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Ownership of parrots in Madagascar: extent and
conservation implications
KIM E. REUTER, LUCIA RODRIGUEZ
SAHONDRA H A N I T R I N I A I N A and M E L I S S A S . S C H A E F E R
Abstract The trade of live parrots is a threat to wild popula- they are extracted from source countries for international
tions but is understudied. Madagascar is home to three par- pet markets (Poole & Shepherd, ). In Ghana, –%
rot species listed on CITES Appendix II: Coracopsis nigra, of grey parrots Psittacus erithacus have been lost since
Coracopsis vasa and Agapornis canus. Prior to this study as a result of the trade in these species and habitat deg-
there were no data on the ownership of parrots in radation (Annorbah et al., ). Likewise, in the
Madagascar. We therefore aimed to investigate the extent Democratic Republic of Congo the live capture of parrots
of the domestic pet trade in this group. Our objectives for the pet trade is a driver of the decline in P. erithacus
were to quantify the prevalence, spatial extent, and timing (Hart et al., ). Although numerous studies have exam-
of ownership. We collected data in July and August in ined the keeping of parrots as pets in Latin America, there
nine urban towns across Madagascar, using semi-structured have been relatively few studies of this in Africa.
household surveys (n = ). We found that the ownership Madagascar is home to three species of parrot: the lesser
of pet parrots is widespread in time and space; % (% CI vasa parrot Coracopsis nigra, the greater vasa parrot
–%) of interviewees had seen, and % (% CI –%) Coracopsis vasa and the grey-headed lovebird Agapornis
had owned, a Coracopsis sp. Fewer interviewees (.% of all canus. There are no published population estimates for the
interviewees) had seen A. canus in captivity, and only one in- three species, but all are thought to have at least , mature
dividual reported having previously owned an A. canus. We individuals in the wild (BirdLife International, a,b,c). The
estimate that , Coracopsis spp. individuals were held in live capture of parrots as pets in Madagascar has received
captivity in the towns surveyed, in the . years prior to our scant attention (Martin et al., ), although other species
interviews. It is likely that much of this ownership is illegal, are known to be threatened by live capture (Andreone et al.,
although we did not examine this explicitly. Additional re- ; Schwitzer et al., ; Reuter et al., ).
search is needed to determine whether current extraction Most documented captures of live parrots in Madagascar
rates are sustainable. This study adds to a growing body of evi- are anecdotal (McBride, ), outdated, or related to the
dence that the domestic regulation of the trade of wild species legal export of live birds (UNEP-WCMC, ). In the
is not being addressed adequately in Madagascar. past there were reports from north-east Madagascar of wild-
caught Coracopsis spp. being held prior to export for the
Keywords Africa, Agapornis canus, birds, Coracopsis nigra,
international pet trade (McBride, ), as well as in
Coracopsis vasa, Madagascar, parrots, trade
Antananarivo and around Tôlanaro for the domestic pet
trade (C. vasa, Ekstrom, ; Coracopsis spp., Bollen &
Donati, ). Evidence suggests that pet parrots within
Madagascar are usually taken from the wild (as opposed
Introduction
to being bred in captivity; K. Reuter et al., unpubl. data;
UNEP-WCMC, ).
O verexploitation is a threat to biodiversity (Baillie et al.,
), with up to million birds extracted alive
from the wild annually (Karesh et al., ). Parrots
Similar to other developing countries (Jepson & Ladle,
), there is little information regarding the trade and
(Psittaciformes) are no exception; the trade in live parrots keeping of parrots as pets within Madagascar’s national
is a threat to wild populations in many countries where boundaries. There are no data on the frequency of pet parrot
they are endemic (Pires, ). Parrot populations across ownership within Madagascar, and estimates of extraction
Africa are declining (Martin et al., ); in many cases are typically based on export data in the CITES database
(Table ). However, in the absence of significant internation-
al export (see Methods), there is a need for estimates of do-
KIM E. REUTER (Corresponding author) Conservation International, Africa Field mestic extraction. Understanding the domestic pet trade is
Division, Nairobi, Kenya. E-mail kimeleanorreuter@gmail.com
important for conservation programming. We aimed to in-
LUCIA RODRIGUEZ and SAHONDRA HANITRINIAINA Pet Lemur Survey Initiative,
housed by the University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
vestigate the ownership of pet parrots (C. nigra, C. vasa,
A. canus) in Madagascar. Our objectives were to quantify
MELISSA S. SCHAEFER University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA, and Salt Lake
City Community College, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA the prevalence, spatial extent and timing of ownership.
Received February . Revision requested March . Based on identified gaps in the literature, we aimed to quan-
Accepted May . First published online October . tify () the proportion of households that owned a parrot or
Oryx, 2019, 53(3), 582–588 © 2017 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S003060531700093X
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https://doi.org/10.1017/S003060531700093X
Ownership of parrots in Madagascar 583
TABLE 1 Number of individuals of Coracopsis nigra, C. vasa and both Madagascar and the Comoros; BirdLife International,
Agapornis canus exported from Madagascar since , including c).
the number of parrots that were recorded as being wild caught Coracopsis nigra (Least Concern; stable population size;
(UNEP-WCMC, ).
BirdLife International, b) is a frugivore/granivore that
No. of exported Total no. of feeds in primary and secondary forests on ripe and unripe
individuals recorded individuals exported fruit (Bollen & Elsacker, ; Reuter, ). In one study
Species as wild caught from Madagascar the species was not found in edge or matrix habitats
Coracopsis nigra 2,606 5,875 (Watson et al., ); other reports have found it in agricul-
Coracopsis vasa 570 4,242 tural settings, forests, grasslands and savannahs (BirdLife
Agapornis canus 54,469 117,549 International, b). The range of C. nigra is recorded as
the entire island of Madagascar (, km; BirdLife
International, b).
had knowledge of parrot ownership, and () the occurrence Agapornis canus (Least Concern; stable population size;
of ownership in living memory. We estimated the number BirdLife International, a) is a frugivore/granivore
of Coracopsis spp. individuals extracted for pet ownership (Collar, ) found in coastal regions, with a large range
in urban areas of Madagascar. that includes much of Madagascar (, km; BirdLife
International, a). In one study the species was not
found in edge or matrix habitats (Watson et al., ), al-
Study area though other sources indicate it is found in agricultural
landscapes, savannahs and shrublands but not typically in
The nine towns selected for surveying included five of the forests (BirdLife International, a).
seven largest towns in Madagascar and the three in which All three study species are listed in Appendix II of CITES
published anecdotes indicated that Coracopsis spp. were ().
kept as pets in the past (McBride, ; Ekstrom, ;
Bollen & Donati, ). The towns are located in four of
the country’s six provinces, and across all towns at least
six ethnicities are represented. The combined human popu- Legality of capture, keeping and trade of wild parrots
lation of the nine towns surveyed was c. . million, out of Within Madagascar a law determined that species
Madagascar’s total urban population of . million listed in Appendix II of CITES () can be extracted (cap-
(UNDP, ). Madagascar’s total population is c. . tured or hunted) legally only with a permit and within na-
million people (World Bank, ). We acknowledge that tional quotas determined by the government (Durbin,
the survey effort could have both excluded and over- ). Some have interpreted the law to mean that extrac-
represented hotspots for parrot ownership. By selecting tion is further restricted to national hunting seasons
areas where parrot ownership had been reported previously (Randrianandrianina et al., ). Similar to bushmeat
in the literature, the sample could have been biased towards hunting (Golden et al., ; Reuter, ), it is likely that
areas with higher ownership rates. However, there are areas most extraction occurs without permits and is therefore il-
now known to the authors (e.g. Antsiranana) where parrots legal. Prior to , C. nigra was listed as a pest species and
have been seen as pets but not reported in the literature, and could be hunted legally in the event of human–wildlife con-
therefore this study could also have excluded areas where flict (Ekstrom, ).
parrot ownership is popular but not previously known. Export of these species from Madagascar is regulated
Limited time and resources precluded surveying of more (CITES, ). A moratorium on trade of C. vasa was issued
areas. in (Dowsett, ) after the government was unable to
establish export quotas (although the primary threat to the
Methods species appeared to be habitat degradation; CITES, ). It
was later recommended that this trade moratorium be lifted,
Study species given the low demand for the species from the pet trade
(CITES, ). There have been no reported exports of
Coracopsis vasa (categorized as Least Concern on the IUCN the species from Madagascar since (UNEP-WCMC,
Red List, but with a decreasing population; BirdLife ). Regarding C. nigra, there have been no exports of
International, c) is a frugivore/granivore that feeds in the species since , prior to which wild-caught individuals
primary and secondary forests (Bollen & Elsacker, ; were exported for commercial reasons (UNEP-WCMC, ).
Reuter, ). The species is edge-sensitive (Watson et al., Agapornis canus captured from the wild continue to be ex-
). It is found in coastal regions, with a large range ported for commercial reasons ( individuals in and
that includes much of Madagascar (, km across in ; UNEP-WCMC, ); an annual export quota
Oryx, 2019, 53(3), 582–588 © 2017 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S003060531700093X
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https://doi.org/10.1017/S003060531700093X584 K.E. Reuter et al.
of , individuals was established in (CITES
Notification No. ) but was exceeded in the years that
followed (Species Survival Network, ). There is little
evidence of substantial illegal export of the three species; a
public database on illegal animal seizures did not list
Madagascar’s parrot species (Wildlife Trade Tracker, ).
Data collection
We collected data in July and August in house-
holds in nine towns across central, southern and eastern
Madagascar, using semi-structured household surveys
(Fig. ; Table ). Towns were selected at regular intervals
along a km highway transect (following Reuter et al.,
), beginning in Toamasina (eastern Madagascar) and
travelling in a south-central direction via the RN/RN
roads down to the town of Fianarantsoa. The town of
Tôlanaro was not sampled using our overland transect ap-
proach because of safety concerns regarding travel by car. FIG. 1 The provinces of Madagascar and the nine towns where
Based on Madagascar’s urban population and mean interviews were conducted to investigate parrot ownership.
household size (. people per household; INSTAT &
ORC Macro, ), there are c. ,, urban households about whether they had owned a parrot, because of the po-
in the country. It was therefore calculated that a minimum tential for increased interviewee discomfort. Some intervie-
of household interviews would yield a nationally repre- wees indicated voluntarily that they were current or former
sentative dataset of urban Malagasy households (following owners. Therefore, rates of current and historical parrot
Dillman, ; P set to %; margin of error ± % of the es- ownership could be ascertained only from information pro-
timate; % confidence level). vided voluntarily by interviewees and should be considered
Verbal informed consent was received. Interviews were a conservative estimate.
conducted by a two-person team of one international pro- We did not provide interviewees with a definition of a pet
ject leader (KER, LR, MSS) and one trained Malagasy trans- parrot, and individuals reported on both caged and uncaged
lator (SH, see Acknowledgements). Following Reuter et al. birds. We anticipated a priori, given the physical similarities
(), we used random sampling stratified by administra- between the two Coracopsis spp., that it would be difficult
tive unit, with – interviews conducted within each of as for urban respondents to differentiate between C. nigra
many communes/quarters within each town as time would and C. vasa, especially if they saw the pet parrot only briefly.
allow. To ensure independent sampling, only one adult was Therefore, aside from differentiating between Coracopsis
interviewed per household. If an eligible individual refused spp. and A. canus (based on the respondent’s use of local
to participate or if nobody was present, sampling continued or scientific names) no further species identification was
at the next household. Interviews were anonymous and no done. We did not provide images of birds to facilitate species
identifying information was collected. identification. When an interviewee did not recognize the
Interviewees were asked the following questions: () Have common names used by researchers, we occasionally
you ever seen a pet parrot? () If so, where, when and how showed photographs of the three species on mobile phones.
many did you see? We used various local words for parrots
and lovebirds separately, as grey-headed lovebirds were not Analysis
typically considered to be parrots by respondents.
Translators were fluent in the local dialect and ensured Following similar studies (Reuter et al., ), and as there
that the most appropriate common names were used. We may be greater variation between than within towns, inter-
excluded wild parrots or those seen in zoos, as this study viewees were used as subsamples within each town except
was focused only on the ownership of parrots as pets. for subsets of the data with low sample size. In other
Noting that most pet parrots in Madagascar were probably words, towns were used as replicates in analyses unless
extracted illegally (even if people were not aware that it was otherwise noted. Results are presented as mean values
illegal; Keane et al., ), and following other survey efforts with % confidence intervals.
in Madagascar regarding both legal and illegal behaviour We estimated the total number of Coracopsis spp. held in
(e.g. Reuter, ), we did not ask individuals directly urban households during to mid by extrapolating
Oryx, 2019, 53(3), 582–588 © 2017 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S003060531700093X
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https://doi.org/10.1017/S003060531700093XOwnership of parrots in Madagascar 585
TABLE 2 Towns in Madagascar where interviews were conducted (Fig. ), with population, number of households interviewed, percentage of
individuals who knew someone who owned or had previously owned a parrot, and percentage of individuals who themselves owned or had
previously owned a parrot. Population estimates for cities were obtained from the Ilo Project ().
No. of households % interviewees who % interviewees who were current
Town Population interviewed (%) had seen a pet parrot* or former parrot owners
Ambositra 32,818 62 (0.83) 48 21
Andasibe 12,000 53 (1.94) 11 17
Antananarivo 1,054,649 53 (0.02) 23 11
Antsirabe 186,253 25 (0.06) 68 0
Beforona 13,000 55 (1.86) 38 6
Fianarantsoa 126,000 32 (0.11) 25 3
Moramanga 40,050 60 (0.66) 55 7
Toamasina (Tamatave) 201,729 50 (0.11) 36 0
Tôlanaro (Fort Dauphin) 46,298 50 (0.48) 32 6
Total 1,712,797 440 (0.11) 37 (95% CI 26–48) 8 (95% CI 3–15)
*Does not include the respondents who had personally owned a parrot.
the frequency of bird ownership at our urban sites to the , (% CI ,–,) Coracopsis spp. individuals
towns in which data were collected, and also to all urban being held in captivity across the country in the . years
areas in Madagascar. Following Reuter et al. (), we prior to our interview. Fewer interviewees (n = , or .%
assumed conservatively that only one bird was owned per of all interviewees) had seen an A. canus in captivity. Only
individual, representing one household. one individual interviewed reported having previously
owned an A. canus.
Results Timing of ownership Most people (% of individuals)
and most owners (% of owners) could recall the year
Profile of interviewees Most (%) interviewees were female, in which they saw or owned a pet Coracopsis sp. Most people
% were male, and data were not collected in the remaining (% of individuals) could recall the year in which they
% of interviews (gender recorded in interviews). All saw a pet A. canus, as could the one owner of this species
were adults over the age of . interviewed. Many of these encounters occurred in the pre-
Geographical extent of ownership Pet parrots had been seen vious years (Table ). At least one respondent reported
by respondents in all administrative regions where inter- having seen pet Coracopsis spp. in every decade since the
views were conducted. They had also been seen elsewhere s and pet A. canus in every decade since the s.
in the country (Fig. ). Respondents reported owning Coracopsis spp. in every dec-
ade since the s, and the one owner of A. canus reported
Proportion of respondents who had seen or owned parrots owning the pet in .
Many interviewees (% (% CI –%); n = over
nine towns) had seen pet Coracopsis spp. (Table ). The pro-
portion of interviewees who had seen a pet Coracopsis sp. Discussion
varied by town (Pearson χ test: χ = ., N = , df = ,
P , .). In addition, % (% CI –%) of interviewees Extent and patterns of ownership
per town (range –%) had personally owned a pet
Coracopsis sp. previously. Sample sizes (n = owners Based on our study and extrapolation to other urban areas of
across nine towns) were too small to test whether the pro- Madagascar we estimate that , Coracopsis spp. indivi-
portion of interviewees who had owned a pet Coracopsis sp. duals were held in captivity in the towns surveyed, in the
varied by town. In the nine towns surveyed, .% (% CI . years prior to our interviews. For context, ,
.–.%) of individuals interviewed had owned a pet Coracopsis spp. individuals were exported from
Coracopsis sp. in the . years prior to the interview (in Madagascar during – (UNEP-WCMC, ). As
and ). An extrapolation suggests that an estimated mentioned in published reports, the domestic pet trade
, Coracopsis spp. individuals were held in captivity in could be less of a threat nationally than habitat degradation
the towns surveyed, in the . years prior to our interview (CITES, ) and hunting (Dowsett, ; Ekstrom,
(using town-specific rates of ownership for extrapolation). ); more research on this topic is required. Ownership
Extrapolating the .% (% CI .–.%) estimate to all of A. canus was relatively low; so low that we could not ex-
urban households in Madagascar yields an estimate of trapolate to the rest of Madagascar. Overall, the frequency of
Oryx, 2019, 53(3), 582–588 © 2017 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S003060531700093X
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https://doi.org/10.1017/S003060531700093X586 K.E. Reuter et al.
FIG. 2 Locations in Madagascar
where interviewees reported seeing
(a) Coracopsis spp. and (b)
Agapornis canus individuals kept
as pets.
pet parrot ownership in Madagascar (% (% CI –%) of interviewees in some towns (Table ). In one case, a pet par-
households) may be low compared to other countries (% rot was owned collectively by the staff of a police station.
of Costa Rican households have kept parrots as pets, Drews,
; .% of Indonesian households surveyed had pet
birds, Jepson & Ladle, ), although it appears to be Conservation implications
high in some towns.
The ownership of pet parrots appears to be widespread in We cannot ascertain whether the in-country ownership of
time and space, but more extensive surveys are required to pet parrots is sustainable, because there is a lack of published
investigate the hotspots of ownership. We found evidence of information about these species (e.g. population estimates)
in-country ownership of Coracopsis spp. and A. canus going and their ownership as pets (e.g. longevity in captivity, age
back several decades. In similar, recent research on the in- of capture). As such, we cannot estimate extraction rates for
country ownership of lemurs, respondents could recall see- these species. Information on longevity in captivity and age
ing captive lemurs in Madagascar in the s (Reuter et al., of capture would be a useful avenue for future studies. In a
). well-kept captive environment, the maximum lifespan
Although not indicated directly by our dataset, our find- in captivity has been reported as , and years for
ings indicate that compared to the ownership of pet lemurs, C. nigra, C. vasa and A. canus, respectively (Young et al.,
the ownership of pet parrots is relatively visible in urban ). Therefore, the parrots could conceivably be moved
areas of Madagascar. This is the case even though most of among and between multiple owners over time. However,
the observed parrot ownership would probably be consid- in Madagascar, Coracopsis spp. may be kept in captivity
ered illegal. Perhaps this reflects a low awareness regarding for much shorter periods of time (K. Reuter et al., unpubl.
environmental laws in Madagascar (Keane et al., ), poor data), perhaps because (as we observed anecdotally) pet par-
enforcement of laws, and/or that ownership is not asso- rots are kept in environments that do not facilitate adequate
ciated with social stigma. Over one-third of respondents re- movement and nutrition. Regarding the age of capture, un-
ported having seen a Coracopsis sp. as a pet, and we saw like studies from elsewhere (e.g. Jepson, ), we do not
parrots kept in cages on balconies of households that were know whether there is a tendency to catch wild parrots
not selected for interviews. Unlike when conducting surveys at certain life stages (e.g. young, crop-raiding birds or breed-
related to the illegal ownership of lemurs (Reuter et al., ing adults), although both adults and juveniles of C. vasa
), we did not sense a fear of enforcement or repercus- and A. canus are reportedly captured as pets (BirdLife
sions as a consequence of participation in the survey. International, a,b). Should the extraction of parrots
Respondents did not hesitate to show researchers their pet for the pet trade be unsustainable, the resulting decrease
parrots, and self-reported ownership rates were up to % of in parrot populations could have negative implications for
Oryx, 2019, 53(3), 582–588 © 2017 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S003060531700093X
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https://doi.org/10.1017/S003060531700093XOwnership of parrots in Madagascar 587
ecosystem health. In several remnant forests in Madagascar, Author contributions
C. vasa and C. nigra are among only a few frugivorous bird
species (Bollen & Elsacker, ; Reuter, ). As such, they KER and MSS designed the project, and KER secured funding.
are considered to be important seed dispersers (Reuter, All authors collected, analysed and interpreted data, wrote and
). In other areas of the developing world, market-based undertook a critical revision of the article, and approved the
solutions (such as commercial breeding of popular bird spe- final article for publication.
cies) have been proposed to shift bird-keeping from wild-
caught to captive-bred individuals (Jepson & Ladle, ;
Jepson et al., ). These market-based and voluntary me- References
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