charge point suppliers / operators BY MENZIES DISTRIBUTION
Vehicle technology solutions
Finance Other
optimeyes
innovative energy solutions
24 25Smaller, more focused, stakeholder The model has been based on Table 3: A selection of key meetings and stakeholder events beyond the core workshops,
workshops included taxi and the best current understanding of which fed into this report
private hire operators, charge point EV trajectories, vehicle/charging
manufacturers, LoCITY members,15 technology, range of likely user
Distribution Network Operators behaviour and charger utilisation. When What and who with Engagement summary
(DNOs), existing charging network It has been formed from a range of
operators in London and vehicle research, and stress tested with a June 2018 LoCITY working groups Presented on taskforce and offered for
manufacturers and operators range of experts, including several stakeholders to join workshops
(see Table 3). members of the taskforce. However,
Aug 2018 – Meetings with vehicle Invited input and insight into EV user needs from
it must be stressed that, consistent Feb 2019 manufactures their customers, discussion around future market
Over the course of this work, we have with the nature of predictive and models coming out
involved 350 stakeholders from more modelling, it cannot forecast with
Sept 2018 E-mobility Charging Conference – Presented on taskforce and its key activities.
than 140 different organisations, certainty and its results should not Milton Keynes Invited to feed in and comment
across a broad range of areas including be treated as such.
financing, manufacturing, academia, Oct 2018 Taxi trade representatives workshop Discussed taxi drivers’ charging needs for ZEC taxis
consultancy and private business, Key insights from the model are Oct 2018 Private hire representatives Meeting to discuss private hire drivers’ needs,
retail and public sector. This has provided in Section 3.2, with full workshop including specific mix of PHEV and BEV needs,
enabled us to gather information from details provided in Appendix A. and typical PHV driver requirements
the broadest possible base and shape Oct 2018 Infrastructure Projects Authority Discussed the process for the IPA’s Charging
the development of this work. (IPA) meeting Infrastructure Investment fund (£200m fund, to
be match funded to make £400m)
1.4.4 Modelling potential demand
Oct 2018 Round-table discussion with High-level commitments from members were
for charge points in London London Climate Business Leaders discussed and how they could help each other.
A unique feature of the taskforce Keen to convince investors and those ‘up’ the
work has been the development of an supply chain, the leasing companies and the
innovative quantitative model which ‘parent’ banks
aims to provide new insight into how Nov 2018 Round-table discussion with Update on taskforce and high-level outcomes from
many chargers of which type may be London First members workshops. Introduction of Charter of commitments
needed in London up to 2025. For the
Nov 2018 – Zap-Map meetings A number of meetings to discuss data held by
first time, the scale of these needs Feb 2019 Zap-Map and how we can use this to further our
has been modelled for London and understanding of charge points in London
this forms a key part of the evidence
Dec 2018 Siemens round-table meeting: Discussions on the likely future for EV charging
base used to move the understanding
‘Opportunities to develop the and key influences on the need for public
of London’s EV needs forward. The London EV ecosystem’ infrastructure
model may also provide a means
to examine future activity against Dec 2018 BP round-table discussion ‘Whole Discussions around high-powered charging
of value chain initiative on high-
projections and revisit these if EV powered charging’
sales follow a different path to what
has been assumed. Jan 2019 Round-table meeting with car- and Gave an update on taskforce process and
van-sharing providers discussed unique charging needs and possible
solutions for vehicle sharing
Mar/April 2019 Meetings with investors in EV Overview of top-level findings and enablers
tech and infrastructure and other
selected stakeholders to talk
through delivery plan findings
May 2019 Charge point manufacturers and Comments on delivery plan and initial discussions
operators round-table on futureproofing
May 2019 Stakeholder workshop to present Overview of top-level findings and enablers
the findings from the delivery plan
15 LoCITY is a TfL industry engagement programme helping the freight and fleet sector improve
air quality and reduce carbon emissions https://locity.org.uk
26 272 The current situation
in London
This chapter provides a review of the latest insights
regarding electric vehicles and charging infrastructure,
with emphasis on developments in London.
2.1 Electric vehicles
2.1.1 Categories and definitions PHEVs are zero emission depends of around 70:30.18 However, the yy The removal of the Government Image 6
For the purpose of this delivery plan, on the extent they are driven in BEV market in London is already well grant for most PHEV purchases On-street charger in use
an electric vehicle (EV) is taken to zero emission mode. Some reports ahead of that of other parts of the UK from November 201823 in London
mean a vehicle with a battery that can have highlighted concerns regarding – with BEVs comprising 48 per cent of
be recharged by plugging into mains low actual use of zero emission mode new EVs registered in London.19 The yy Strong intentions have been
electricity. This definition is taken to by PHEVs.16 type of charging infrastructure can communicated via London’s recent
refer to both: also influence the type of EVs being policies around establishing ZEZs
2.1.2 London EV registrations used, as most PHEVs can only use in the Mayor’s Transport Strategy,
yy Battery electric vehicles (BEVs), As of the end of Quarter 4 2018, a slower AC chargers.20 and removing the discount to the
also known as ‘pure’ or ‘100 per total of approximately 20,62217 EVs Congestion Charge for all but pure
cent’ EVs, which are always powered were registered in Greater London, The higher proportion of BEVs in EVs from 202124
by the battery reflecting around 0.69 per cent of the London is likely to increase further
total vehicles registered in London. for the following reasons: Registration data for London provides
yy Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles As indicated in Figure 4, new EV important context for charging
(PHEVs), which combine a small plug- registrations have been growing year yy The cost and range difference infrastructure requirements, however
in battery with an internal combustion on year across London and the UK, between hybrid and fully electric there is also significant use of London
engine (ICE). Includes both parallel representing 2.81 per cent of new vehicles is reducing – with batteries roads by non-London registered
and series plug-in hybrids (also know registrations in 2018 in London, getting cheaper and battery sizes in vehicles and vice versa. Analysis by TfL
as range extenders) higher than the 2.13 per cent average BEVs increasing21 indicates that, on average, 74 per cent
for the UK. of the vehicle kilometres driven on
As BEVs can only run on the battery, yy PHEVs are more complex and London’s roads are driven by London
they do not emit tailpipe emissions In the UK, PHEVs currently make expensive to maintain due to residents, whilst 62 per cent of
and are dependent on charging, up a higher proportion of new having both electric and internal vehicle kilometres driven by London’s
whereas the extent to which registrations than BEVs, with a ratio combustion powertrains22 residents are on London’s roads.25
16 New analysis of plug-in hybrid car mpg and emissions is expected to spark debate on their 22 PHEV engine, Making the Connection, The Plug-In Vehicle Infrastructure Strategy, OLEV
suitability for fleet operation, The Miles Consultancy, 19 September 2017 https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_
17 Total EV registration, London, DfT Statistics for London, Dataset VEH0131 Vehicles include: data/file/3986/plug-n-vehicle-infrastructure-strategy.pdf
Plug-in cars, LGVs and quadricycles 23 EV grant changes, Government website, www.gov.uk/government/publications/plug-in-car-
18 Data provided by the SMMT, 2018 grant-changes-to-grant-level-november-2018/upcoming-changes-to-the-plug-in-car-grant
19 Data provided by the SMMT, 2018 24 Changes to the Congestion Charging exemptions: tfl.gov.uk/modes/driving/congestion-
charge/discounts-and-exemptions
20 However, the most popular Mitsubishi Outlander can charge rapidly
25 Source for percentage of residents using London’s roads from Analysis of Project Edmond
21 EV costs, Parliament Publications: https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/
data, City Planning, TfL
cmbeis/383/383.pdf
28 29Figure 4 First time registrations in London (% of total first time registrations) 2.1.3 Market offering capacity, corresponding to 150-200km
Plug-in vehicles registered Model availability of range, whereas recently released
for the first time in London The number of EV models available models and near-term planned
70,000
and UK26
has expanded significantly in recent releases typically are featuring
London years. For passenger vehicle segments, 40-60kWh batteries and ranges
60,000
most mainstream car manufacturers greater than 250-300km. Premium
UK now offer an EV model, with more segment vehicles have a further step
50,000 than 60 BEV or PHEV models available up in range, with Tesla Model S and
to buy or lease in the UK across all Model X having 75-100kWh capacity,
vehicle segments.27 The notable corresponding to >500km of range.
40,000
trends among new models coming to
market and upcoming launches are Vehicle price
30,000 the increasing battery capacities and For both passenger vehicles and
capabilities to support faster charger LGVs, EVs have operational cost
20,000
rates. While the breadth of electrified advantages over traditional internal
models continues to increase, this combustion engine (ICE) vehicles due
5,309 5,184 does not yet correspond to availability to lower energy and therefore running
2,316 2,871 (2.72%)
10,000 (2.81%) of supply, with continued evidence costs. However, the upfront price is
1,272 (1.16%) (1.41%)
259 of limited production runs and long higher and still a considerable barrier
0
waiting times28 although this is to adoption.
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 beginning to change as manufacturers
catch up. Figure 5 demonstrates this price
differential with a review of the
For the light goods vehicle (LGV) prices of most popular passenger
sector, the choice of EVs has been vehicle models for the different
First time registrations in the UK (% of total first time registrations) limited for vehicle buyers until powertrains for different vehicle
recently, although a number of segments. There is a move by car
70,000 61,293 new product launches in 2018, or manufacturers to shift from purchase
(2.13%) announced for 2019, have created price to Total Cost of Ownership
greater breadth in the marketplace. (TCO).29 This is to reflect tax and
60,000
49,077 The market for LGVs is very price other penalties, as well as the cost of
(1.61%) sensitive, so take-up of vehicles with electricity (fuel).
50,000 a price premium tends to be slow.
38,293 While the upfront price of EVs is
(1.20%)
40,000
Vehicle range and battery size currently higher than equivalent
29,368 Vehicle battery sizes and range of ICE vehicles, prices are expected
(0.93%) BEVs have been increasing over recent to continue to decline, with some
30,000 years, with earlier models of small and analysts suggesting cost parity of
medium cars typically havingFigure 5 Popular supermini cars Popular SUVs
Review of approximate
vehicle prices for popular
80 80
models across different
vehicle classes and
powertrain types. Prices 70 70
shown in £000s31
60 60
ICE
BEV 50 50
PHEV
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
Vauxhall Corsa VW Polo Ford Fiesta Renault Zoe BMW i3 Nissan Qashqai Kia Sportage Ford Kuga Mitsubishi Jaguar I-PACE Volvo Land Rover Range Tesla
Style 1.5 TDCi Q90 ZE40 Outlander PHEV XC-90 T8 Rover Sport Model X 75D
Popular medium cars Popular executive cars
80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
Kia Soul Ford Focus VW Golf Nissan Leaf Kia Soul EV Hyundai IONIQ VW e-Golf Kia Niro Mercedes C Class BMW 5 series Mercedes E Class BMW 530e iperf Mercedes Tesla
Petrol 1.6GDi Style 1.5 Diesel 1.6TDi Diesel E 350e Plug-in Model S 75D
31 TfL market review, 2019
32 33PHEV charge capability (kW) BEV charge capability (kW)
150 150
135 135
125 125
100 100
75 75
50 50 50 50
50 50
22
25 25 22
11 11 11
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 7 7
4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0
Audi A3 e-tron BMW 330e Hyundai Kia Niro Mercedes Porsche Panemera Toyota VW e-Golf Mitsubishi Renault ZOE R(Q) Nissan e-NV200 Nissan Leaf VW e-Golf BMW i3 Tesla Model S Tesla Model X
Ioniq PHEV C350e S E-hybrid Prius plug-in GTE Outlander
Figure 6 2.1.4 Vehicle-charging capability to 11kW or less for many current of charge on arrival and power
Review of charging AC and DC charging for BEVs BEVs and to 3.6kW or less for many acceptance curve of the vehicle.
capabilities of selection of and PHEVs current PHEVs. For example, a battery at 15 per
currently available EVs32
It is critical to note that the speed cent, a low state of charge, will
Max AC charge of charging for both AC and DC Battery size, chemistry and battery typically charge at a higher rate
capability (kW) charging is not solely dependent on management systems determine the than one at 60 per cent.
the potential charging speed of the potential for DC charging, meaning
Max DC charge charger, but also on the vehicle and its that vehicles rated for use of 50kW A review of planned new EV model
capability (kW)
state of charge. The variety of charging DC rapid chargers would be unable to launches over the coming years
capability is indicated across a range draw the maximum power potential indicates the majority of future
of current EV models in Figure 6. of the higher powered 100kW+ DC BEV models facilitate a maximum
chargers. This has implications for AC charging power of 11kW, and
AC charging requires an on-board the future-proofing of infrastructure, typically at least 50kW DC charging,
rectifier to convert AC power to which results in cautious investment. with a number of post-2019 launches
DC required for battery storage. also supporting ultra-rapid charging
The size of the on-board rectifier The rate of DC charge is also (100-350kW).
limits the maximum AC charge rate dependent on the battery’s state
32 Abstracted from RAC Foundation, 2018
34 35Battery degradation concerns EV manufacturers are continually
There has been considerable debate improving battery performance
over the impact of rapid charging on and reducing the impacts of
battery life, with concerns raised over degradation and loss of capacity.
potential for accelerated degradation. This is important for the potential
These concerns have been role of rapid charging and the
compounded by vehicle manufacturers next generation of ultra-rapid
including caveats in battery chargers (100kW+) for EV users.
warranties, often limiting the use of This is because, as charging power
rapid charging or otherwise potentially increases, all other things being
compromising warranted repairs. equal, more potential stress is
However, research has indicated imposed on EV batteries, which
that the negative impact of such could lead to accelerated ageing.
charging behaviour is largely over- Technical challenges posed by ultra-
stated. Authoritative studies in the rapid charging can be mitigated by
USA, UK and Europe, as well as well- proportionally increasing battery
documented open source information capacity, designing more effective
from EV owners, have demonstrated thermal management (heating/
that battery management systems cooling of the battery pack) or
with appropriate charging protection implementing more sophisticated
strategies are effective at limiting protection when necessary.
incremental battery degradation due
to rapid charging.33, 34
33 SAE Technical Paper 2015-01-1190, Effects of Electric Vehicle Fast Charging on Battery
Image 7 Life and Vehicle Performance, Shirk, M. and Wishart, J., 2015
Rapid charge point in 34 On the possibility of extending the lifetime of lithium-ion batteries through optimal V2G
use in London facilitated by a flexible integrated vehicle and smart-grid system, Energy, 133, pp. 710-
722, Uddin, Kotub, Jackson, Tim, Widanage, Widanalage Dhammika, Chouchelamane, Gael,
Jennings, P.A. (Paul A.) and Marco, James, 2017
36 37Table 4: Categories of charging infrastructure
Category
Type of power kW
Type of connector Typical formats Points to note
Rapid yy Rapid charge hubs yy Fastest charge speeds (~22kWh in 30mins providing
DC 50+ (CCS/ yy Fuel stations ~120km of range for 50kW rapid)
CHAdeMO/Su- yy Higher capital cost (~£50,000) and higher prices
yy Taxi rest ranks
percharger) (20-40p/kWh)*
AC 43+ (Type 2) – Most new BEVs can use rapid DC chargers
– Maximum DC charge for majority of new BEVs is 50kW
– Some premium models allow 100kW+
– Maximum DC charge of some PHEVs is 22kW
– No DC charging for many PHEVs/older BEVs
Concerns regarding battery degradation owing to use of rapid
chargers are easing
Destination yy Retail / public yy Slower speeds (~22kWh/~120km of range in 3 hours for a
Slow to fast car parks 7kW fast charger and 6 hours for a 3.6kW slow charger)
AC 3-22 yy Urban centre yy Lower capital cost ~£4-6,000 for a fast charger and as low as
(Type 2) streets £1,000 for a slow charger
yy Leisure centres yy Lower prices (9-15p/kWh)
yy Hospitality yy Streetscape impact will limit on-street mass deployment
Residential yy Charge pillars yy All EVs can use a form of AC charging, however
Slow to fast – Maximum AC charge of many PHEVs is ~3.6kW
yy Lampposts
AC 3-22 – Maximum AC charge of many BEVs is 11kW
yy Pop-up/ kerb – Some exceptions allow 22kW
(Type 2)
chargers
Private yy Home
Varies yy Workplace
yy Depot
Image 8 2.2 Charging infrastructure Publicly accessible Not publicly accessible
Slow charge point being
installed in London *Indicative pay as you go price range
2.2.1 Categories and definitions In this delivery plan, we have
There are many ways to categorise categorised what we believe the
charging infrastructure, including dominant charging formats are for
charge speed, connector compatibility, London in Table 4. The three categories
electrical current type (AC/DC) and of publicly accessible charging include Figure 7
location type (such as on-street/off- elements of both charging speed and Examples of the
street residential, fuel station, retail, location (for slow to fast chargers). different categories of
charging infrastructure
leisure and car parks). The fourth category, private charging, as set out in Table 4
is critical in its effects on the demand
for public chargers, but is not the focus
of this report.
Rapid Destination Residential Private
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