Passing and Transphobic Bullying: Stigmatized Identity in Transgender Aesthetics - Rigeo
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
REVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION
ISSN: 2146-0353 ● © RIGEO ● 11(4), WINTER, 2021
www.rigeo.org Research Article
Passing and Transphobic Bullying: Stigmatized
Identity in Transgender Aesthetics
Luis Fernando Cedeño Astudillo1 Luis Miguel Rondón García2
Universidad Metropolitana del Ecuador Universidad de Málaga
cluis@umet.edu.ec luirongar@uma.es
Abstract
Passing, in gender studies, is seen as the situation in which a transgender woman is physically perceivable
as a cis woman. A trans person who is perceived as cisgender may face less bullying, harassment, and
risk of violence, as well as better employment opportunities. In the same way, since passing is an aesthetic
component of the trans physiognomy, depending on its level, people could integrate what Goffman calls
discredited and discreditable. In the case of trans persons deprived of liberty, the level of passing can
easily be distinguished from the privileged groups, and therefore bullying can be even worse. 24 trans
people deprived of liberty were interviewed, who voluntarily agreed to answer questions related to
passing. The interviews were processed using the SPSS statistical software. (3) The results in the present
work suggest that there is a direct relationship between the passing level and the scarcity of social
opportunities due to bullying. In the conclusions, we can demonstrate that factors such as the bul lying,
economy, family support, and social inclusion are predominant factors in the physical development of
trans people. This work is part of the doctoral thesis for the University of Malaga, currently under
development.
Keywords
Bullying, passing, transgender, aesthetics.
To cite this article: Astudillo, L, F.; and García, L, M. (2021) Passing and Transphobic Bullying: Stigmatized Identity in
Transgender Aesthetics. Review of International Geographical Education (RIGEO), 11(4), 1633-1645. doi:
10.48047/rigeo.11.04.152
Submitted: 09-03-2021● Revised: 06-04-2021● Accepted: 07-05-2021© RIGEO ● Review of International Geographical Education 11(4), WINTER, 2021
Introduction
History represents gender as categories that seek stagnation around the body, with the tend ency
to assume that female and male bodies maintain the same meaning in all cultural periods.
However, the various interpretations that the body and its social variations have had, allow us to
know the meaning of bodies far beyond what is socially established. Passing, or the ability to pass,
is perhaps the most complicated situation for the transgender community due to the difficulty,
within social binarism, of being phenotypically recognized as part of the self-perceived gender,
and suffer constant bullying for not having the proper appearance. However, resembling
someone according to their gender is more of an economic issue than a rights issue (Arriaga &
Parent, 2019).Although the discourse of positive discrimination seeks to include, to avoid social
bullying, the LGBT population regardless of their physical appearance, the cur-rent situation shows
that each of its letters has its own preferences in different sectors. It is intended to say that,
although the LGBT community presents itself as a society with the same rights, its members play
different roles based on their gender and representation (Gómez-Restrepo, 2018). It is easy to
observe a lesbian (L), a gay man (G), or a bisexual (B) establish themselves in the world of work or
education without too many complications, because in the end, the meritocratic system has
been gaining ground and acceptance of their sexual orientation is allowed. However, the reality
that the remaining letter, that is, T for transgender, offers a different image to the chimera pursued
by social activists.
Goffman and Guinsberg (1970) indicates that it was the ancient Greeks who developed the term
stigma with which they referred to signs, bodily signs with which they tried to demonstrate
something unusual and bad within the society in which they lived, feeling- These stigmata were
rejected as it undermined the modesty of Greek society. This term, as well as those actions of
rejection, have lasted until our time. According to him, the identity of the woman who was
engaged in prostitution was created under the idea of being different, of not having acceptance
by society, and under what he calls stigma (Miric, Alvaro, Gonzalez, & Torres, 2017). This word was
used to refer to a quality that reveals society's rejection of the type of work that prostitution is,
causing sex workers to have little social interaction and constant psychological abuse. However,
for him, it is important to determine the degree of social connotation that this quality has in the
environment where the individual is situated. For example, in some ancient societies, being
homosexual was considered a natural quality, while in others such as Europeans under the
influence of Christianity, saw this condition worse and demanded to hide this quality.
Just as there are gays who can appear to be heterosexual people or indigenous natives who
easily adopt the customs and habits of a cosmopolitan society (both for a matter of acceptance),
trans people who want to pass as swans to face less discrimination, can undergoing alarming
levels of stress. Of course, having an invisible passing facilitates adaptation in the world of work
and personal relationships. But while the transition from one gender to another lasts, the
interaction can be challenging given that gender self-determination may not yet correspond to
the perception that others receive, causing a wrong reading of their representation, and
therefore, an alarming level of bullying in all social spheres (Manus, 2019). In a person with a trans
identity, stigmas and labels will always be more visible. If we adhere to the concepts of the
discreditable and discredited of Goffman himself, those discredited represent the individuals
whose stigmas are more visible, therefore, the social implication of public policy will have to do
with the handling of more violent, direct speech and explicit by the media that sees the labels,
even if they do not know them (López, 2020). Therefore, their interaction will depend on whether
their interlocutors know the stigmas that surround the transgender and transsexual population and
the ways to disguise it for each situation. This, in gay and bisexual people, may not represent more
than a superficially solvable problem, but in trans people it is impossible. Therefore, transphobic
bullying can be considered a discriminatory practice based on prejudices or negative opinions
against trans people. Of course, this can be affected to a greater extent by the type of work that
trans people do and the level of passing, but it can also affect cis people but who visibly do not
adapt to gender stereotypes.
Both (Jung, 1953) and (Goffman & Guinsberg, 1970) identified two types of self: the public and
the private. That same, regarding how passing is related to bullying, links the stigmatization of trans
people with an aesthetic nature, and, therefore, a notorious concern about beauty, since visual
transfer refers more to the idealization of belonging to a social group in which can hardly be
accepted. Passing, in trans people, implies yes or yes to achieve the maximum cisgender
appearance without giving it to notice; In other words, for a trans person to have a high level of
1634Astudillo, L, F.; and García, L, M. (2021) Passing and Transphobic Bullying: Stigmatized Identity in Transgen….
passing, they must appear cisgender even in the face of transphobia. But this does not imply that
passing refers strictly to conventional beauty, since meeting the standard of physical beauty is less
important than not exhibiting physical characteristics typical of a woman (Rogers, 1992). There-
fore, while an acceptable cisgender appearance is a central concern, achieving a perfect
aesthetic should not be viewed as a desired success. Even among trans academics and political
activists, there is a debate about whether passing should be seen as a good or bad ideal. Among
the positions in favor, it is considered that a complete passing would imply a denial of the trans
identity, since passing would become, and would strengthen the invisibility of transgenderism and,
therefore, of its problems (Stone, 1993). On the other hand, those in favor consider that this
perspective is wrong, because, although it is important for their ideas about gender perspe ctives,
they practically accuse trans people of not being aware of their identity. But outside of this, there
is a reality that cannot be discussed: in most cases, trans women in the media represent their
success through aesthetic achievements. But the physical parameters on trans identity are not
exclusive to the media, because these representations acquire a high relevance in everyday
social media such as work, education, and art in general.Goffman and Guinsberg (1970) in
Deteriorated Identity states that stigmas must be examined in terms of setting and behind the
scenes. While the main stage is where we perform and present our public identity to others, the
backstage is the place where we feel confident about ourselves, and we rehearse how we are
going to show ourselves in the social environment. With passing, it happens exactly the same: for
the trans community, passing is necessary to coexist on stage without any kind of bullying, then to
have overcome medical and aesthetic procedures within the frame.
Butler (1990) somewhat discussed the meaning of Goffman's theory that identity is a mere form of
interpretation, and later placed it in the general context of transgenderism. But the combination
of both ideas highlights that a different person can only adopt a complete identity as long as the
stigmas that surround their daily living are unlocked (Marciano, 2014). These notions reflect
representative aspects of self-presentation as part of the functional management of trans identity,
rather than an essential assumption of an authentic inner self. When an individual, no matter who
he is, has an aptitude or attribute that differentiates him from other citizens, of course, in the
hierarchy of individuals with whom he commonly relates, we automatically stop seeing him as a
common individual and any type of discrimination or con-tempt begins to be the (Arrubia &
Brocca, 2017). In the trans community, this stigma causes a very great loss of prestige based on
gender identity, since there are more obstacles, reducing the few social opportunities that the
media can offer due to their physical appearance, causing an emotional conflict between the
transgender people. real and virtual social identity (Torres, 2016).
Nonetheless, not all undesirable attributes are placed as a permanent tag. Only those that
generate discrepancies or inconsistencies with the stereotypes that are forcibly attributed to a
certain species can be considered stigmata since they refer to an attribute that is palpably de-
sacred within the social environment. But the most important thing is to know how interpersonal
relationships develop, since an attribute that stigmatizes a person is capable of confirming
(negatively) the supposed normality of another individual. For example: if a trans person - who
inherently presents different traits from those considered normal - is invested with a type of stigma,
such as that discriminatory premise that trans people only engage in the sex trade, depending on
the society. - Age in which it is, the discrediting that is granted will be of greater or lesser
magnitude.Regardless of the society in which it is located, the trans community will feel
disadvantages compared to a person who is heterosexual, in appearance, and is considered by
society as a normal being. This is reduced to the explanation that the stig-ma of one individual
normalizes the other and gives them more advantages in the so-cial spectrum, be it for obtaining
a formal job, educational scholarships, access to risky university careers such as medicine, etc.
Then, the stigma that Goffman defines is a direct relationship between attribute and stereotype,
since it is considered a double perspective of stigma because the stigmatized individual will
always claim that their quality of being different is already evident in the environment (call it
discredited), and that, if not, it is not known or perceived by those around them, or is called the
discreditable (Rigueiral & Seidmann, 2019).
However, with passing, trans people with concealed stigmas may be less lucid or serene when
responding in situations where some of their stigmas are notorious, precisely because of their lack
of experience in knowing how to involve their visible stigmas in their interactions. social. But they
face other consequences: the negative reactions of those who perceive them as dishonest for
not revealing their stigma, and the danger that their stigma will be revealed inadvertently at an
inopportune moment, causing bullying among the trans community itself. Although we can also
1635© RIGEO ● Review of International Geographical Education 11(4), WINTER, 2021
high-light certain benefits of their concealment, and one of them is that people with concealed
stigmas can be the perfect moment where they feel more comfortable to reveal it, and this
provides them with a way to control situations that they commonly cannot.
Materials and Methods
The analysis of the results of the research process is carried out through the use of the SPSS
statistical software, which allows determining the quantitative results according to the collection
instrument designed and applied, for the systematization of data and integration in the program,
the dimensions are established and variables according to the following grouping of data in table
1:
Table 1.
Dimensions and analysis variables
Dimensions Variables Integration variables (survey items)
Social Labor QJ1 QJ2 QJ3
Discrimination QD4
Legal Legal Status QJS5 QSJ6
Legal Discrimination QJD7
Initially, the internal consistency test is carried out, which allows identifying the degree of
correlation that exists between the items of the survey analyzed by dimension in this process, two
types of tests are used that give us the reliability of the document, the first based on the
Cronbach's coefficient applied to multiple-choice items and re-liability with KR-20 for dichotomous
responses (yes/no).The results are measured at a value between 0 and 1, the closer it is to one,
the greater the internal consistency of the instrument, therefore such a result indicates the
magnitude in which the reagents measure the same constructor and their homogeneity
respectively. Table 2 indicates the internal consistency indexes which are based on the criteria of
George and Mallery (2003):
Table 2.
Internal consistency indexes
>0,90 Excellent
Between 0,80 and 0,90 Good
Between 0,70 and 0,79 Acceptable
Between 0,60 and 0,69 Questionable
Between 0,59 and 0,50 Poor
< 0,50 Unacceptable
Table 3.
List of normality tests per question
Normality tests
Kolmogorov- Shapiro-Wilk
Smirnovb
Statistical gl Sig. Statistical gl Sig.
What kinds of occupations or jobs have you .470 23 .000 .581 23 .000
done?
How has your inclusion in the labor world .479 23 .000 .512 23 .000
been?
What do you think has been your main .294 23 .000 .568 23 .000
obstacle?
Did you develop an early street urchin/ .532 23 .000 .324 23 .000
street life?
What type of crime were you charged with? .449 23 .000 .602 23 .000
What did you need the money for? .435 23 .000 .653 23 .000
1636Astudillo, L, F.; and García, L, M. (2021) Passing and Transphobic Bullying: Stigmatized Identity in Transgen….
Results
Through the respective descriptive statistical analyzes, the results on trades or jobs performed were
obtained, classifying them according to the activities that this population has performed, Table 1
describes the frequency of the studied categories of beauty, office, technology, sewing, crafts,
and professional activities:
Table 4.
Trades or jobs performed
Frequency Percentage Valid Accumulated
percentage percentage
Valid Beauty 18 79,2 79,2 79,2
Beauty and 3 12,5 12,5 91,7
sewing
Beauty and 2 8,3 8,3 100,0
office
Total 24 100,0 100,0
The report registers a trend that corresponds to the most developed activity in the population,
identified in beauty trades with a total of 75% corresponding to 18 transgender women. Those who
have developed more than one trade in their working life, integrate it with beauty and sewing
with 12.5% and with office activities 8.3% without specifically re-porting the type of work in this
area. It is evident that there is no type of professional work. That is, there is a notorious vertical job
segregation, directly related to gender identity.
Figure 1.-
Labor Activities
Professional
Craft
Sewing
Technology
None
Beauty-office
Beauty-sewing
Beauty
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%
Beauty-
Beauty Beauty-office None Technology Sewing Craft Professional
sewing
Activity 75% 12.50% 8.30% 4.20% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Concerning labor inclusion, reference is made to the difficulty that arises for the transgender
population in the study to access employment. According to the perceptions of the respondents
classified in the respective descriptive statistical analyzes, Tables 5 and 4 show the simple
frequency and the percentages obtained.
1637© RIGEO ● Review of International Geographical Education 11(4), WINTER, 2021
Table 5.-
Labor activity inclusion
Frequency Percentage Valid Accumulated
Percentage percentage
Valid Very 19 79,2 79,2 79,2
difficult
difficult 5 20,8 20,8 100,0
Total 24 100,0 100,0
The previous table in the analysis of "including yourself in the labor world, what did you think"? It
shows that 79.2% (19) consider it very difficult and 20.8% difficult, considering 100% of the
transgender population see their job opportunities limited.
Table 6.
Obstacles to obtain a job
Frequency Percentage Valid Accumulated
Percentage percentage
Valid My physical 1 4,2 4,2 4,2
appearance
My 4 16,7 16,7 20,8
appearance
and distrust of
me
My 6 25,0 25,0 45,8
appearance,
my sexual
identity and
distrust of me
My 13 54,2 54,2 100,0
appearance
and sexual
identity
Total 24 100,0 100,0
100% of those surveyed have difficulties getting a job, 83.3% identify that labor inclusion is very
difficult, due to their sexual identity, physical appearance, and the mistrust that others may have
of them. Although only 20.8% consider it difficult to have a job, sexual identity and appearance is
the predominant factor that prevents them from being hired.This proves that bullying due to low
passing causes depression and low self-esteem in trans people. This causes them to seek the
necessary means to obtain money and perform cosmetic surgeries that increase their cis
appearance, which explains the reason for carrying out illegal activities such as drug trafficking.
Because it is traumatic, it must be work very early to prevent it, especially during the time of
physical transition.The frequency of starting street activities is reflected in 91.3% of the population
that started at an early age where (21) participants answered affirmatively, only 8.7% of
transgender women (2) answered this question negatively. This means that dis-crimination based
on sexual identity begins from the primary level of control (family), being the condition of
helplessness a predominant factor for regression in an integral development.
highest incidence falls on the crime of drug trafficking. The 75.0 has responded having a
conviction for drug-related crimes; 16% for crimes against property, 4.2% for crimes related to
sexual assaults, and 4.2% for crimes of another nature. Transgender people are also used as a
vehicle for the commission of these crimes, especially drug trafficking as "mules" to carry various
types of substances in their body, in exchange for money, cosmetic surgeries or take them off the
streets to change that they move the drug to other cities and even outside the country. What is
evident from every point of view is that the transgender population is one of the social groups with
the greatest vulnerability to organized crime, since their particular living conditions, context, and
1638Astudillo, L, F.; and García, L, M. (2021) Passing and Transphobic Bullying: Stigmatized Identity in Transgen….
circumstances in which they move, influence their being forced to dedicate themselves to these
types of activities because they do not have access to decent jobs, or because those that they
can obtain as for-mal employment do not allow them to satisfy their needs and develop their
personality, and, if that were not enough, transgender people are frequently mistreated by the
judicial system.
Table 7.
Early street urchin/ street life
Frequency Percentage Valid Accumulated
Percentage percentage
Valid Yes 21 87,5 91,3 91,3
No 2 8,3 8,7 100
Total 23 95,8 100
Lost in system 1 4,2
Total 24 100
Table 8.-
Attributed offense
Frequency Percentage Valid Accumulated
Percentage Percentage
Valid Against Health 18 75.0 75.0 75.0
Against Sexual 1 4.2 4.2 79.2
Integrity
Against Property 4 16.7 16.7 95.8
The
Other 1 4.2 4.2 100.0
Total 24 100.0 100.0
Discussion
The threat that female trans people feel about their stigmas due to passing (which is mocked
often in different media) is justifiable due to the constant menace that they can only enter public
places as long as people respect their biological condition at birth, such as bathrooms or dressing
rooms. The same is not always the case with transgender men, who never publicly express similar
concerns (Boskey, 2018). This is because women are always seen as the weaker sex, and there is
the universal criterion due to their own condition they are prone to be taken advantage of in a
way that men are not likewise, transgender men do not have the stigma of being seen as potential
sexual predators due to their early socialization as female gender. There-fore, talking about
equality in the transgender population is not just referring to le-gal protection that often ends up
being useless. The perfect policy to create social awareness should not be based only on
government guidelines, yet on a change of thought must begin with small actions aimed at
eradicating or avoiding discrimination.
Based on Goffman's studies, the research allows us to discuss the three levels of stigma that allow
us to understand the effects of passing on transgender people: structural, interpersonal, and
individual (Hughto, Reisner, & Pachankis, 2015). Structural stigma refers to social and
environmental norms, laws, and institutional policies that limit the re-sources, opportunities, and
well-being of stigmatized people. In the case of trans people, structural stigma tends to be used
to exclude and marginalize those of those rights that the heterosexual population does,
maintaining the cultural schemes that have forced a binary gender system, leaving the identity
of gender as a political dis-course, and not a humanist tendency free from a patriarchal system
(Mora-Ríos & Bautista, 2014). For this reason, the fact of labeling trans groups as a non-normative
characteristic within society, the hat legitimizes social norms and grants the majority of cisgenders
1639© RIGEO ● Review of International Geographical Education 11(4), WINTER, 2021
some areas of privilege within the environment. Structural stigma in this context can operate as a
form of symbolic violence, where structures (communities, institutions, clergy, etc.) perpetrate
systematic discrimination through laws, political lines, and community customs that restrict the
prosperity of the communities transgender people.Interpersonal stigmas have a more dangerous
effect than the mere omission of public policy, and aesthetic appearance has a lot to do with it.
Transgender people with low visual conformity suffer more discrimination and worse health
complexes as a result of emotional stress than those who, due to their pleasant passing¸, have a
greater acceptance. But in both cases, transgender people who do not receive a social
affirmation of their gender (such as within the family nucleus) may experience a severe risk of self-
stigmatization, which could even generate a high suicide rate, or adopt certain traits of
sociopathy (Hughto et al., 2015).
An interpersonal stigma is the label that in one way or another gives legitimacy to a discriminatory
treatment - not institutionalized - towards a person or group of people who do not adapt to the
social canons created to maintain an imposed morality, such as LGBTI groups, post-sentenced,
ethnic minorities, etc. And I emphasize the non-institutionalization of discriminatory behaviors,
because this type of stigma, unlike the structural one, derives from the daily dealings with their
peers and not from a state policy. At the individual level, interpersonal stigmatization can alter the
affective and behavioral processes of discriminated people, therefore, it seeks to eradicate
harmful relationships to improve their interaction with power groups. But passing is a discourse to
ratify the discredited stigmatization in the trans community since acceptance allows individuals
to hide their stigma by attaching themselves to one identity to access the privileges of another
(Pease, 1996). Socially, binary genres create perpetuated paradigms between groups that seek
to exclude those who do not consider their representatives, reason enough to prolong
intersectional studies related to passing. The fact of putting cisgenderism as the axis of all social
privilege ensures the idea that they are the agents that create the ways of treating transgender
people with aesthetic criteria according to their appearance. Therefore, the trans community
feels obliged to hide its history so as not to suffer discrimination or gender violence. So it is made
clear that transgender people with a high passing score are not fake or trying to mislead people
when they go out in public. All this is due to the lack of awareness about transgender identity and
referring to an “incorrect gender” as ways of referring to the self-determination of gender, passing
is observed as a way of regulating docile bodies that Foucault explains. Here, passing is already
seen as a normalization strategy that superimposes the authenticity of concordant genres, forcing
the trans identity to hide its true self (Baez, 2015).
Explaining the third stigma, the individual, entails a psychological process where trans pe ople are
affected by a label that affects them internally, generating anxious expectations of rejection,
avoidance, and concealment of stigma, and decreased self-efficacy to face the factors stressors
related to them, according to their passing level. Transgender people who are visually conforming
to themselves and can choose not to reveal their identity, something very complicated in Latin
America due to the indigenous physical features of the region, could have a better handle on
individual stigma. For this reason, transgender people who are pleasing to the eye are said to
have superficial privileges, as their stigma is disguised and they can avoid potential abuse. But,
although this is reinforcement for trans people to avoid stigmas, hiding their true identity is a time
bomb that would sooner or later reveal who they really are, causing an emotional weight that
cannot be borne just like that (Vargas, 2017).Being stigma a multidimensional phenomenon, its
tiny category refers to the application of attributing stereotypes to oneself, which leads to the
devaluation and dis-empowerment of the personality, and this is not only difficult to solve, but it
can al-so be a lot more complicated its treatment and subsequent social inclusion. With individual
stigma, people also suffer because they internalize negative perceptions of themselves and their
way of being. Although there are no easy answers to solve the individual stigmas of transgender
people, many have tried to combat it by encouraging methods of self-confidence and personal
improvement, without taking into account the mental illnesses that could come from that
(Apodaca, Molero, Tello, & Sansinenea, 2013).
Lack of support can also prevent transgender people from making a successful transition, which
would allow them to adequately include themselves and avoid dis-crimination in a work or
academic setting. And on the contrary, delaying their transition and hiding their trans identity can
forge psychological anguish and visually provoke a highly stereotyped gender exposure due to
their biological sex (be it male or female) that is difficult to reverse or minimize even with the help
of medicine (Dhingra, Bonati, Wang, Chou, & Jagdeo, 2019). Having a very low passing, feather,
looking very macho, engaging in the sex trade, not dressing in fashion, being skinny and obese,
1640Astudillo, L, F.; and García, L, M. (2021) Passing and Transphobic Bullying: Stigmatized Identity in Transgen….
are recurring criticisms in clubs where the LGBTI community adopts a highly criticized role in the
hetero population. It is even common to observe that identified gays show rejection of
transgender people, without generating a minimum feeling of empathy. And these reasons,
although they sound incredibly hostile and dehumanizing towards the trans community, have an
end in the debates that are generated in social net-works, where they propose the elimination of
the letter T when considering that transgenders are only transvestite homosexuals (Anderson, Irwin,
Brown, & Grala, 2020). For this reason, despite the historical cooperation among all LGBTI respect
for equality, many observers have affirmed the existence of social and political forces that create
a division between the LGBTI letters (Weiss, 2003). It has even been proven that male transgender
women are rejected by lesbian communities, despite having been included in them during their
transition stage.
Transgender people, because of their appearance, are commonly treated with public
harassment and physical harm, even by members of the same family. The fact that this
harassment may come from those who are supposed to offer protection, generates in them a
total feeling of insecurity. Those who are rejected by their families or people who attend daily
have a high risk of depression, drug dependence, low self-esteem, and mental health problems.
Therefore, providing greater freedom of expression, gender, and cultural values may well be able
to gradually reduce the social disapproval that prevents the development of an authentic sense
of gender identity (Fawkes, 2015). And although the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM–5, 2018) have removed the label mentally ill from transgender people, the
affective prejudices of the general population towards people who do not conform to social
norms of gender, are still mixed with generalized ignorance and it takes away the weight of the
concern that society should have for those who truly suffer from a mental illness (Mas-Grau, 2017).
For this reason, the objective of most trans people is to accommodate themselves, without
opposition, in society according to the gender they present, regardless of what their assigned
gender has been. They do not want to attract attention, but rather seek to blend in and live as
every straight man or woman does. However, it must also be taken into account that within the
LGBTI community itself there is interpersonal stigmatization. Being part of the community does not
imply that differences are not forged within the circle. A policy of tolerance is always implored on
the part of the community, but the mere fact of sharing realities makes daily coexistence a race
of competencies, such as occurs in cisgender relationships.The segregation of people because
of their gender identity or sexual orientation be-gins from a very early age as a form of
segregation, first in the family and home, then in educational institutions, and finally in all social
relationships where transphobia is manifested in direct or indirect aggression towards transgender
people, “humiliation and marginalization through mockery, insults, physical attacks, dis-
crimination, sexual abuse and hate crimes” (Napiarkorvski, 2012). Consequently, the criminogenic
behaviors concerning the transgender population that may be present in the police or judicial
institutions are a direct consequence of that evolution that inexorably turns the members of the
said population into victims of the people and the public or private institutions wher e it operates.
The rule of sex-gender distinction as the basis of the treatment and care that the person should
receive.
Thus, due to the lack of opportunities due to the stigmas of passing, it is common-place both at
the social level and in the institutions dedicated to the fight against crime and its prevention, that
the transgender population lives inextricably linked to criminal activities since they are generally
people who from an early age have been linked to activities where their sexual orientation or
gender identity is not a factor for segregation or discrimination, or because in that environment
they can interact with their peers in a climate of tolerance and fraternity.Transgender women are
more likely to be victims of crimes typical of organized crime, who are forced to work in highly
criminalized informal economies “such as the drug market, sex work or sex for survival [and] are
profiled by the police as dangerous, making them more vulnerable to police abuse and
imprisonment” (Alfonsín et al., 2020).Transgender people are also used as a vehicle for the
commission of these crimes, especially drug trafficking as "mules" to carry various types of
substances in their body, in exchange for money, cosmetic surgeries or take them off the streets
to change that drugs are transported to other cities and even outside the country (IDPC, 2013).On
other occasions, their close relatives who are considered vulnerable are also used under dawns
against the life of the transgender person. However, neither can be a necessary relationship
established between transgender people and drug trafficking such as "mules", "human couriers",
"camels" or other seminal de-nominations, because people and especially women "of high levels
cultural and so-cio-economic very diverse, from incomplete primary to university studies and from
1641© RIGEO ● Review of International Geographical Education 11(4), WINTER, 2021
a situation of extreme poverty to the middle class (IDPC, 2013).
What is evident from every point of view in this research is that the transgender population is one
of the social groups with the greatest vulnerability to organized crime, since their particula r living
conditions, context, and circumstances in which they move influence in which they are forced to
dedicate themselves to this type of activity because they do not have access to decent jobs, or
because those that they can obtain as formal employment do not allow them to satisfy their
needs and develop their personality, and, as if that were not enough, transgender people are
frequently mistreated by the judicial system (Moreno, 2019). Justice personnel, including their own
attorneys, are often unfamiliar with the issues trans people face, even worse when it comes to
immigrants. Prosecutors and judges may incur stereotypes when determining the legal situation of
trans people, in many cases, taking ad-vantage of the absence of a good social record to justify
their dangerousness. A clear example is a survey carried out by Lambda Legal in Latin America,
where it is shown that a quarter of transgender respondents, who had been in prison in the last
five, argued that there was obvious stigmatization when judging them (Lambda Legal, 2015).
The harassment and discrimination that many trans people experience in society due to passing
put them at a greater risk of becoming involved with the penal sys-tem, increasing the possibilities
of confinement in places where their gender identity cannot be fully developed. In general, prison
officials do not receive training on how to intervene with trans people, because historically the
centers have been designed to house cis men and women (Hearld et al., 2019). And although
prison laws have been reformed that recognize transgender people as socially and sexually
vulnerable in prisons, there are still problems detected such as incorrect cell assignment,
permanent harassment and assault by other incarcerated people, lack of medical care, and
ignorance of your identity. For example, incarcerated transgender people are often victims of
unnecessary body searches, making them far more vulnerable to sexual assault.
Conclusions
The transgender community continues to represent a notably marginalized population exposed
to widespread discrimination based on their physical appearance, micro-transphobia, and
victimization. Congruent with the problem, and despite executing inclusion policies, it has not
favored a means for the recovery of trust based on resilience over those trans people who have
been severely affected. In passing, the stigma theory seeks to explain what attributes erroneously
motivate inferiority and dangerousness in certain sectors, including giving them some stigmas that
they do not possess, either due to their social condition, special condition, or based on mere
imperfections (Tapia, Castro, Poblete, & Soza, 2015). They can also be applied to members of a
social category, who follow a model of opinion and life, which, is supposed, must have
repercussions on its members, presenting a great problem when one of them cannot or does not
wish to follow them, creating a conflict that leads to the marginalization of that individual even
within the collective itself. Despite this situation, trans people seek to improve their cisgender
appearance to remain unfazed by their possible failure, feeling protected from the rest thanks to
their thoughts about how they should live and how others can demand certain types of conditions
in their life (López, 2020). This may be easy to appreciate in those people for whom a promising
future is planned and whose wishes are suddenly not the same as their parents yearn for; but in
the case of gender identity, it is not a goal that the human being decides. For this reason, the
stigmatized person prefers to keep their identity invisible by pretending a passing score high
enough to look like a normal person, and equally deserve an opportunity in life to socialize without
any kind of prejudice (Billard, 2019). The claims made by stigmatized people do not refer to what
everyone deserves, only those who belong to the same category. This portrays through the
experience in interaction with other individuals, which activates a sense of alertness in the face of
what others consider a personality defect, leading them to accept themselves as an individual
who perhaps does not fit socially, but does aspire to be linked to a nondiscriminatory environment
(Armstrong & Wagner, 2019). Although the majority of transsexuals do have a symptomatic
relationship of gender dysphoria with the sensation of belonging to the opposite sex (from
childhood), some do not show these traits until they enter adult life, as in the case of transsexuals.
Masculine, who can begin with a pure transvestite inclination, until accepting their identity several
years later. To counteract the effects, a series of psychiatric treatments have been proposed
aimed at adapting the person to their new body, since (unfortunately) gender dysphoria
produces high levels of stigmatization, discrimination, and victimization, which could well lead to
severe problems such as anxiety and depression and increased risk of suicide (Martinez,
1642Astudillo, L, F.; and García, L, M. (2021) Passing and Transphobic Bullying: Stigmatized Identity in Transgen….
2019).Presumably, the constant interaction with unlabeled people may generate a dissociation
between their stigmas and the self, but the subject can also come to hate himself and constantly
denigrate himself if he thinks that the State seeks to protect him because he is at a disadvantage
compared to other groups and because he deserves it in his capacity as a person (Gomes,
Zanetti, Miasso, Castro, & Vedana, 2021). But wanting to get along by any means with a group
other than the one attributed to it, results in the search for a series of physical and emotional
changes, which are called corrections.
A direct correction is when the person, aware of the need for a change, voluntarily takes the
initiative to achieve it, such as, for example, a facial aesthetic intervention for a trans person to
have more feminine features, due to the rejection generated by their condition (Goffman &
Guinsberg, 1970). Although this does not mean that the individual will always find favorable results
in his purpose since it depends on several factors ac-cording to the prevailing need, such as the
economic issue in the referred surgical interventions to ensure a high level of passing. Furthermore,
the authors propose a critical review of Goffman's theory. For example, Bates and Stickley (2018)
argue that it has become a no-brainer that those with mental health problems are permanently
subject to social stigma, and they demonstrate how mental center nurses and the norm combine
to reinforce stigma through defensive practices, implying that stigma is a much more complex
social phenomenon than Goffman prevented. These narratives conform to Goffman's theory of
the discredited and discreditable of stigma and, what is more important, highlights that his theory
although it is used in current society is vital to see beyond the medical and psycho-logical
diagnosis, then, the anguish of the families is only partially related to the diagnosis. The
predominant pressure falls on the reactions of others and the feeling of rejection that a certain
mental illness generates.
Chaudoir, Earnshaw, and Andel (2013) developed Goffman's idea in a better position and they
have incorporated three forms of stigma: anticipated, enacted, and internalized. This shows how
each of the above types of stigma relates to Goffman's notion of discredited and discreditable.
The anticipated stigma is said to be likely to be experienced by both the discredited and the
discreditable. This is because stigma requires that the individual expect to be discriminated
against or rejected by society due to the stigmatizing factor. As a consequence, individuals
believe that they are exposed to social discrimination and may experience vulnerability in general
terms. Therefore, stigmatization makes it impossible to defend a generational change in the
perspective of trans people. As Goffman points out, in everyday encounters, actors work to
maintain the definition of the situation and with it a surface of courtesy and mutual respect that
are nonetheless morally compelling. Everyday relationships flow in such a way that they are taken
for granted to constitute shared positive identities. However, within each field, there are
differences between its agents that merit an intersectional analysis to know their hidden realities.
Refreneces
Alfonsín, J., Ruvalcaba, G. C., Cuevas, K., Castro, T. G., Santos, M., & Morales, A. V. (2020). TRANS
WOMEN DEPRIVED OF LIBERTY: INVISIBLE STORIES BEHIND BARS . WOMEN, DRUG POLICY
AND INCARCERATION POLICY BRIEFING, 1-26.
Anderson, A. D., Irwin, J. A., Brown, A. M., & Grala, C. L. (2020). Your picture looks the same as my
picture: an examination of passing in transgender communities. Gender Issues, 37(1), 44-
60. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-019-09239-x
Apodaca, M. J. F. R. d., Molero, F., Tello, F. P. H., & Sansinenea, E. (2013). Development of a new
questionnaire to measure the strategies that people with HIV use to cope with stigma and
discrimination. Psychological Action., 10(2), 87-99. doi:
https://dx.doi.org/10.5944/ap.10.2.11826
Armstrong, E., & Wagner, L. (2019). Families in Transition: The Lived Experience of Parenting a
Transgender Child. School of NursingUniversity of Bridgeport, Bridgeport, CT, 40(49), 7.
Arriaga, A. S., & Parent, M. C. (2019). Partners and prejudice: Bisexual partner gender and
experiences of binegativity from heterosexual, lesbian, and gay people. Psychology of
Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 6(3), 382-391. doi: 10.1037/sgd0000337
Arrubia, E., & Brocca, M. (2017). The construction of stigma as a limit to the social rights of tra ns
people from an international perspective. Human Rights Yearbook,(13), 87-96. doi:
10.5354/0718-2279.2017.46891
1643© RIGEO ● Review of International Geographical Education 11(4), WINTER, 2021
Baez, M. (2015). Transsexuality from the perspective of the sociology of the body. Salus, 19(Suppl.),
34-40. doi: http://ve.scielo.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1316-
71382015000400007
Bates, L., & Stickley, T. (2018). Confronting Goffman: How Can Mental Health Nurses Effectively
Challenge Stigma? A Critical View of the Literature. In J. C. Santos & J. R. Cutcliffe (Eds.),
European Psychiatric/Mental Health Nursing in the 21st Century: A Person-Centred
Evidence-Based Approach (pp. 493-503). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Billard, T. J. (2019). Passing and the politics of deception: Transgender bodies, cisgender aesthetics,
and the policing of inconspicuous marginal identities. The Palgrave handbook of
deceptive communication (pp. 463-477): Springer.
Boskey, E. (2018). Understanding the Stigma Faced by Transgender Women. from
https://www.verywellmind.com/understanding-stigma-transgender-people-face-4120056
Butler, J. (1990). Gender trouble, feminist theory, and psychoanalytic discourse
Feminism/postmodernism (Vol. 327, pp. 324-340).
Chaudoir, S. R., Earnshaw, V. A., & Andel, S. (2013). “Discredited” Versus “Discreditable”:
Understanding How Shared and Unique Stigma Mechanisms Affect Psychological and
Physical Health Disparities. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 35(1), 75-87. doi:
10.1080/01973533.2012.746612
Dhingra, N., Bonati, L. M., Wang, E. B., Chou, M., & Jagdeo, J. (2019). Medical and aesthetic
procedural dermatology recommendations for transgender patients undergoing
transition. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 80(6), 1712-1721. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2018.05.1259
DSM–5. (2018). Diagnostic And Statistical Manual Of Mental Disorders. 5. from
https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm
Fawkes, J. (2015). Performance and Persona: Goffman and Jung's approaches to professional
identity applied to public relations. Public Relations Review, 41(5), 675-680. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2014.02.011
George, D. M., & Mallery, E. P. (2003). SPSS for Windows step by step: A simple guide and reference.
11.0 update: Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Goffman, E., & Guinsberg, L. (1970). Stigma: The Deteriorated Identity. Madrid, Spain: Amorrortu
Buenos Aires.
Gomes, D. R. A. S., Zanetti, A. C. G., Miasso, A. I., Castro, F. F. S., & Vedana, K. G. G. (2021).
Internalized Stigma in People With Mood Disorders: Predictors and Associated Factors. The Journal
of Nervous and Mental Disease, 209(1), 54-58. doi: 10.1097/NMD.0000000000001257 Gómez-
Restrepo, A. (2018). The right of trans women to exercise sex work in dignified conditions,
as a development of the principle of non discrimination. Controversia,, 15-41.
Hearld, K. R., Milner, A. N., Budhwani, H., Abreau, N., Rodriguez-Lauzurique, R. M., Charow, R., &
Paulino-Ramirez, R. (2019). Alcohol Use, High Risk Behaviors, and Experiences of
Discrimination Among Transgender Women in the Dominican Republic. Substance Use
and Misuse, 54(10), 1725-1733. doi: 10.1080/10826084.2019.1608253
Hughto, J. M. W., Reisner, S. L., & Pachankis, J. E. (2015). Transgender stigma and health: A criti cal
review of stigma determinants, mechanisms, and interventions. Social Science and
Medicine, 147, 222-231. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.11.010
IDPC, I. D. P. C. (2013). Transgender people as a vehicle for drug trafficking from https://idpc.net/
Jung, C. G. (1953). Psychological reflections: Routledge & kegan paul.
Lambda Legal. (2015). Human rights abuses related to the criminalization and incarceration of
LGBT people and people living with HIV in the United States. New York. Human Rights
Council, 1-8.
López, T. T. (2020). Notes on Erving Goffman's pragmatism and his concept of stigma. MAGAZINE
CASTALIA, 35, 83-96. doi: 10.25074/07198051.35.1846
Manus, S. G. M. (2019). Transgenderism and Transracialism: Ontological Contrasts between
Gender and Race. Diánoia, 64(82), 3-30. doi:
https://doi.org/10.22201/iifs.18704913e.2019.82.1633
Martinez, J. M. (2019). Gender Dysphoria and Sexual Reassignment: A Health Review on Post-
Operative Individuals. UC Merced Undergraduate Research Journal, 11(1), 157-181. doi:
https://doi.org/10.5070/M4111042627
Mas-Grau, J. (2017). FROM TRANSSEXUALISM TO GENDER DYSPHORIA IN THE DSM. Terminological
changes, same pathologising essence. International Journal of Sociology,, 75(2), 1-12. doi:
http://hdl.handle.net/2445/119448
1644Astudillo, L, F.; and García, L, M. (2021) Passing and Transphobic Bullying: Stigmatized Identity in Transgen….
Miric, M., Alvaro, J. L., Gonzalez, R., & Torres, A. R. R. (2017). Microsociology of stigma: Erving
Goffman's contributions to the psychosociological conceptualization of social stigma.
PSICOLOGIA E SABER SOCIAL, 6(2), 172-185.
Mora-Ríos, J., & Bautista, N. (2014). Structural stigma, gender and intersectionality. Implications for
mental health care. Mental Health, 37(4), 303-312. doi:
https://www.medigraphic.com/cgi-bin/new/resumen.cgi?IDARTICULO=52125
Moreno, R. (2019). Transgender prisons as a vindication of individual freedom within the
punishment rehabilitation system in Ecuador,. Law Review, 32, 161-178. doi:
https://doi.org/10.32719/26312484.2019.32.9
Napiarkorvski, F. (2012). Vulnerability of rights in trans people. Paper presented at the IV
International Congress of Research and Professional Practice in Psychology., Faculty of
Psychology, University of Buenos Aires.
Pease, D. E. (1996). Passing and the Fictions of Identity (E. K. & GINSBERG Eds.): Duke University
Press.
Rigueiral, G. J., & Seidmann, S. (2019). Narratives of pain, stigma and vindication in trans people
of the metropolitan area of Buenos Aires. Paper presented at the XI International Congress
of Research and Professional Practice in Psychology., Buenos Aires.
Rogers, M. F. (1992). THEY ALL WERE PASSING:: Agnes, Garfinkel, and Company. Gender & Society,
6(2), 169-191. doi: 10.1177/089124392006002002
Stone, S. (1993). The Empire Strikes Back: A Posttranssexual Manifesto (3rd ed.): Camera Obscura,
Spring.
Tapia, M. F., Castro, L. W., Poblete, C. M., & Soza, C. M. (2015). Stigma towards mental disorders:
characteristics and interventions. Mental Health, 38(1), 53-58.
Torres, C. (2016). Media Narratives: The virtual representation of the self in young people. Journal
of Social Sciences and Humanities(147), 153-168. doi:
https://doi.org/10.5377/realidad.v0i147.4034
Vargas, P. (2017). Bioethics Readings: Social Determinants of LGBT Health. Pediatric Panama,
46(2), 145-147.
Weiss, J. T. (2003). INTRODUCTIONS GL vs. BT The Archaeology of Biphobia and Transphobia Within
the U.S. Gay and Lesbian Community. Journal of Bisexuality, 3(3-4), 25-55. doi:
10.1300/J159v03n03_02
1645You can also read
