Management of Fish Ponds in Pennsylvania

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Management of
Fish Ponds in
Pennsylvania

College of Agricultural Sciences   Agricultural Research and Cooperative
                                   Extension
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Table of Contents                           About This Publication                          Where to Get Help with

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                                                                                            Pond Management

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3   About This Publication                  Ponds are a common feature of

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                                            Pennsylvania’s landscape. Although they         Assistance with pond management is

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3   Where to Get Help with Pond

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                                            occur naturally in some parts of the            available from a variety of sources. In

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    Management

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                                            state, thousands also have been con-            addition to county Cooperative Exten-

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                                            structed for a variety of purposes. Many        sion offices, local offices of the Natural

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4   Developing Objectives for Your

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                                            were built under the technical supervi-         Resources Conservation Service

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    Pond

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                                            sion of the United States Natural               (NRCS), Pennsylvania Fish and Boat

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4   Planning a New Pond                     Resources Conservation Service (for-            Commission (PFBC), and Pennsylvania

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                                            merly the Soil Conservation Service),           Department of Environmental Protec-
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6   Design
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                                            largely to assist farming operations. In        tion (DEP) may be able to advise pond

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                                            more recent years, the recreational uses        owners. Often, consultants are hired to
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8   Construction
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                                            of ponds have become more important             implement major pond management
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10 Maintenance                              to pond owners.                                 practices. The agencies listed below or

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                                                                                            your local Yellow Pages may be able to
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12 Water Quality

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                                            Regardless of a pond’s intended use, its        direct you to local pond
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                                                                                            consultants.

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12 Physical Water Quality                   management can be difficult and
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                                            complex. Even with careful planning,

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14 Chemical Water Quality                   many ponds do not meet the objectives
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                                                                                               Sources of Assistance
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                                            of their owners or serve their intended
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15 Biological Water Quality
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                                            purposes. Fortunately, management

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                                                                                               PA Fish and Boat Commission

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                                            techniques are available to help you deal
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16 Testing Your Pond Water Quality
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                                                                                               Phone: (717) 705-7800

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                                            with almost any pond problem.
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                                                                                               Check phone book for local
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16 Pond Fisheries Management
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                                            The purpose of this publication is to              number.
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16 Warmwater Versus Coldwater               provide general information about a
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                                                                                               http://www.state.pa.us/PA_Exec/
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                                                                                               Fish_Boat/
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                                            wide variety of pond management
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17 Warmwater Pond Management
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                                            principles applicable to Pennsylvania. It
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                                                                                               PA Department of Environmental
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20 Management of Trout Ponds                is not intended to be a complete or
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                                                                                               Protection
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                                            exhaustive guide. References are given in
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23 Sources of Fish for Stocking Ponds                                                          Phone: (717) 783-2300
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                                            the text to more comprehensive publica-
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                                                                                               Check phone book for regional
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                                            tions and Web pages where they are
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23 Regulations and Laws Affecting
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                                                                                               office.
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   Fish Ponds                               available.
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                                                                                               http://www.dep.state.pa.us/
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24 Aquaculture                              Although some generalizations can be
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                                                                                               Natural Resources Conservation
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                                            applied to pond management, each
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24 Aquatic Plants and Algae                                                                    Service
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                                            pond is unique and may require specific
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                                                                                               Phone: (717) 237-2200 (Pennsyl-
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                                            treatment to achieve a desired result.
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25 Identification of Plants and Algae
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                                                                                               vania office)
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                                            When the general recommendations of
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                                                                                               Check phone book for local office.
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26 Causes of Plant and Algae Growth         this publication appear to be inad-
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                                            equate, you are encouraged to seek                 http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/
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26 Preventing Plant and Algae Growth
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                                            additional professional assistance.
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                                                                                               Penn State Cooperative Extension
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27 Control of Plant and Algae Growth
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                                                                                               Check phone book for county
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                                                                                               office.
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29 Miscellaneous Troubles and
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                                                                                               http://www.extension.psu.edu/
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   Treatments
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                                                                                                                                    3
with a trout fishery as the objective.

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Developing Objectives for                        Recognize the limitations of the                 Planning a New Pond

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Your Pond

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                                                 resources available, then develop

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                                                                                                  When deciding where to locate a new

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                                                 objectives and plans that fall within

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You may have a wide variety of reasons           these limitations. This will make                pond on your property, you should

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for building or owning a pond. The first                                                          consider several critical factors. These

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                                                 management of the pond easier, less

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and most important step of proper                                                                 include topography, land use, soil

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                                                 costly, and more satisfying and

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pond management is choosing your                 rewarding.                                       texture, and water supply. In some cases,

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                                                                                                  these factors may limit the pond

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primary objective or use for your pond

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                                                                                                  location to one site. Where these factors

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and understanding the limitations this           Ponds are frequently used in several

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will place on other uses of the pond. For        ways to satisfy more than one objective.         are equally satisfactory at several

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example, small ponds today are com-              For example, having water available in           locations, appearance and convenience

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monly used to aesthetically enhance the          the pond for fire protection usually does        will play a role in site selection.
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landscape, but their relatively simple           not conflict with other objectives such

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construction may not provide the best            as swimming or fishing. Multiple-use             For example, a pond located near a

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facilities for other activities like swim-       ponds are fine as long as the uses are           house, where it can be observed
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ming, boating, and fishing. The                  compatible. When conflicting or                  frequently and conveniently, is safer and

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importance of establishing objectives for        incompatible uses are desired, you must          more desirable for family recreation. It

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the projected uses of a given pond                                                                can be used as a source of water for fire
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                                                 assign priorities to your objectives. For

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cannot be overemphasized. Careful                                                                 protection or for irrigating a small

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                                                 example, the objective of providing for
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consideration of use compatibility and           swimming may conflict directly with              garden. Road access to the pond is

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use priorities is essential in planning a                                                         important if it is to be used for fire
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                                                 the objective of having water available

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new pond.                                                                                         protection, so fire trucks can drive to

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                                                 for irrigation. Irrigation needs may
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                                                 lower the water level to a point where           within 15 feet of the water.

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In dealing with an existing pond, you            swimming is impossible, at a time when

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                                                                                                  The size of the pond will be determined
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will need a slightly different approach.         it is most wanted. If this occurs, you
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Make an appraisal, or have one made,             must decide which objective is most              by the site characteristics and money
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that describes the existing pond and its         important. Sometimes planning and                you want to spend on construction and
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potential for management. For example,           management can eliminate or at least             maintenance. Keep in mind that small
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if the water quality is unacceptable for         reduce these conflicts. This is one reason       ponds are not easy to manage for fish.
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trout, it would be pointless to spend a          for listing and prioritizing specific            Normally, ponds of less than 1/4 acre in
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great deal of time developing a plan             objectives.                                      surface area are too small for effective
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                                                                                                  management of warmwater fish. Ponds
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                                                                                                  as small as 1/10 acre in surface area may
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Table 1. The most common primary uses of ponds, from a survey of 557 pond                         be suitable for trout, however, if they
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                                                                                                  have appropriate water quality.
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owners throughout Pennsylvania.
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    Pond Use                                     Percent of Respondents
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    Aesthetic Beauty                             45%
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    Fishing                                      21
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    Wildlife Habitat                             11
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    Swimming                                     7
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    Animal Drinking Water                        6
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    Fire Protection                              6
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    Irrigation                                   1
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    Other                                        3
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4
subsurface seepage are adequate during

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                                                                                               even the driest years. Normally, a

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                                                                                               drainage area of 10 to 20 acres yields

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                                                                                               sufficient water for a one-acre pond in

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                                                                                               Pennsylvania.

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                                                                                               Land use around the water supply is

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                                                                                               critical in determining the water quality

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                                                                                               of the pond. All sources of water

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                                                                                               contributing to the pond should be free

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                                                                                               of sediment, pesticides, and other forms

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                                                                                               of pollution. It is generally a good idea

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                                                                                               to establish a buffer strip of vegetation

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                                                                                               around the pond to trap sediment and

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                                                                                               keep it out of the water. Ponds also

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                                                                                               commonly suffer from excessive

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                                                                                               amounts of nitrogen and other nutri-

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                                                                                               ents. These nutrients often originate

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                                                                                               from animal or human waste or

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                                                                                               fertilizers from nearby barnyards, crop

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                                                                                               fields, and septic systems. Drainage

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                                                                                               from these areas should be diverted

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                                                                                               away from the pond, since too much
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                                                                                               nitrogen and other nutrients will cause

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The Pond Watershed                             Soil texture must be considered when            excessive growth of weeds and algae.
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The area of land surrounding the pond          selecting the pond site. The bottom of
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                                               the pond, the banks, and the earth fill         Construction Permits
that contributes water to it is known as                                                   ○
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                                               placed in the dam must contain enough
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the pond watershed. Understanding the
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                                                                                               Permits for the construction of ponds or
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pond watershed is important, because           clay or silt to prevent seepage and make        dams may be required, depending on
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                                               the reservoir hold water. Normally, areas
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anything that occurs within this area                                                          the size of the drainage area, the height
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can affect the pond. Locating a pond in        that include exposed bedrock or beds of
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                                                                                               of the dam, and the capacity of the
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an undisturbed area or minimizing              sand or gravel are not satisfactory.            impoundment. A permit is required for
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                                               Anyone who is considering building a
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disturbance and land use changes within                                                        the construction of any dam that
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the pond watershed are important               pond should have the soils and geologi-
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                                                                                               impounds the runoff from a drainage
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components of managing a pond.                 cal conditions in the area checked by a         area that exceeds 100 acres or provides a
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                                               professional consultant knowledgeable           maximum storage capacity of 50 acre-
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                                               and competent in making site
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The ideal topography for a pond                                                                feet of water (about 16.3 million
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watershed is a natural depression or a         investigations.                                 gallons). A permit also is required for
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broad drainage with a narrow neck at its                                                       any pond with a dam more than 15 feet
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lower end where only a short dam will          Water Supply                                    high, even if the pond’s only source of
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be needed. The most economical site is
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                                               Springs, seeps, and small streams are           water is a spring, a well, or a small
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one that will require the smallest dam                                                         pipeline from a stream. Permits are not
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                                               typically the best sources of water for
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and the least amount of work for the                                                           required for ponds that do not exceed
                                               ponds. They usually provide cool and
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size of the pond created. Small ponds
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                                               relatively clean water suitable for most        these specifications.
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collecting runoff from large drainage
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                                               pond uses. If an obvious water supply is
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areas require expensive overflow and                                                           Contact your local Pennsylvania DEP
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                                               not available, direct surface runoff from
spillway systems to handle water safely.
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                                               the surrounding land can be the                 office for more information and to
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                                                                                               obtain the necessary permit application.
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                                               primary source of water to maintain the
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                                                                                               The office telephone number and
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                                               level of a pond. The drainage area
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                                               should be large enough to ensure that           location can be found in the state
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                                                                                               government pages of your local phone
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                                               the combined surface runoff and
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                                                                                               book.
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                                                                                                                                         5
Safety and Liability Concerns                   Although many pond owners willingly

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                                                allow use of their land and water areas           Design

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Safety and liability are legitimate

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                                                for varied recreational purposes, liability

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concerns of all landowners, and ponds

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                                                for accidents is a justifiable concern. To        Ponds designed and constructed

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create an additional reason for concern.

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                                                address this issue, Pennsylvania enacted          according to recommended standards

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Ponds may pose a downstream threat,

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                                                a law that has as its purpose “encourag-          are relatively safe, easy to manage, and

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and consequently the aforementioned

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                                                ing landowners to make land and water             fairly economical to build. Ponds

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permits are required to ensure proper

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                                                areas available to the public for recre-          constructed haphazardly are unsatisfac-

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construction.

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                                                ational purposes by limiting liability in         tory and difficult to maintain. It pays to

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                                                connection therewith, and repealing               obtain information and expert advice
Ponds, like any body of water, attract

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                                                certain acts.” This law generally limits          before you start construction. This

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people. When the two come together,

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                                                landowner liability, except for “willful or       section briefly discusses the basic

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accidents sometimes can occur. Con-

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                                                malicious failure to guard or warn                components of a well-designed pond.
sider safety features when planning your

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                                                against a dangerous condition, use,

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pond. Remove trees, stumps, and brush

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                                                structure, or activity.” Liability also is

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that may be a hazard to swimmers. Keep                                                               For More Information on Pond

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                                                not limited when fees are assessed for
the pond and banks free of rubbish,

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                                                recreational uses such as fishing,                   Design, Construction, and

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wire, cans, bottles, and other debris.

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                                                regulated shooting, campsite rentals,                Maintenance

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After the pond is built and filled with

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                                                and other for-fee activities.
water, mark the swimming area and                                                                    Look in the U.S. Government

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post safety rules for all permitted water                                                            pages of your phone book for your

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                                                In addition to the protection offered by

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uses. Place warning signs at all known                                                               local Natural Resources Conserva-

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                                                this law, most landowners carry compre-
danger spots. If boating and swimming

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                                                                                                     tion Service office. Request
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                                                hensive liability insurance on their

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are permitted, consider building a dock                                                              Agriculture Handbook Number

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                                                property. Some pond owners also

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or pier. Place lifesaving devices such as                                                            590, Ponds—Planning, Design,

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                                                choose to restrict access to their pond by

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ring buoys, ropes, or long poles near
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                                                                                                     Construction. This 85-page color

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                                                posting signs prohibiting tresspassing.
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swimming areas.                                                                                      publication gives detailed informa-
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                                                You should consult with an attorney           ○
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                                                                                              ○      tion on proper pond design and
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                                                and an insurance agent for proper legal
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                                                                                                     construction, including detailed
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                                                interpretation and protection for the
                                                                                                     illustrations.
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                                                specific circumstances involved with
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                                                your pond.
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6
Figure 1. Pond construction.

                                              Top of
                                              dam at
                                                                                                       Water level             Steep banks
                                              least 6’
                                              wide
    Adequate spillway                                         Freeboard
                 Dam                                                            Outlet pipe
       Antiseep collar                                                          3:1 slope

                                                                                                                     Valve or breakable plug

                                                                                 Drain pipe

                                                                                 Core fill
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○
Top Width and Side Slopes of Dam                  Emergency Spillway                              Freeboard
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○
The top width of the dam depends on               An emergency spillway is necessary to           The crest, or top, of all earth dams must
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○
the height of the structure. In most              provide a safe overflow outlet for              be higher than the normal water level to
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

cases, the dam should be wide enough              floodwater. Be sure that your pond has          keep waves and high water from

                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○
to permit limited use as a roadway for            one. The spillway should be constructed         breaking over the top and cutting
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

vehicles. The minimum top width                   in the undisturbed bank at one end of           channels through the structure. After

                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

should be 6 feet if the dam is less than          the dam. It should have a flat-bottomed         settling, the top of the dam for a one-

                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

10 feet tall. The minimum top width               channel large enough to handle the              acre or smaller pond should be at least

                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

increases to 14 feet for a dam that is            overflow caused by a 10- to 50-year             1.5 feet above the high water level or

                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○
over 25 feet tall.                                rainstorm, depending on the size and            the elevation of water designed to flow
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                  watershed area. Pennsylvania DEP                through the emergency spillway (see
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

All earth dams should be constructed              requirements must be met for dams that      ○   above). The interval between the water
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○

with side slopes stable enough to                 are large enough to require a permit (see       level and the top of the dam is called the
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

prevent erosion and keep the earth fill           permit section).                                freeboard. The freeboard interval is
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

in place. In most instances, a slope of 3                                                         maintained by the emergency spillway
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

feet horizontal to 1 foot vertical (3:1) on       The spillway, including the side slopes         and the outlet pipe.
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

both the upstream and downstream                  and channel bottom, should be planted
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

faces of the dam will be satisfactory.            with a mixture of grass seed that will          Outlet Pipe
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

Under no circumstance should either               produce a thick, tough sod. Good sod            A drop- or hood-inlet pipe should be
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

face of the dam or any excavated slope            prevents rushing floodwater from
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                  installed through the dam to provide an
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

be steeper than 2:1. Proper slope is              scouring deep ruts in the channel. The
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                  outlet for the normal flow of water. The
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

especially important in the shallow               pond should not be filled with water            pipe, which governs the depth of water
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

edges of the pond. Water should be at             until the sod becomes well established
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                  in the pond, should be positioned at a
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

least 3 feet deep at a point 6 feet out           and the spillway is ready for use.
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                  level about 12 inches below the bottom
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

from the shoreline to discourage growth                                                           of the emergency spillway. The pipe
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○

of algae and aquatic weeds. Experience
                                              ○

                                                                                                  should be large enough to drain the full
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

indicates that it is best to slope the
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                  pond down to normal water level within
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

banks properly at the time of                                                                     24 hours after the flow through the
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○

construction.
                                              ○

                                                                                                  emergency spillway ends. These pipe
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                  sizes vary with drainage area and pond
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○

                                                                                                  storage characteristics and should be
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                  determined by an engineering
                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                              ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                  professional.
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                                                                                                                                               7
                                                                                              ○
Drain                                            Dry Hydrants

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 Construction

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
A combination outlet pipe and drain-             A dry hydrant is a nonpressurized, low-

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
pipe is highly desirable for pond                cost pipe system installed along the

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 The construction site should be cleared

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
management. It can be used to drain the          bank of the pond at a location accessible

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 of all large rocks, trees, brush, roots, and

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
pond for various fish management                 by fire trucks to provide easy access to

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 other debris. The topsoil should be
practices, pond repairs, or emergency            pond water during an emergency. It is

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 removed and stockpiled for later use.

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
situations.                                      constructed from 6-inch or larger PVC

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                 pipe that extends from at least 2 feet

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 Most earth dams should have an
The drainpipe can be closed with a               below the water surface through the

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 antiseepage core built into the structure.

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
valve or plugged with a bell-end clay tile       pond embankment and above the

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 (See Figure 1.) A trench for this core

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
partially filled with cement. Even a glass       ground next to the pond. Dry hydrants

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 should be dug along the centerline of
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
jug will work. The plug should be sealed         usually can be installed for less than
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 the dam and then refilled and packed
in the inlet end of the pipe with asphalt    ○   $1,000 and often pay for themselves

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 with the best fine-grain soil available.
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
cement or cement mortar. If a breakable          over time in insurance premium savings.
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 This trench should extend the full
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
plug is used, the pond can be drained
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 length of the dam and be at least 3 feet
whenever it becomes necessary, but it
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 deep, preferably deeper. The core is
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
will be difficult to stop the flow without
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 necessary to prevent seepage and to
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
draining the pond completely.
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 establish a good bond with the undis-
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 turbed foundation.
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
Antiseep collars or drainage diaphragms
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
should be placed around the drainpipe
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
to prevent water from seeping along the          Dry hydrant
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
outside of the pipe and eroding a
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
channel through the dam. When steel
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
pipe is used, the collars should be metal
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
plates welded to the pipe. Prefabricated
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

drains with antiseep collars and drain                                                       ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○

valves may be available where culverts
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○

and large corrugated pipes are sold. A
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○

drainage diaphragm consists of sand and
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○

gravel surrounding the downstream
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○

sections of the outlet pipe.
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

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                                             ○

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                                                                                             ○

8
Pond construction

                                             ○

                                                                                          ○
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

The earth fill used in the dam should be         Precautionary measures at the time of        Selecting a Contractor
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

free of boulders, stumps, roots, tree            construction may avoid some man-
                                             ○

                                                                                              Attention to the details of construction
                                                                                          ○
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

limbs, and decaying vegetation. Organic          agement problems that commonly               and adherence to specifications are as
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○
                                             ○

material buried in the dam will eventu-          occur after the pond is completed.
                                                                                          ○

                                                                                              important as adequate investigation and
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

ally decay and leave channels through            Riprap should be applied to the
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

                                                                                              design. Careless and shoddy construc-
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

which water can seep and cause the dam           upstream face of the dam to control          tion can make an otherwise safe and
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○
                                             ○

to fail. Earth fill should be spread in 6-       wave erosion and discourage musk-
                                                                                          ○

                                                                                              adequate design worthless and can cause
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

to 8-inch layers and compacted with a            rats. If livestock are nearby, a fence
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

                                                                                              failure of the dam. Adherence to
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

heavy roller. The top of the dam should          should be constructed to keep them
                                             ○

                                                                                              specifications and prescribed construc-
                                                                                          ○
                                             ○

be built about 10 percent higher than            from tramping along the banks and
                                                                                          ○

                                                                                              tion methods are the responsibility of
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

the designed height, to allow for                polluting the water.
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

                                                                                              the contractor, who should have a
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

settling.
                                             ○

                                                                                              reputation for high standards of
                                                                                          ○
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

                                                                                              workmanship. Your local NRCS office
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

The emergency spillway and exposed
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

                                                                                              may be able to provide you with a
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

faces of the dam should be planted with
                                             ○

                                                                                              partial list of local contractors experi-
                                                                                          ○
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

a grass mixture to make the pond                                                              enced in pond construction. Additional
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

attractive and to prevent erosion. Trees
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

                                                                                              contractors may be found in the
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

should not be planted on the dam,
                                             ○

                                                                                              telephone directory. It may prove
                                                                                          ○
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

because their root growth may cause                                                           worthwhile to go to several ponds the
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○
                                             ○

leakage from the pond.
                                                                                          ○

                                                                                              contractor has constructed to see if the
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

                                                                                              work completed appears satisfactory and
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

                                                                                              the pond owner is satisfied with the
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

                                                                                              work.
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○
                                             ○

                                                                                          ○

                                                                                                                                     9
The type of equipment to be used is                                                                Check for and repair any erosion in the

                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○
also important. With proper construc-            Maintenance                                       spillway. Inspect and repair any fences

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○
tion equipment, the cost can be reduced                                                            that are used to keep livestock from

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○
                                                 A popular misconception is that a

                                                                                               ○
and a safer dam constructed. The                                                                   accessing the dam embankment.

                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○
contractor should have a backhoe to              completed pond provides immediate

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○
conduct soils investigations at the              benefits to the owner that last forever           Be sure that any roads provided for fire

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○
                                                 with little maintenance. Nothing could

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○
proposed dam site and borrow area. A                                                               trucks are maintained for the passage of

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○
bulldozer can be used to clear and grub          be farther from the truth. A pond                 heavy vehicles and are plowed following

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○
the area. If the borrow area is immedi-          certainly requires as much or more                a heavy snowfall. To maximize fire

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○
                                                 attention than does any comparably

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○
ately adjacent to the dam site, a bull-                                                            protection benefits from a pond, you

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○
dozer is also satisfactory for excavating,       sized piece of land.                              must ensure that fire trucks have access

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○
backfilling, and placing the fill. For                                                             to the pond during all seasons of the

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                                 Many older ponds, or those that were
                                             ○
dams over 20 feet high, special equip-                                                             year and that the dry hydrant is readily

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

ment such as a sheepsfoot roller may be          not constructed properly, may have                accessible.

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

needed for fill compaction. As with all          fallen into disrepair. They may be

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

construction, the landowner should               partially silted in, develop leaks, or have       Muskrat Damage

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

understand the type of work that is to           unsafe dams with trees growing on

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                                   Muskrats may damage a pond by

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

be performed and regularly inspect the           them. Repairs to ponds are possible, but

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                                   building dens in the banks. They begin

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

construction to help ensure that the             you should obtain professional assis-
                                                                                                   burrowing 6 to 18 inches below the

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                 tance. Consult your local NRCS office

                                                                                               ○
contractor is doing a good job.
                                             ○

                                                                                                   waterline and angle up into the bank,

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                 or a consulting engineer for help. If

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                                   where they construct living quarters in

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

Construction Costs                               pond renovation is going to involve
                                                                                                   dry soil above the water line.

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                 modifying or enlarging any dam

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

The cost of building a pond is highly

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                 covered under a permit issued by the

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

variable, depending on site conditions                                                             The best defense against muskrat

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                 Pennsylvania DEP, a written permit is

                                                                                               ○
and specific features of the desired                                                               damage is a properly designed pond. A
                                             ○

                                                 required to make these changes.
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

pond. Costs can range from several                                                                 wide top and sufficient freeboard will
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

thousand dollars per acre to over                                                              ○   make a dam relatively safe from damage.
                                             ○

                                                 Inspection
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

$30,000 per acre for a more unique                                                                 There is little danger of leaks in dams
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

design. Although cheaper contractors             Routine inspection and frequent                   with adequate top widths, because
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

may seem appealing at first, many                maintenance protects a pond, keeps it             muskrats usually will not burrow
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                 attractive, and extends its useful life.
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

cheaply built ponds end up costing their                                                           completely through. If sufficient
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

owners more in the long run after costly         Lack of inspection and prompt repair of           freeboard is provided, the den usually
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

repairs are made.                                problems may cause more severe                    will have enough ground cover over it to
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○

                                                 damage that is either irreparable or
                                             ○

                                                                                                   prevent a cave-in.
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                 more expensive to fix.
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                                   Despite construction precautions,
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                 The dam structure should be checked to            muskrats are likely to take up house-
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                 ensure it has complete grass cover and            keeping in even the best-designed
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                 has not eroded. Soil should be added              ponds. They are especially attracted to
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                 and re-seeded at the first sign of erosion.       areas of emergent and submergent
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                 Cut the grass and keep weeds, brush,
                                                                                               ○

                                                                                                   vegetation such as cattails. Removal of
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                 and trees from growing on the dam.                this vegetation is one way to reduce
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                 Trees growing away from the dam and               muskrat activity in the pond.
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                 pond embankments are usually accept-
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                 able. Check for signs of minor leaks              Burrowing can be stopped by riprap-
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                 along the dam so they can be repaired             ping the shoreline with large gravel or
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                 before they become more serious.
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                                   small stones. These materials should be
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                                   placed in a layer at least 6 inches thick,
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                 Remove floating debris that can clog the          and should extend from at least 1 foot
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○

                                                 overflow pipe and emergency spillway.
                                             ○

                                                                                                   above the normal water level to at least
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                 Also, check the overflow inlet and outlet         3 feet below it. Riprapping also protects
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                 to ensure that flow is unrestricted.              the shore from erosion caused by waves.
                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

                                                                                               ○
                                             ○

10
                                             ○
Muskrats are furbearers that can be             Fixing Leaks                                     Sodium polyphosphate is the name of a

                                            ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                            ○
trapped legally during parts of the year.                                                        group of chemicals used to seal pond

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○
                                                Seepage is less likely when precautions

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 leaks. The chemicals are similar to some

                                            ○
The Pennsylvania Game Law further               are taken at the time of construction.

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○
                                                                                                 household detergents and usually are

                                                                                             ○
provides that any person may kill or

                                            ○
                                                If leaks develop after the pond has

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○
capture alive, at any time, any                                                                  obtained in a white, granular form.

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○
                                                been filled, it will be necessary to drain

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○
furbearing animal (except beaver) in the                                                         Treated lumpy soils break down into
                                                the pond, let the bottom dry, then

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○
                                                                                                 fine particles that pack together and

                                                                                             ○
act of destroying personal property.

                                            ○
                                                apply a sealant. Leaks usually cannot be

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○
Poisons legally may not be used in                                                               hold water better. Small channels and

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○
                                                fixed without draining the pond. Before

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○
muskrat control, but various repellents                                                          voids in the untreated soil fill with these
                                                attempting any sealing, consult a soils

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○
                                                                                                 dispersed particles. The result is a

                                                                                             ○
may be used. Contact your local

                                            ○
                                                professional to ensure that the treat-

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○
Wildlife Conservation Officer for                                                                relatively stable, impermeable blanket

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○
                                                ment is suited to the pond conditions.

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○
further details.                                                                                 over the treated area.

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○   Several products are used for sealing

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○
                                                                                                 Ten pounds of granulated sodium

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                pond leaks. One is bentonite, a soft,

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                                                                 polyphosphate will adequately treat 200

                                                                                             ○
                                                porous, moisture-absorbing mineral
                                            ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 square feet of pond bottom. Thoroughly
                                            ○

                                                clay that is worked into the soil. When

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                                                                 mix the soil to a depth of 8 inches.

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                bentonite gets wet, it swells to many

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                                                                 Apply the polyphosphate by broadcast-

                                                                                             ○
                                                times its original size and stops seepage
                                            ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 ing or drilling. Compact the treated area
                                            ○

                                                by filling the space between the soil

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                                                                 with a rubber-tired roller or a steel roller

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                particles. For the average pond up to

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                                                                 before filling the pond. Do not use a

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                10 feet in depth, 1 pound of bentonite

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                                                                 sheepsfoot roller.
                                                per square foot will greatly reduce or

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                stop seepage. It should be thoroughly

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                                                                 Sodium polyphosphate works best in a

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                disced into the soil to a depth of 3 to 4

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                                                                 limestone soil with a high silt and clay
                                                inches. The area then should be rolled

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                                                                 content. It does not work as well with
                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                several times to pack the surface.
                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                                                                 coarse-textured soils. Bentonite works
                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                                                                 well on coarse-textured sods, but is not
                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                                                             ○

                                                                                                 effective on highly acidic soils.
                                            ○

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                                                                 Leaks in an established pond sometimes
                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                                                             ○

                                                                                                 may be eliminated by applying a 6-inch
                                            ○

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                                                                 blanket of clay to the pond bottom. If
                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                                                             ○
                                            ○

                                                                                                 clay is not available at the pond site, it
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○

                                                                                                 may be transported from a nearby area.
                                                                                             ○

                                                                                                 The clay should be compacted and the
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○

                                                                                                 water should be returned to the pond as
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○

                                                                                                 quickly as possible to prevent the clay
                                                                                             ○

                                                                                                 from cracking because of excessive
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○

                                                                                                 drying.
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
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                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○

                                                                                                                                         11
Dredging Pond Sediment

                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                                                                                    Physical Water Quality

                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                                  Water Quality

                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
Ponds that are filled with sediment can                                                             Temperature and dissolved oxygen

                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
be renovated, but the process is expen-

                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                                                                                    Temperature and dissolved oxygen are
                                                  Water quality is critical to the beneficial

                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
sive. The least expensive method is to                                                              the most important physical water

                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                                  use of ponds, but the parameters and

                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
drain, pump, or siphon the water from                                                               quality concerns for pond fishes. It is

                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
the pond and use a bulldozer to remove            levels of concern will vary depending on

                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                                                                                    desirable to check these water quality
                                                  the intended use of the pond. For

                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
the sediment. The more expensive but                                                                parameters when they are likely to be

                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                                  example, water quality criteria are much

                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
quicker method is to remove the                                                                     least satisfactory (usually July through

                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
sediment with a dragline. If the pond is          different in ponds used for animal

                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                                                                                    September).

                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
small enough, a backhoe may be used.              watering or human drinking water

                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                                  compared to ponds used for irrigation

                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                                                                                    Trout require cool water and high levels

                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                                  or fishing. Water quality also plays a
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
A pond with a high inflow and without                                                               of dissolved oxygen to survive. They
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
a drain may require a cut through the             critical role in determining the types
                                              ○                                                     grow and survive best when water

                                                                                                ○
                                                  and number of fish species that can live
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
dam at a depth lower than the pond                                                                  temperatures are between 55 and 60°F
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                                  in all ponds, as well as their growth and
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
bottom to drain the water from the                                                                  and can withstand only short time
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
sediment. Drain the pond before                   survival rates.
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                                                                                    periods when temperatures exceed 75°F.
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
cutting through the embankment. After                                                               Trout also require water that is high in
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                                  Water quality is complicated by the fact
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
removing the sediment, you may want                                                                 oxygen content; 5 parts per million
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
to consider constructing a bottom drain           that many parameters will vary season-
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                                                                                    (equivalent to 5 milligrams per liter) is
                                                  ally and from year to year and by
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
through the cut and then repairing the                                                              considered the safe minimum.
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                                  differences in water quality between the
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
dam.
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                                  source and the pond. Changes in water
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                                                                                    Warmwater fish, like bass and bluegill,
                                                  quality are normal and acceptable
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
Sediment removed from the pond, or                                                                  prefer water temperatures in the 70s and
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                                  provided that drastic changes do not
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
“spoil,” should be spread to promote                                                                80s. They reproduce and grow well if
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
drying. To prevent silt from washing              occur in a very short time period,
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                                                                                    the temperature remains in the low 70s
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
into the pond or stream, place the spoil          changes do not exceed extreme limits,
                                                                                                    for several weeks during early summer.
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                                  and changes are not caused by pollut-
                                              ○

away from water bodies and establish a                                                          ○   The dissolved oxygen concentrations
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

                                                  ants that are directly or indirectly
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

vegetative buffer or sediment trap                                                                  should be at least 3 parts per million (3
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

between the spoil and the water’s edge.           problematic.
                                                                                                    milligrams per liter) for warmwater fish.
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

Once the spoil dries, it can be perma-
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

                                                  Most ponds have not been tested for
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

nently seeded.                                                                                      Temperature and dissolved oxygen
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

                                                  water quality, and most pond owners
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

                                                                                                    measurements must be made before
                                                  are unaware of the important water
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

If the pond receives excessive amounts                                                              deciding which fish species will be
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

                                                  quality parameters for which they
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

of silt, implement erosion control                                                                  stocked in a pond. It is difficult or
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

practices in the watershed. If you do not         should be testing. This section discusses
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

                                                                                                    impossible to change the physical
                                                  some of the most important water
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

own upstream land, a small settling                                                                 characteristics of pond water to make it
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

                                                  quality parameters for typical pond uses
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

basin just upstream from your pond                                                                  more suitable for the types of fish you
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

could be built to intercept silt or debris.       and describes how water testing might
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

                                                                                                    prefer.
                                                  be accomplished.
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

                                                                                                    Fish kills from a lack of dissolved
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

                                                                                                    oxygen or excessive water temperature
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

                                                                                                    occur occasionally in Pennsylvania
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

                                                                                                    ponds. Refer to the “Miscellaneous
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

                                                                                                    Troubles and Treatments” section on
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

                                                                                                    page 29 of this publication for more
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

                                                                                                    details about this problem and other
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

                                                                                                    causes of fish kills in your pond.
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○
                                              ○

                                                                                                ○

12
Muddy water                                     Sometimes the problem of clearing               Both gypsum and alum treatments will

                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
Muddy or cloudy water is perhaps the            muddy water is not easy to solve,               lower the pH of water and may reduce

                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
most common pond water quality                  especially when colloidal particles             yields of fish.

                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
problem. Newly constructed ponds                become suspended in the water and

                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
nearly always have muddy water until            must be precipitated by chemical action.        In some cases, cloudy water is actually

                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
grass is established around the pond. In        In these cases, one of the following            caused by growth of microscopic

                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
older ponds, muddy water is aestheti-           chemical additions may be effective in          organisms called plankton. This can be

                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
cally undesirable, makes swimming               clearing the water: (1) Broadcast 1,000         easily determined by holding a glass of

                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
displeasing, reduces fish growth, and           pounds of ground agricultural limestone         pond water up to a strong light.

                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
interferes with fish reproduction. It may       (calcium carbonate) or 740 pounds of            Plankton can be observed moving

                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
be caused by erosion from a cultivated          hydrated lime per surface acre of water.        around the glass of water. Plankton

                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
or unprotected watershed, by livestock          This treatment should clear a pond and          blooms can be reduced using chemical
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
wading in the pond, by wave action                                                              applications (see “Chemical Controls”
                                            ○
                                                keep it clear for two years or more. Do

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
eroding the banks, and by the feeding           not use burned lime or quicklime                section), but these treatments may
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
action of some bottom-dwelling fish.            (calcium oxide), because it may kill the        reduce the overall productivity of the
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

Attempts should be made to determine                                                            pond.

                                                                                            ○
                                                fish. (2) Broadcast 1,000 pounds of
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
the cause of the muddy water before             agricultural gypsum per surface acre of
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
resorting to treatment.                         water. It may be necessary to repeat this
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                                treatment several times a year to keep
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
Correcting the problem may be as                the pond clean. (3) Broadcast 250
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
simple as diverting muddy surface               pounds of aluminum sulfate (commer-
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
runoff away from the pond. Muddy                cial alum) per surface acre. Apply
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
water from bank erosion can be cor-             treatments weekly until the water clears.
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
rected by adding 3 to 4 inches of stone
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
or gravel riprap to exposed banks.              Plankton
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
Occasionally, muddy water will result
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

from an overabundance of bottom-
                                            ○
                                            ○

dwelling fish such as catfish. In this
                                            ○

case, take steps to reduce their popula-
                                            ○
                                            ○

tion through fishing, trapping, or
                                            ○
                                            ○

draining the pond.
                                            ○
                                            ○
                                            ○

When muddy water results from the
                                            ○
                                            ○

action of waves stirring up the bottom
                                            ○
                                            ○

sediments, the situation may be
                                            ○

corrected by spreading a layer of hay or
                                            ○
                                            ○

straw over the bottom of the pond from
                                            ○
                                            ○

the edge to a few feet from shore. This
                                            ○

measure will have the greatest beneficial
                                            ○
                                            ○

effect in shallow areas or where wave
                                            ○
                                            ○

action is especially heavy. The mat
                                            ○

prevents the waves from picking up fine
                                            ○
                                            ○

sediments and provides food and cover
                                            ○
                                            ○

for aquatic organisms. Introducing too
                                            ○

much hay or straw, however, could
                                            ○
                                            ○

cause oxygen depletion that could result
                                            ○
                                            ○

in a fish kill.
                                            ○
                                            ○
                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○
                                            ○

                                                                                            ○

                                                                                                                                     13
Nutrient runoff                                                                                 Hardness

                                                                                            ○
                                                                                            ○
                                                                                            ○
                                                                                                Hardness is a measure of the mineral

                                                                                            ○
                                                                                                content of water, especially calcium and

                                                                                            ○
                                                                                            ○
                                                                                                magnesium. Ponds with hard water have

                                                                                            ○
                                                                                            ○
                                                                                                a high mineral content and are usually

                                                                                            ○
                                                                                                more fertile. These ponds are more

                                                                                            ○
                                                                                            ○
                                                                                                likely to support a dense growth of

                                                                                            ○
                                                                                            ○
                                                                                                aquatic plants and algae. Soft water has

                                                                                            ○
                                                                                            ○
                                                                                                a low mineral content, which results in

                                                                                            ○
                                                                                                low fertility. Ponds or lakes containing

                                                                                            ○
                                                                                            ○
                                                                                                soft water often have sparse vegetation

                                                                                            ○
                                                                                            ○
                                                                                                and clearer water.

                                                                                            ○
                                                                                            ○
                                                                                            ○
                                                                                            ○
                                                                                                Hardness measures are especially

                                                                                            ○
                                                                                                important for the use of some aquatic

                                                                                            ○
                                                                                            ○
                                                                                                herbicides, especially the copper

                                                                                            ○
                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

                                                                                                compounds used for algae control.

                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

                                                                                                Hardness concentrations above 50 mg/L

                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
Chemical Water Quality                           Nutrients
                                             ○

                                                                                                as CaCO3 can interfere with the

                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
                                                                                                effectiveness of some of these chemicals,
                                             ○

Chemical water quality in ponds is               Excessive nutrients such as nitrogen and

                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
important not only for fish but also for         phosphorous are a common problem in            requiring increased dosage.
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

other pond uses like animal watering             Pennsylvania ponds. These nutrients

                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
and swimming. Changes in chemical                usually originate from fertilizers or          Hardness also may cause a buildup of a
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
water quality also are usually responsible       animal wastes applied within the pond          whitish solid known as scale in pipes,
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
                                                                                                watering troughs, and plumbing that
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
for excessive growth of aquatic plants           watershed. They cause excessive growth
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
and algae. Brief descriptions of some of         of aquatic plants and algae that plague        use pond water. This is an aesthetic
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

the most important parameters are                many ponds during summer months.               problem that will not harm animals
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

                                                                                                drinking the water.
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

given below.                                     Nutrient levels in pond water can be
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

                                                 measured by testing for ammonia,
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

pH                                               nitrate, and phosphate. Measurable             Pesticides
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

The pH of a pond is a measure of the             amounts of ammonia or phosphate may            Ponds that are located near farm fields,
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

                                                 be problematic. Nitrate levels in excess
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

water acidity. The pH scale runs from 0                                                         golf courses, or yards may be susceptible
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

                                                 of 100 mg/L may be dangerous for               to pesticide pollution from surface
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

to 14, with values less than 7 indicating
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

acidic water and values greater than 7           animal watering.                               runoff or drift during application. Many
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

indicating alkaline water. Most fish                                                            pesticides, especially insecticides, are
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

                                                 Nutrient management techniques and             highly toxic to all forms of aquatic life
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

species prefer a pH in the range of 6 to
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

9, although values as low as 5 may be            best management practices such as              and could also be dangerous for ponds
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

                                                 vegetated buffer strips and limited use
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

suitable for brook trout. Ponds with a                                                          used for animal watering. Pond owners
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

                                                 of fertilizers and manures near ponds          should be especially cautious about
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

pH less than 6 are common in northern
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

Pennsylvania and may result in stunted           are necessary to reduce nutrient levels        using pesticides near ponds or streams.
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

or reduced fish populations. Ponds used          and restore the pond ecosystem.                A fish kill from pesticides may be
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

for animal watering also should have a                                                          difficult to detect, and minute amounts
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

pH between 6 and 9.                                                                             of a pesticide can cause losses over a
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

                                                                                                long period. Read and follow pesticide
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

                                                                                                labels carefully and apply them as far
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

                                                                                                away from ponds as possible. Since fish
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

                                                                                                are generally much more susceptible to
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

                                                                                                pesticides than livestock are, fish kills
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

                                                                                                are often apparent before problems
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

                                                                                                occur with animals.
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○
                                             ○

                                                                                            ○

14
Aquatic herbicides                               Biological Water Quality                        Toxic algae

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
A variety of herbicides are registered for       Coliform bacteria                               Algae growth is common in many

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
use in Pennsylvania ponds to reduce or                                                           ponds when nutrient and temperature

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                 Coliform bacteria are a large group of

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
eliminate aquatic plants and algae. The                                                          conditions are favorable. Algae growth

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                 many species of bacteria that can

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
use of aquatic herbicides is generally                                                           normally occurs between May and

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                 originate from animals, plants, and soil.

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
compatible with other uses of the pond,                                                          October, with a peak in late summer. At
                                                 A subgroup, fecal coliform bacteria,

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
but limiting certain uses for specific                                                           least six species of blue-green algae that

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                 represent species that originate from

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
time periods may be recommended.                                                                 occur in Pennsylvania may produce

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                 animals, including humans. Many of

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
Always read and carefully follow product                                                         toxins that are harmful to animals.
                                                 the bacteria in this group are harmless,

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
labels. Warnings regarding other uses of

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                 but their presence indicates the poten-

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
the water should be taken seriously.                                                             Toxic algae poisoning of livestock and

                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                 tial for disease-causing bacteria also to
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
Some herbicides, especially the copper-                                                          pets is rare in Pennsylvania. Symptoms
                                                 be present.
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
based algaecides, are highly toxic to fish   ○                                                   include muscle tremors, diarrhea, lack

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
and other aquatic life if applied in doses                                                       of coordination, collapse, labored
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                 Some coliform bacteria are present in all
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
higher than those indicated. Others may                                                          breathing, and death. If these symptoms
                                                 ponds, but bacteria levels are highest in
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
require that swimmers or animals be                                                              appear, animals should be denied access
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                 ponds that receive runoff containing
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
denied access to the water for some                                                              to algae-contaminated water.
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                 animal or human waste. Ponds located
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
period of time to allow the herbicide to
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                 near barnyards or septic systems are
break down naturally. The repeated use                                                           Toxic algae blooms can be treated using
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                 most vulnerable. High densities of
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
of copper-based algaecides also may lead                                                         applications of copper sulfate as
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                 waterfowl also can contribute to
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
to excessive concentrations of copper in                                                         described later in this publication.
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                 excessive bacteria levels. Pond water
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
pond sediments.                                                                                  Again, this is a rare problem in Pennsyl-
                                                 cannot be treated efficiently to reduce
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 vania, but it should not be overlooked if
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                 excessive bacteria numbers. Rather,
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
Acid mine drainage                                                                               symptoms appear in animals with access
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                 reduction must be accomplished by
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 to a pond with algae.
Ponds in western Pennsylvania also are           removing the source of the bacteria,
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
susceptible to pollution from acid mine          whether by diversion of polluted runoff
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○   Parasites
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
drainage. Runoff from mined areas can            or reducing direct access by animals and
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○

carry high concentrations of iron,               waterfowl.                                      The most common parasite problem in
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○

manganese, aluminum, and sulfate.                                                                ponds is swimmer’s itch. It is caused by
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○

Metals like iron and manganese impart            The acceptable levels of bacteria will          a small, free-swimming parasite that
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○

an objectionable taste to water that may         depend on the intended use of the               burrows under skin, where it dies. This
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○

cause intake problems for livestock. Iron        pond. Ponds used for swimming should            causes an itching that lasts for about a
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○

concentrations above 0.3 milligrams per          contain fewer than 2,000 total coliform         week. A brisk rubdown with a towel
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○

liter and manganese levels above 0.05            bacteria and 200 fecal coliform bacteria        immediately after the swimmer emerges
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○

milligrams per liter may be sufficient to        per 100 milliliters of water. Adult             from the water will minimize the
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○

reduce water palatability to livestock.          livestock should not drink pond water           irritation caused by this parasite. The
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○

Iron is also toxic to fish at low concen-        with fecal coliform bacteria above 10           most practical way to control these
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○

trations. Aluminum is toxic to fish              per 100 milliliters, and calves should          parasites is to control the snails that
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○

species, especially trout, when the              have water free of fecal coliform               serve as their intermediate hosts, by
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○

concentration exceeds about 0.2                  bacteria.                                       draining the pond and letting it dry for
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○

milligrams per liter.                                                                            several months. Stocking of redear
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○

                                                                                                 sunfish also may be effective, since they
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○

                                                                                                 are a natural predator of snails. No
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○

                                                                                                 chemicals are registered for controlling
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○

                                                                                                 snails.
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○
                                             ○

                                                                                             ○

                                                                                                                                       15
Water testing

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 Pond Fisheries

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 Management

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 Whether for fishing or for aesthetic

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 enjoyment, most pond owners are

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 interested in developing and managing a

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 pond fishery. The success of fish in a

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 pond depends on the water quality, the

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 pond’s construction, and the manage-

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 ment of the fish populations. The

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 following sections give some guidelines

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 for the stocking and management of

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 some common fish species in Pennsylva-

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 nia ponds.

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 Warmwater Versus Coldwater

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 Ponds may be stocked with warmwater

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 fish such as largemouth bass and

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 bluegills, or with coldwater fish such as

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                                                                 trout. The decision of which type of fish

                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                                                                 to stock is determined primarily by the

                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○
Testing Your Pond Water Quality                    testing, pond owners should evaluate
                                               ○

                                                                                                 temperature regime of the pond and the

                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                   the symptoms of their pond, keeping in

                                                                                             ○
                                                                                                 desire of the pond owner. Other water
                                               ○

Your pond water can be tested easily

                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                   mind the other special water quality          quality factors such as pH may be

                                                                                             ○
and inexpensively for many of the
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○
                                                   problems described above.
                                               ○

parameters listed above. Temperature,                                                            important to fish survival and reproduc-
                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○   tion. Consult the water quality section
                                               ○

dissolved oxygen, pH, ammonia,                                                               ○
                                               ○

                                                   Fishing—test the water frequently,            of this publication for more information
                                                                                             ○

hardness, and various other water
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○

                                                   especially during the summer, for
                                               ○

quality parameters can be tested using                                                           about other water quality concerns for
                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○

                                                   temperature, dissolved oxygen, and pH.        fish.
                                               ○

kits available at most local pet stores for
                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                   Test kits from a local pet store are
                                                                                             ○

less than $10 each.
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○

                                                   adequate.
                                               ○

                                                                                                 Coldwater fish like trout grow and
                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○

                                                                                                 survive best when water temperatures
                                               ○

Measurement of total coliform bacteria,
                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                   Animal Drinking—test the water
                                                                                             ○

fecal coliform bacteria, pesticides and                                                          are 55 to 60°F. Trout may be able to
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                   annually for pH, nitrate, and fecal           withstand temperatures of 80°F for a
                                                                                             ○

metals, and identification of toxic algae
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○

                                                   coliform bacteria at a certified water-
                                               ○

would require more sophisticated                                                                 few hours, but long periods with
                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                   testing laboratory.
                                                                                             ○

testing by certified laboratories. Tests for                                                     temperatures exceeding 75°F will cause
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                                                                 death. Many ponds get too warm
                                                                                             ○

total and fecal coliform bacteria
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○

                                                   Swimming—test the water annually for
                                               ○

normally cost $10 to $30 each at a                                                               during the summer months to support
                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                   total and fecal coliform bacteria at a
                                                                                             ○

                                                                                                 trout, but they may still support a put-
                                               ○

certified lab. A list of certified labs by
                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                   certified water-testing laboratory.           and-take trout fishery during cooler
                                                                                             ○

county is available from your local Penn
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

State Cooperative Extension office.                                                              months. Most ponds in Pennsylvania
                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○

                                                                                                 are better suited to the temperature
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                                                                 requirements of warmwater species like
                                                                                             ○

Routine water testing for pollutants that
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

are important for your pond will help                                                            bass and bluegill. These species will
                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○

                                                                                                 grow well when water temperatures
                                               ○

identify problems before they become
                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○

too serious. The following guidelines                                                            remain above 80°F for several weeks in
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

provide some testing recommendations                                                             the summer.
                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

for the most common pond uses in
                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○

Pennsylvania. They indicate only the
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○

most common pollutants that should be
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

tested for. When doing additional
                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○
                                               ○

                                                                                             ○

16
Warmwater Pond Management                       Basic ecology                                      Population structures

                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○
Many fish species combinations have             Largemouth bass spawn the first spring             Bass are often stocked alone in farm

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○
been tried in small artificial ponds, but       that they reach 9–10 inches in length              ponds in Pennsylvania. The result is a

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○
largemouth bass and bluegills have been         and the water temperature reaches 60°F.            self-sustaining population of small bass.

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
the most successful in all parts of the         Bluegills spawn at a younger age than

                                            ○
                                                                                                   In bass-only ponds, the fish stop

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○
country. Pennsylvania experiences with          bass, but not until later in the summer            growing, regardless of age, at lengths

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○
largemouth bass and bluegill sunfish            when the water temperature reaches 67              from 9 to 12 inches, depending on the

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○
range from outstanding successes to             to 80°F. Unlike bass, bluegills may                fertility of the pond. Very few small bass

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○
complete failures. The difference is in         spawn several times during the summer

                                                                                               ○
                                                                                                   and no large bass are present in bass-

                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○
the management. Recent investigations           in fertile ponds if they are not too               only ponds.

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○
at Mansfield University of Pennsylvania         crowded.

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
have confirmed that this species                                                                   A population that contains about 3
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
combination is capable of providing         ○   Bass feed effectively on bluegills as large        pounds of bluegills for every pound of

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

excellent sportfishing in Pennsylvania.         as one-third their own body length.                bass is bass-crowded and results in

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                                Although bass guard their eggs and fry,            relatively slow-growing bass but very
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                bluegills prey upon them in a density-             large bluegills. The adult bass in this

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

Bass and bluegill

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                  dependent manner; that is, the                   situation will be larger than in the bass-

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                                        number of young bass recruited             only pond because of the forage
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                            into the population is                 provided by the bluegills when they

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                                                inversely proportional to          spawn, but still rather small because

                                                                                               ○
                                                                                               ○
                                                                     the number of                 nearly all the young bluegills produced

                                                                                               ○
                                                                        bluegills present.         will be eaten soon after they hatch. The

                                                                                               ○
                                                                                               ○
                                                                        Thus, bass and             few bluegills that survive predation will

                                                                                               ○
                                                                                               ○
                                                                        bluegills control          grow very rapidly because the inverte-

                                                                                               ○
                                                                        each other by their

                                                                                               ○
                                                                                                   brate food supply will be divided among

                                                                                               ○
                                                                        predatory habits.          relatively few individuals. The bass-
                                                                        If bluegills are too   ○
                                                                                               ○   crowded condition provides excellent
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○

                                                                        numerous, they             bluegill fishing. Many bass will be
                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                        can totally                caught, but few will be larger than 2
                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                        eliminate bass             pounds.
                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○

                                                                        reproduction,
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                        resulting in               A community containing about 8
                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                        elimination of             pounds of bluegills per pound of bass
                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○

                                                                        bass from the              has relatively few large bass present, but
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                        pond. In the               a more equal representation of different
                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                             absence of bass predation,            size classes than in the bass-crowded
                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○

                                                bluegills become overcrowded and                   situation. The bluegills are crowded,
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                stunted. When bass are able to spawn               and few will exceed 6 inches in length.
                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                successfully, bluegills will be adequately         This condition provides a great deal of
                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○

                                                controlled. When bass become too
                                            ○

                                                                                                   bass forage and allows them to achieve
                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                dominant, very few bluegills survive
                                                                                               ○

                                                                                                   their maximum growth potential. Bass
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                their predation and the bass become                in Pennsylvania ponds like this often
                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                crowded and stunted.                               grow a pound per year, resulting in real
                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○

                                                                                                   trophy fishing.
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

                                                                                               ○
                                            ○

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                                                                                               ○

                                                                                                                                          17
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