Spring 2020 - Václav Havel Program for Human Rights ...
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Spring 2020
Each year, you make these
programs, exhibits, and A Publication of the
community events possible.
VOLUME 20 b NUMBER 2
SPRING 2020
MUSEUM
INFORMATION
-Thank you. FROM THE PRESIDENT
CONTRIBUTORS
2
3
spring 2020
Hours: FEATURES:
Monday through Saturday
9:30 a.m. – 4 p.m. Taking a Stand:
Sunday
Artists as Activists 4
By Charlotta Kotik
Noon – 4 p.m.
Read through a thoughtful summary of noted artists creating
work as activists to better understand the role they play in the
Holidays (Closed): NCSML exhibition of the same name.
b Easter
b Fourth of July Spreading the News:
b Thanksgiving Czechoslovak Periodicals in the Displaced
b Christmas Day Persons Camps in the Early Cold War 9
b New Year’s Day By Martin Nekola, Ph.D.
Learn how Czechoslovaks fleeing Czechoslovakia in the
Holidays (Open): late 1940s found ways to create and distribute news. On the Cover:
b Memorial Day A student shows off her newly-painted Finished wall project by Metro High NCSML visitors help bring down the
“Peace with this Country Should Forever Stay:” replica Berlin Wall this past fall.
b Labor Day skateboard at Tonight's for Teens. School students created through
“Revolution Starts in the Streets” exhibit.
Singer and Dissident Marta Kubis̆ová 12
By Marek Vašut, M.A.
Regular Admission: Take a look at the life of Marta Kubišová and the ways her
Members . . . . . . . . . . . . FREE music became the unofficial anthem of the Velvet Revolution.
Adults. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $10 Karel Gott (1939 –2019): Slovo is published biannually by the
Seniors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $9 An Apolitical Artist? 15 National Czech & Slovak Museum
Active Military (with ID). . . . $5 By Josette Baer & Library. The editor welcomes research
Students (with ID) 14+ . . . . $5 Read an opinion of the political stance and articles and essays written for a popular
Youth 6-13. . . . . . . . . . . . . $3 actions of celebrated vocalist Karel Gott. audience that address Czech & Slovak
history and culture. Please address
Children 5 & Under. . . . . FREE Exhibiting Dissent: inquiries to Editor, Slovo, 1400 Inspiration
EXPO 1970 and the Czechoslovakian Pavilion’s Place SW, Cedar Rapids, IA 52404.
“Fate of Small Nations” 19
MORE FOR FAMILIES! By Amy Hughes Publisher: National Czech & Slovak
Museum & Library
Learn how art created for EXPO 1970 made a strong
We’ve added several fun President/CEO: Cecilia Rokusek
statement during a period of creative restraint. Editor: Katie Mills Giorgio
and family-friendly programs
Curator: Stefanie Kohn
throughout the year, from Experience Dissidence Through Art: Librarian: David Muhlena
craft workshops to summer Family Programs Manager Kaitlin Guests enjoying BrewNost 2019. Knowledge We Have Gained 23 Design: de Novo Marketing
Schlotfelt demonstrates a recipe
camps. Check NCSML.org during Immigrant Foodways.
By Martin Palouš, Ph.D.
for details. Examine some of the major turning points in Czechoslovak Slovo = Word
history and the variations of dissidence expressed through
art to learn lessons we can apply today. Slovo is available as a benefit to members
Become a member today! Support the museum and enjoy special of the National Czech & Slovak Museum
benefits.Visit our website, ncsml.org for more information or connect Art, Activism, and STEAM: & Library. For information, write to Meredith
Dochterman, NCSML, 1400 Inspiration Place SW,
with us on Facebook @czechslovakmuseum! Teaching about Revolution through Cedar Rapids, IA 52404; call (319) 362-8500; or
Project-Based Learning 28 visit our website at www.NCSML.org.
For more information about membership benefits, please contact By Nicholas Hartmann, Ph.D.
Learn how one out-of-the-museum exhibit at the NCSML
For up-to-date information Laura McGrath, lmcgrath@ncsml.org or 319-362-8500. helped engage students, community members, and artists
on all programs and events, from around the world in a hands-on way.
and event registration, check
For more information on naming opportunities, event sponsorships,
the NCSML website often. corporate partnerships, and the benefits that come with it, please MUSEUM EXHIBITS & EVENTS 31 ISSN 1545-0082
NCSML.org. contact Evelyn Rossow, erossow@ncsml.org or 319-362-8500. MUSEUM STORE 32
Copyright © 2020
National Czech & Slovak Museum & Library
CONTRI BUTORS
from the PRESIDENT
INTE RVIE W
F E ATU RE S
DI GES T
FROM THE PRESIDENT CONTRIBUTORS
Cherished friends of the NCSML, Charlotta Kotik (Taking a Stand: Artists as Activists) Amy Hughes (Exhibiting Dissent: EXPO 1970 and
a native of Prague, got her museum training at the the Czechoslovakian Pavilion’s “Fate of Small Nations”)
In this first Slovo issue for 2020, we present to you a topic not often Albright-Knox Art Gallery in Buffalo, New York. is a Ph.D. Candidate in Art History, at the University
discussed, “Art and Activism.” In fulfillment of the Strategic Plan 2016-2019, She worked as a Curator and Contemporary Art of Wisconsin Madison and a researcher with The Josef
we are presenting to you an interdisciplinary perspective of art forms all used Department Head at Brooklyn Museum, and served as Sudek Project, at the Institute of Art History, Czech
museum S CRAP B OOK
museum S CRAP B OOK
to deliver a message of oppression and activism, during a time when individual an American Commissioner for Venice Biennale. Kotik Academy of Sciences in Prague. The author for a
freedoms were curtailed. Each of our authors have poignantly described the now works as a lecturer and independent curator, number of publications, she lectures around the world,
R E V I E WS
R E V I E WS
facilitating projects for galleries, alternative spaces, including being an invited lecturer at the U.S. Embassy
“activism” displayed in art, sculpture, music, and theatre. These outward and museums. She is a lecturer at the School of in Prague, the U.S. Ambassador’s Residence, and the
P RE VIE W
exhibits of various art forms empowered people during a period in history Visual Arts, New York and at the Academy of Art, Czech Academy of Sciences. She has a Masters degree
when art was the primary voice against those who were disempowering society Architecture and Design, Prague and works with the in the History of the Decorative Arts, Design and
in former Czechoslovakia and much of Central and Eastern Europe. Jindrich Chalupecky Award for Young Artists. Kotik is Culture, from Bard Graduate Center for Studies in
the great-granddaughter of Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, Decorative Arts, Design, and Culture and received
The music of the dissident artists was especially impactful as we listen to rock
the first President of Czechoslovakia. her undergraduate degree from Marquette University.
groups like Plastic People of the Universe whose music was viewed as a direct
subversion to Communist rule. Their music inspired Václav Havel and a small Martin Nekola, Ph.D. (Spreading the News: Martin Palous̆, Ph.D. (Experience in Dissidence Through
Cecilia Rokusek, Ed.D., M.Sc., RDN group of dissidents to draft Charter 77 that you will read about in this issue. Czechoslovak Periodicals in the Displaced Persons Art: Knowledge We Have Gained) is Director of
President & CEO Camps in the Early Cold War) received his doctorate the Václav Havel Program for Human Rights and
Marta Kubišová was another dissident who survived and continues to inspire
National Czech & Slovak in political science at Charles University in Prague, Diplomacy at Florida International University.
Museum & Library the world today. Her road was not an easy one but her message and example Czech Republic. His research is focused on non- He has his Doctorate of Natural Sciences (RNDr),
withstand all time. Most people probably recognize a more current Czech democratic regimes, the era of communism, Czech Higher Doctorate in Political Science/Philosophy/
C O N T R IB UT O R S
dissident artist, David C̆erný who on April 28, 1991 climbed the WWII era communities in the USA, and the East-European anti- Associate Professorship from Charles University,
NOTE: Just as we communist exiles during the Cold War. He is the author and a Ph.D. in Public International Law from
completed this issue Monument to Soviet Tank Crews in Prague, and along with a group of friends
of more than three hundred articles and has published Masaryk University. Palouš is President of the
C A L E N DA R
of Slovo, the most painted the green tank bright pink. The Czechoslovak government, with twelve books. He is also coordinator for the Czechoslovak Václav Havel Library Foundation and of the
DIG E S T
unimagined global pressure from Moscow, ordered the tank repainted back to green. Ten days Talks Project (www.czechoslovaktalks.com/en). International Platform for Human Rights in Cuba.
disaster became a reality later, making use of their parliamentary immunity, a group of Czech and Slovak An original signatory of Charter 77, he served
in the U.S. We send all Marek Vas̆ut, M.A. (“Peace with this Country Should as its spokesperson in 1986, and participated
of our best wishes and
deputies, all former dissidents, repainted it bright pink! The “Pink Tank”
Forever Stay:” Singer and Dissident Marta Kubišová) is a at the creation of Civic Forum. After the fall
prayers for a safe and remains a treasured art piece symbolizing defiance and strong dissidence. Ph.D. student of modern history at Palacký University of communism, he was a member of Parliament,
healthy next few months. Two of David C̆erný’s pieces – Red Skull and Suitcase II – will be on exhibit at in Olomouc, Czech Republic, where he works on Deputy Minister for Foreign Affairs, Ambassador
We are here for you, and the NCSML. several pedagogical and Czechoslovak exile history of the Czech Republic to the United States, and is a
know that we will survive These forms of activism, although powerful in the country, were, and to this projects. He was born a few years after the Velvet Permanent Representative of the Czech Republic
and continue to be your Revolution in Chrudim. Vašut worked as a history to the United Nations.
National Czech & Slovak day, are not confined to former Czechoslovakia. In any country where people’s
teacher at the Centre of Popularization of Science and
Museum and Library. opportunity to live in a free democratic society is being challenged, artistic wrote articles about the Czechoslovak exiled military Nicholas Hartmann, Ph.D. (Art, Activism, and STEAM:
activism continues. We need only to look at countries like Cuba, China, intelligence service and Czechoslovak collaboration Teaching about Revolution through Project-Based Learning)
Venezuela, Myanmar, and Syria to see where dissident artists continue to share during WWII. In 2018, his poster exhibition is the NCSML Director of Learning & Civic
with the world through art the pain and suffering of those being denied a “Blindfolded: The Road to the Great War” was presented Engagement. He has worked as a public folklorist and
at the NCSML. Vašut was the first Ph.D. scholar at the educator for over a decade, doing ethnographic
RE V IE W S
R E VI E W S
RE V IE W S
Letters to the Editor democratic way of life. One of the most recognized Chinese artists, Ai Weiwei,
NCSML from Palacky University in Fall 2019. research and public folklife work in Kentucky, Arizona
has focused on the global migrant crisis through his works. His work is often and Newfoundland. In 2015, he was named an Archie
We encourage discussion Josette Baer (Karel Gott (1939 – 2019): An Apolitical
of the issues and stories described as shocking but it challenges the viewer to think differently about the Green Fellowship recipient from the American Folklife
art presented and at the same time to think about the social mores, conditions, Artist?) a Swiss citizen, graduated from the University Center at the Library of Congress, and currently serves
presented in Slovo. of Zürich with a Ph.D. dissertation entitled “Politics as
and practices of a specific time in history. The NCSML will feature two of Ai on the editorial boards of New Directions in Folklore and
Please send your letters to: Pragmatic Morality: The Notion of Democracy Journal of Folklore & Education. Hartman earned a B.A.
Meredith Hines-Dochterman Weiwei’s works: Self Portrait in LEGO and Table. in the Political Thought of Thomas G. Masaryk and Václav in folklore and anthropology from Indiana University,
Director of Marketing The art world and society has acknowledged dissidence in art for hundreds Havel.” She specializes in 19th century intellectual an M.A. in folk studies from Western Kentucky
& Communications of years. The 20th century brought it to the forefront and now in the 21st history of the Slavic-speaking countries of Central and University, and a Ph.D. in folklore from Memorial
1400 Inspiration Place SW century it is widely acknowledged around the world. We cannot separate the Eastern Europe. She has taught and researched at the University of Newfoundland.
Cedar Rapids, Iowa 52404 Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies at
message of dissidence from the work of art presented to us. Enjoy this issue the University of Washington, as well as in Minsk and
Or email to: and please come and visit the Artists as Activists exhibit at the NCSML. St. Petersburg. She has published several books,
mdochterman@NCSML.org including “The Vesels: The Fate of a Czechoslovak Family
in 20th century Central Europe” out this spring.
2 | National Czech & Slovak Museum & Library Slovo | 3
F E ATU RE S
museum S CRAP B OOK
a massive stone platform to remind everyone of their debt to the Soviet Union Top left: jc lenochan, American, b. 1970
for the country’s liberation from the Nazi oppression during WWII. After “‘new human’ in
undoing whiteness.," 2019
the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 when Russian tanks Mixed media
rolled through the country, effectively ending a utopian attempt to reform 62 x 50 in.
Courtesy of jcl studios
socialism during the Prague Spring and Dubcek’s dream of Socialism with
Taking a Stand: a Human Face. The meaning of the tank looming over public space was clear Top right: David Černý, Czech, b. 1967
C A L E N DA R
— it spelled domination, not liberation. However it took another 20-plus Suitcase II, 2013
ARTISTS AS ACTIVISTS years to address the issue and it was David C̆erný, who undertook the task
Polymer resin assemblage
16 x 21 x 6 in.
By Charlotta Kotik with courage and a large dose of humor. One late night in April 1991, he Artwork by David C̆erný, courtesy of
Hohmann Fine Art (www.hohmann.art/cerny)
assembled his trusted friends, got a couple of step ladders, and with ferocious
Most artists are iconoclasts by nature. Together with scientists, they speed began painting the tank angelic pink. When the regular police patrol
share the need to question generally accepted ideas, whether pertaining drove by and questioned the activity, he produced a homemade document
to prevailing aesthetic taste, the political structure of the society they are part that stated he was preparing the tank for the next day’s film shoot. Tank
of, or the accepted data of scientific discipline. The urge to discover formal remained pink and much public discussion ensued, some feeling the act
configurations as yet untested, to establish new approaches, and ultimately was defiling the heroic heritage, but many more breathing a sigh of relief
alter general consciousness, lead them toward the intense questioning of at the ultimate transformation of the object that, according the artist,
the status quo. In order to create the new, to seek their own independent “no longer stirs up terror, but can also bring delight.” And delight it was
expression, they are inadvertently in a state of opposition. Mainly it is the for thousand of visitors to the site who felt the Velvet Revolution of 1989
set of artificially created societal rules, designed by often harsh, exploitative truly brought a long desired change. Ai Weiwei, Chinese, b.1957
Self-Portrait in LEGO, 2017
political structures that give artists frequent topics for critical ideas and C̆erný’s act allowed others to pose questions that were until then unheard LEGO bricks
R E VI E W S
investigations. It is happening especially in times when ruling powers of and opened a large civic discussion. It also brought much attention 15 x 15 in.
Courtesy Des Moines Art Center
are creating and enforcing nonsensical laws that oppress large segments to the function of an artist within a society. C̆erný continues creating more Photo Credit: Rich Sanders, Des Moines
of populations and hinder whole countries from creating more just and large public monuments as well as smaller pieces that all address pertinent
Author Charlotta Kotik equitable systems. In situations such as these, artists’ voices are an important issues of today.
catalysts for change. The very events of 1989 that began the dissolution Chinese artist Ai Weiwei is a worldwide celebrity as well as one of the most
of the Soviet block would not have been possible without the participation controversial of contemporary Chinese artists. His work straddles media and
Top: David Černý, Czech, b. 1967
Red Skull, 2017 of the artists who brought keen awareness of the ills of the reigning his exhibitions are mounted on all continents in major institutions that also
Polymer Resin Assemblage Communist doctrine to the world’s attention. avidly collect his work. Ai Weiwei’s criticism of Chinese governmental policies
and LED lighting In the former Czechoslovakia, David C̆erný almost innocently highlighted that often curb individual freedoms brought him an endless stream of problems
55 x 39 x 4 in.
Artwork by David C̆erný, courtesy of the overpowering domination perpetrated by the Soviet Union over a large in his own country while his international acclaim grew. He considers the
Hohmann Fine Art (www.hohmann.art/cerny)
swath of Central and Eastern Europe. In Smichov (within Prague) there rapid industrial development of China destructive to the rich cultural heritage
was a monumental sculptural tribute erected to celebrate the liberation and while the overproduction of cheap Chinese products floods the world
of Prague by the Red Army in l945. There a Soviet tank was elevated on market, the exquisite traditional craftsmanship is dying. A number of years
4 | National Czech & Slovak Museum & Library Slovo | 5
ago, Ai Weiwei began disassembling historical furniture only to reassemble Tania Bruguera addresses the lack of freedom of expression in Cuba in
it in new often-fantastical shapes while always honoring the traditional her iconic work Tatlin’s Whisper #6 (Havana Version). Staged for the first time
woodworking methods and materials. Table still resembles a table, however at the Havana Biennial in 2009, the piece provided an opportunity for visitors
its utilitarian function is subverted and the piece is elevated into the realm of to speak uncensored for one minute to the surrounding audience. Ultimately
sculpture. In many of his large works, Ai Weiwei points out the governmental a white dove was placed on the speaker’s shoulder — as a reminder of a
disregard of the living conditions of his countrymen. seminal event in the history of Cuba when a dove landed on the shoulder of
The photographic work of Hong Hao highlights the issue of fast production Fidel Castro during his first speech in Havana after the victory of revolution
and the problems of the resulting waste. Studying filmmaking and photography in 1959. After the one-minute speech the protagonists were escorted away
simultaneously, Hao mastered many newly available technical processes by actors in military uniforms — a grim reminder of the possible
and employed them brilliantly in large colorful compositions. Seductive consequences. When attempting to re-enact the performance in Havana in
in appearance, they are nevertheless urgent reminders of the suffocating 2014, Bruguera was detained prior to the event. A number of her supporters
effect of overproduction and overconsumption and its dire consequences was arrested as well. Although released after only a few hours, it clearly spelled
on our environment. out the lack of freedom and the fallacy of the government claiming all is well
Top: Hong Hao, Chinese, b.1965 Top: Tania Bruguera, Cuban, b. 1968
My Things No. 3, 2001 – 2002 As we witness the never ending turmoil in the Middle East — where the and free. The unrealized performance garnered worldwide attention and Tatlin’s Whisper #6 (Havana version), 2009
Scanned color photograph dangerously unresolved issues of the coexistence of Israel and the Palestinian became a hallmark in the history of politically engaged art. It attests to the Video
50 x 85 in. Courtesy Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum
Courtesy of the Artist and Chambers Fine Art
State fuel violence on both sides — it is often the ordinary citizens caught in power of art to focus on oppression of those living under an authoritarian
the political entanglements of history that suffer the most. Palestinian artist regime and to reignite the struggle for positive change. Above: jc lenochan, American, b. 1970
Above: Ai Weiwei, Chinese, b.1957 Emily Jacir brings our attention to events in the lives of many of her jc lenochan addresses persistence of racial inequality in the United States. De-structuralism “an attempt of de-racing
Table with Two Legs on the Wall, 2004 a society," 2016
Wood countrymen subjected to the unnecessary hardships due to state bureaucracy. His practice embraces multiple media while the artist strives to point out Chalk and charcoal pencil on canvas
50.875 x 44.125 x 39.375 in. Often employed as a tool of oppression, it can elevate the ordinary tasks into the ingrained prejudices. He firmly believes minds could be open to change 40 x 50 in.
Private Collection Courtesy of jcl studios
the realm of struggle between the state and its citizens. through sensitive interpretation of past and present events and facts. jc poses
Going to a post office becomes a complicated task under the best of questions about the institutionalized acquisition of knowledge that is often Below: jc lenochan, American, b. 1970
circumstances as we see through the eyes of Mahmoud, protagonist of one prejudicial and tainted with racism. He posits that through cultural research Street Players in the Killing Zone
of White Mischief , 2015
of Jacir’s pieces. He was born in a Palestinian refugee camp and is forbidden we can begin the deconstruction of stale and negative ideas and thus Discarded paperbacks w/concrete
to go to Jerusalem, where the closest post office is located. Thus he depends effectively utilize the transformative function of art. Deeply involved with 14 x 6 x 5 in.
on the kindness of strangers to pay his bills to Israeli authorities in the Israeli education and social sciences, the artist advocates for “manipulating Courtesy of jcl studios
territory he cannot access himself. The restrictions on individual movements perspectives of dominant ideology, confronting of cultural bias, perception
also affect Munir, portrayed in another of Jacir’s work. People of diverse of otherness, and racial fabrication. Everything we see has a potential to
religions all over the world honor their loved ones in life and in death. become inexplicably something else in terms of justice and trans-pedagogy.
Munir, who lives in Bethlehem, goes to her mother’s grave in Jerusalem to Thinking and re-thinking possibilities through critical discourse in the canon
bring flowers and to pray on the anniversary of her death. However sometimes of art history allows for an altered way of seeing the world, as a “‘new human’
she is denied the entry permit to the very city where her mother was actually in undoing whiteness.”
born. A myriad of small everyday occurrences such as these Kashmiri artist Malik Sajad dedicates his work to chronicling life in the
ignite bitterness and fuel conflicts — conflicts that often reach tragic India-controlled part of the Kashmir territory. Endowed with legendary natural
proportions and seem to be almost unresolvable. beauty but fraught by political conflicts following the partition of India and
6 | National Czech & Slovak Museum & Library Slovo | 7
Pakistan in 1947, the everyday Spreading the News:
life in the “valley” is infinitely
challenging. The complex
history of this once thriving
CZECHOSLOVAK
territory testifies to hardships PERIODICALS IN THE
imposed on ordinary lives
by the political and religious
DISPLACED PERSONS CAMPS
conflict of two neighboring IN THE EARLY COLD WAR By Martin Nekola, Ph.D.
countries. Choosing to document
seemingly insignificant every Following the communist takeover in February 1948, thousands of people
day events in the form of were escaping from Czechoslovakia. For the period between 1948-1953 only,
drawings, graphic novels, the Czechoslovak State Security lists a total number of 43,612 people who
or straightforward cartoons, illegally left the country; in reality we are probably talking about 60,000 or so.
the artist highlights the crippling It needs to be emphasized that the representatives of all strata of society were
effect of extended periods leaving the country after the “victory of the working class,” as the official
of political and economic propaganda labeled the coup. Workers and peasants from the countryside fled
oppression on individual lives as well intelligentsia and urban elites.
and the entire territory. Czechoslovakia‘s borders were not so heavily guarded and surrounded by
Through history, the artists barbed wire until 1951, so it was hard, but not impossible to get through to the
we celebrate most were engaged free world. The most frequently used path led across the Šumava Mountains in
with events in their time — southwestern Bohemia to Bavaria, or the American occupation zone of
always observing, frequently Germany, while people from Moravia and Slovakia took the more risky
questioning, and often criticizing. direction to western sectors of Vienna, at least thirty miles through the region Author Martin Nekola, Ph.D.
When encountering negative of Lower Austria which was then under Soviet control. Sometimes the refugees
developments their voices were were caught by Soviet patrols and delivered to Czechoslovak frontier guards.
indispensable reminders that In the Spring of 1948, when the first larger groups of Czechs and Slovaks
change is needed if the world arrived, the refugee agenda in western Europe was under the administration of
should remain a habitable place. the International Refugee Organization (IRO), but the gates of its camps were
In the current world fraught temporarily closed and in April 1947, American military authorities halted aid
with migration crises, religious (supplies, clothes, medical care) for newcomers
intolerance, impending climate who had practically no other choice but to give
change, and economic inequality themselves up to German or Austrian
artists are responding in multiple authorities, thus ending up temporarily in local
ways and in large numbers. camps under much worse conditions than the
Far from exhausting the vast ones provided by IRO. Hygienic conditions and
lexicon of ideas and formal accommodations in these camps met only very
solutions, the National Czech basic requirements. Many were little more than
& Slovak Museum & Library’s wooden shacks, former prisoner-of-war camps,
Artists as Activists exhibition military barracks, schools, factories, or even
points toward just a small more primitive housing, such as tents, train
number of issues addressed cars, and various provisional types of housing.
in politically engaged art. Every day about 200 refugees arrived in the
Nevertheless, even this small U.S. zone of Germany alone and their presence
segment shows the strength was becoming a serious political issue since
Malik Sajad, Indian, b. 1986 of art growing from recognition of the urgent need for ethical solutions they had to share the camps with Sudeten
A Wedding Under Curfew. to existing troubling issues. And it is this very recognition that is a first step
Op-Art by Malik Sajad for The New Germans, the German minority expelled from Czechoslovakia after the war, Editors work on camp periodicals
York Times, Sunday Review, Op-Art
toward the search for general understanding that could ultimately result in and it is no wonder that relations between these two communities were not using materials that were short in
Section, p.2, November 10, 2019 the creation of a more balanced and unbiased future worldwide. b friendly at all.
supply, such as paper, to the best
of their ability.
The living conditions in the camps were hard, in some cases, there was a lack Photo courtesy of UNHCR Archives, Geneva -
International Refugees Organization 1947-1952.
of drinking water, in winter months also a permanent lack of fuel and coal for
heating, and the need for supplies became more and more urgent.
8 | National Czech & Slovak Museum & Library Slovo | 9
Everyone was waiting in a nervous vacuum. Everyone wanted to leave the a certificate at the end of the semester. Masaryk College was recognized by the
camps and move to the U.S., Canada, Australia, Latin America, or International Refugee Organization (IRO) as an education facility, high school
elsewhere. Europe was still in ruins and slowly recovering from the war. diplomas and vocational certificates issued by the college were taken into
The daily life behind the walls and fences of the displaced persons (DP) account by the immigration officals who reviewed all applicants destined to
camps could be easily liken to a unique microcosm, where you could have enter various countries. The disadvantage was a permanent fluctuation of
found prostitution, a black market, violent and boozy clashes between the students. During 1951 the
members of nations, as well as churches, chapels, libraries, schools, majority of students and
kindergartens, sport associations (in Czechoslovak, it was the famous faculty successfully resettled.
Sokol/Falcon), scout troops, and also nascent political organizations and The college and its programs
political parties. were abandoned. In every way,
Since the latest news from the outside world was highly demanded Masaryk College could serve as
among the refugees, a considerable journalistic activity developed from the a case study of unique
first moments in the camps, even though economic conditions in Germany community building in the
were far from favorable. There was a lack of paper and printing-ink, and DP camps.
printing machines were, naturally, also unavailable. At first, news about The Scout troop in
developments outside the camps was spread by word of mouth. It was Arsenalkaserne published its
customary to call a meeting once a week at which journalists informed the monthly called Lilie (Lily). The
audience about the latest events. The first newspaper-like publication called Y.M.C.A. published the
Deník (Daily) appeared in May 1948 in the Dieburg camp. Its editor, Emil magazine Tep (Pulse). Future
Lašák, always prepared several copies on a typewriter. The length of each editor of the “Voice of America”
issue was determined, not by the amount of news, but by the quantity of Vojtĕch Nevlud was
paper which the editor could lay his hands on. There were similar papers responsible for a political
like Hlas tábora (Voice of the Camp) in Unterjettingen and C̆echoslovák in bulletin Demokrat (Democrat).
Wiesbaden. Svoboda (Freedom), with its first issue in September 1948, was There was also a children’s
the very first weekly periodical, published by Pavel Tigrid (later a famous bulletin Malý c̆tenár̆ (Little
journalist and, after the fall of the Iron Curtain, the Czech Minister of Reader). Otto Gráf, who was
Culture) in Frankfurt and, after 1949, we see many new titles like later working for Radio Free
C̆eskoslovenské noviny (Czechoslovak News) in Pforzheim, Tribuna (Tribune) Europe, created C̆eskoslovenské
in Murnau, C̆eskoslovenský odboj (Czechoslovak Resistance) in Valka, nezávislé noviny (Czechoslovak
Táborové noviny (Camp News) in Eichstätt, and many others. Upon closer Independent Newspaper) and
examination of the content, we see all kinds of contributions: political Doba (Era), whose production didn’t avoid a great deal of improvisation. Dedicated editors worked to put
news, practical advice for newcomers related to life in the camp, poetry, Instead of an unavailable typesetting machine, toothbrushes and spoons served together information for various clubs,
organizations and political groups in
jokes, quotations from the speeches of exile leaders, and useful information the same purpose. Moreover, lipstick, body powder, and shoe wax helped to camp periodicals.
about visa applications and resettlement. create three-color illustrations on the front cover page. The periodicals were Photo courtesy of UNHCR Archives, Geneva -
International Refugees Organization 1947-1952.
There were three separate camps in Ludwigsburg near Stuttgart: usually cyclostyled and few rare copies were quickly distributed among eager
Arsenalkaserne, Krabbenlochkaserne and Jägerhofkaserne. Most of the readers.
residents were Polish and Czech, and the camp was also served as a student Probably more than 250,000 people left Czechoslovakia between 1948 and
center. The so-called National Union of Czechoslovak Students in Exile was 1989, until the Fall of the Iron Curtain, whose thirtieth anniversary we
founded there. The students in Ludwigsburg did not have education related celebrate in 2019. During the long years in exile, the émigrés established about
to helping them develop the knowledge and skills on how to make a visa two hundred organizations, associations, and clubs around the world and
application or apply for a job. That was the main reason why the Masaryk’s published dozens of periodicals in Czech, Slovak, and other languages.
University College of Czechoslovak Students in Exile was established on However, numerous brochures, leaflets, magazines, and newspapers that have
October 28, 1948. This was on the Czech national holiday and the 30th appeared in the displaced persons camps are almost forgotten now. Only the
anniversary of the foundation of Czechoslovakia. The college was named Archives of Czechs and Slovaks Abroad at the University of Chicago holds a
after the first Czechoslovak President Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk and a few on microfilms. It is an urgent task for the Czech historiography to preserve
number of former university professors who also stayed in the camp, began and catalogue them as the integral part of our history and the phenomenon of
to teach economy, philosophy, sociology, literature, and international modern journalism. These publications often times contain the individually
A variety of papers were printed to
spread news throughout the camps.
relations lessons on a daily basis in Czech, Slovak, English, German, b
unique stories of distrust, anger, and gentle journalistic activism.
French, and Spanish, enabling the students to carry on their research and
Here are the front pages, sometimes
the only page, of various publications. academic work. In the early 1950s, there was a peak of 250 students, who
Photos courtesy of the University of Chicago - took part in the classes, passed exams, wrote seminary works, and received
Archives of Czechs and Slovaks Abroad.
10 | National Czech & Slovak Museum & Library Slovo | 11
Marta was not allowed to go to
study at the university and
found a job in a glasswork
factory. As the pressure from
the regime grew stronger, the
Kubiš family had to move to
Podĕbrady and Marta´s father
was forced to close his practice.
He even spent a few months in
prison as he kept refusing to
comply with the regime.
Marta´s resistant, strong, and
“Peace with this Country Should Forever Stay:” unyielding character manifested
during this period as she
SINGER AND DISSIDENT applied over and over for
university studies. All of her
By Marek Vas̆ut, M.A. MARTA KUBIŠOVÁ applications were rejected and,
on top of that, after the third
rejection, she was dismissed
The balcony of Melantrich, a house standing on Wenceslas Square in Prague,
from her job. Luckily, her
became in November 1989 one of the key points of the Velvet Revolution in
mother suggested a free theatre
Czechoslovakia. This balcony served as some sort of stage for the leading
singer position in Pardubice,
persons of upcoming changes — roughly 200,000 people on the square were
which would turn into a
listening to the speeches of Václav Havel and actor Rudolf Hrušínský. On
lifetime decision.
November 22, 1989, only five days after protests that triggered the fall of
Having no official music
communism in Czechoslovakia, the crowd saw on the balcony a once-famous
education, Marta learned to
singer, who “disappeared” from the public eye twenty years earlier — Marta
sing listening to Radio
Kubišová. The fate of the revolution was still undecided and the army together
Luxembourg and reproducing
with the police — still very loyal to the communist government — were
well-known hits with her
standing armed and ready to suppress any protests by force. This scenario,
brother. Thanks to her talent,
however, never took place and Czechoslovakia eventually became a free and
the unique color of her voice,
democratic country again.
and engagement at the theatre
Three decades after the events of the Velvet Revolution, Marta Kubišová
Marta found herself soon
Author Marek Vas̆ut recalls her special moment of a public comeback: “I saw few familiar faces –
singing with famous
Standa Milota, Vlasta Chramostová and some members of the civic initiative Charter The Golden Kids singing in Europe
Czechoslovak artists on famous stages. Her star was on the rise throughout the 1969 in Scheveningen.
77. And right there Jir̆í C̆erný told me: ‘Marta, we need a little prayer [her famous
1960s, culminating in 1969, when she won the Golden Nightingale Award for Photo by Joost Evers / Anefo
signature song Prayer for Marta]…’ and suddenly pushed me on the balcony. I didn’t
the third time and was a member of a popular singer trio “The Golden Kids”
have the right key and after twenty years I couldn’t remember the lyrics…” “Prayer
altogether with Helena Vondrác̆ková and Václav Neckár̆.
for Marta,” after more than twenty years, became an unofficial anthem again: an
anthem of widespread excitement, joy and a start of a new era of freedom.
Marta Kubišová was born in 1940 during World War II in the so-called Dissident
“Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia,” a state that was created on the ashes of On August 20, 1968, more than 5,000 army tanks of the Warsaw Pact crushed
the former Czechoslovakia and was occupied by Nazi. Nevertheless, her life the invasion dreams of revised liberal socialism in Czechoslovakia altogether
was influenced in a negative way much more by another totalitarian regime with many lives and careers. During the huge disillusionment caused by the
that (almost immediately) took control over the state – communism. occupation of the country, Kubišová´s signature song “A Prayer for Marta”
One of the symptoms of the new communist establishment after the coup in became the anthem of the invaded nation, making Marta one of the faces of the
February 1948 was responsibility for family origins: elite parts of the society opposition to the Soviet occupiers. In addition, her open support of the leading
(such as physicians, lawyers, businessmen, academics, etc.) as well as a protagonist of the country during the reformistic “Prague Spring” in 1968 —
considerable part of the middle class. The new leading force in the state was Alexander Dubc̆ek — was considered unacceptable by the new, supported
the worker class, which excluded Marta and her family origins as her father government.
was a physician. Her father also showed activism through his cardiology The regime, frightened by the Prague Spring movement and its reformist
Pop singer Marta Kubisova with her dog Ginny
at Charles Bridge. CTK Photo/Jovan Dezort practice where he was unwilling to comply with the regime. As a result, spirit, started in the 1970s with the persecution of those who were not
12 | National Czech & Slovak Museum & Library Slovo | 13
obviously loyal. Marta was banned from performing in
public and accused of making pornography. This allegation
had been made on purpose by State Security (communist
secret service) in order to defame the nonconformist artist. It
was subsequently rescinded by the court immediately. At this
point, Marta “said no to the devil” by refusing an offer to
exchange her career for support of Normalization and the
regime. This decision determined her next 20 years of life.
Instead of fame and life in comfort, she was victimized and
ostracized from society. Her family friend and later president
of the free Czechoslovakia and Czech Republic claimed “she
wouldn´t sing if it meant making compromises.”
As an enemy of the regime, Marta could take only the
secondary manual jobs, such as gluing bags. And her bad
fortune in professional life was even worsened by her
personal life. She married her first husband Jan Nĕmec, a
director of successful films in 1970. In the following year,
Marta had a miscarriage and survived clinical death.
Although they once had a marriage full of happiness, it
eventually broke. Nĕmec was banned from filming and
emigrated in order to live a normal life and fulfilling his
career as a director. Marta, on the other hand, refused to
Czech singer Marta Kubišová received the French
Order of the Legion of Honor at French Embassy in
leave the country. After marrying another director, Jan Moravec, Marta gave Karel Gott (1939 – 2019):
Prague, Czech Republic, on Monday, October 29, birth in 1979 to her daughter Kater̆ina, which “filled her life with new
2012 CTK Photo/Stanislav Peska.
meaning, joy and strength.”
Despite the disfavor of the destiny and despotism of those in power, Marta
AN APOLITICAL ARTIST?
By Josette Baer
bravely faced all the misery bravely and with active resistance against injustice.
Her consistent negative stance against the totalitarian regime was demonstrated “In politics obedience and support are the same.”
again with her signature of Charter 77, a document that was created by
Czechoslovak dissents and criticized the government for failing to implement This essay focuses on Karel Gott’s life against the background of the two
promised human rights provisions. She also became a spokeswoman of Charter political regimes he lived under: Soviet-type Socialism (1948–1989) and
77, meaning even more scrutiny for her. The spreading of the Charter 77 democracy (1989–2004), or rather, democratization that was accomplished
message was considered a political crime and was punished in several ways, with the Czech Republic’s membership in the European Union in 2004.
such as dismissal from work, forced exile, loss of citizenship, detention, I am no expert on music and thus cannot comment on Karel Gott’s artistic
imprisonment, and forced collaboration with the State Security. talent. Mine is a purely subjective perspective as a Western citizen and political
All Kubišová’s songs were banned from public broadcast and there was no scientist who grew up with Gott’s music as a child in democratic Switzerland in
place where her recordings could be purchased. On the other hand, previously the 1970s. My fond memories of childhood include Gott’s famous songs Biene
published LP’s were shared, predominantly among underground groups. Maja and Kde ptác̆ko hnízdo máš, the theme song of the film Three Hazelnuts for
Although the voice of Kubišová was cleared out of the public waves, she Cinderella. Cinderella, with the beautiful young Libuše Šafránková, is a
managed to sing at least on at private sessions and events of anti-regime people, Christmas tradition on Swiss, German, and Austrian national TV.
Author Josette Baer
such as dissidents or other non-conformists. Karel Gott died in the night of October 1, 2019. His death came as a shock
to Czech and Slovak citizens. Czech Prime Minister Andrej Babiš expressed
elegantly and touchingly what most citizens must have felt: “I thought he
The Velvet Revolution would always be around, that he would always be with us.”
The Velvet Revolution in 1989 was for Marta Kubišová, as well as for many
Gott was buried with all honors in St. Vitus Cathedral at Prague Castle on
others, a moment of satisfaction and victory after a long period (1948-1989) of
Saturday, October 12, 2019; before him, only President Václav Havel (1936–
persecution, humiliation, and exclusion from “normal” society. Her already
2011) and President Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk (1850–1937) had been honored
high moral credit raised even higher after 1989 with her dedication not only to
with a state funeral. This fact puts the singer Karel Gott in the pantheon of
music and singing but also to charity and helping animals. Although she
Czech democratic politicians. Does Gott deserve this honor? And was he
officially ended her career as a singer in 2007, her personality and legacy are
really apolitical, hence not interested in politics? And is this question important
still well known and respected among Czech and Slovak societies. b for us to cast judgement, if we want to cast judgement at all? Let us look at
Czech popular singer Karel Gott during his
performance at the festival Rock for People in
Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic, July 4, 2013.
the facts. Photo credit: yakub88 / Shutterstock.com.
14 | National Czech & Slovak Museum & Library Slovo | 15
Gott supported the Husák regime at home and signatures confirmed the authenticity of the first
abroad, particularly on popular West German TV manifesto, which they managed to smuggle to the
shows such as Wetten dass… on Saturday nights. He West on January 1, 1977.
was a frequent guest on West German TV, praised as Naturally, I am speculating here, but I deem it
the golden voice from Prague. He sold millions of possible that after 1989 Gott had a bad conscience
records in Western Europe. He had a fan club of about having signed the anticharta. Yet, he was
elderly West German women who used to travel certainly not the only artist who had caved in to
every year to Prague to congratulate Gott on his the immense pressure of the authorities; almost all
birthday on July 14; the four ladies used to stand in Slovak and Czech artists, painters, singers, actors
front of his villa, waving their congratulations and, and writers signed the anticharta, and those who
every year, Gott would appear on the balcony and refused, for example the Slovak writers Hana
thank them. At a time when the Capitalist West was Ponická and Dominik Tatarka and the Czech
the declared enemy of Socialist Czechoslovakia, Gott’s writer Ivan Klíma, had to endure hardships that
performances in the West earned a lot of hard we Westerners can hardly imagine: manual labor
Gott signing autographs in August 1969. Photo by currency for the regime. I think it is quite apt to call him the ‘golden goose’ of in menial jobs such as cleaning the streets and
Magnussen, Friedrich (1914-1987) - Stadtarchiv Kiel,
CC BY-SA 3.0 de, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/ Husák’s Czechoslovakia. parks, loss of privileges like publication and
index.php?curid=69630839
I quote from memory citizens who laid flowers in front of his villa in the membership in professional associations,
Bertramka quarter of Prague on the morning of October 2nd, interviewed by interrogation, constant surveillance by the StB
various Czech TV channels. “He was there when we had to go through the and, probably most brutal, the psychological
hardest of times.” “He could have left after 1968, but he stayed on.” “His songs terror of the StB by threats of a lower pension and
took the pain away from daily life under the Bolsheviks.” “He gave us hope and mountains of bureaucratic difficulties.
joy.” “He was always perfectly professional, a superstar who was modest and After the Velvet Revolution, Gott, as he had
generous – he never put on airs.” explained in an interview with C̆T1 on July 14,
The Velvet Revolution of November 1989 has to be understood in the 2019, on the occasion of his 80th birthday, had
context of the Cold War (1948–1991) and Soviet-bloc politics. Once it was undergone a personal re-evaluation; after the
clear to the citizens of the bloc states that Moscow would not send troops Velvet Revolution, he was planning to retire from
against the mass demonstrations taking place in each capital of the bloc, show business. Furthermore, he could not know
thousands of East Germans left for West Germany via Hungary in the summer how the new, democratically elected government
of 1989. Hungarian border police had cut the fence in June, practically opening would treat him; as an active supporter of the
up a hole in the ‘antifascist wall’. Romanian citizens toppled the Ceausescu Normalization regime would he have to face legal
regime in December, and Slovaks and Czechs stood up against the tyranny of persecution? I have heard experts on various
the Party and the State Security Service (StB) in November. With hindsight, one Czech TV channels saying that Gott was deeply
could have expected the wall to fall, yet, the rapid pace of the democratic sorry for having signed the anticharta. He was so
revolutions surprised me, a student of political science and Slavic languages. By troubled by his support of the Husák regime that
December 1990, the Soviet bloc was history. Probably those in power were he thought he would be ousted, that nobody
even more surprised – certainly Husák whose reaction to this shocking contact after 1989 would want him to sing and perform
with political reality can be compared with that of another ruler in equally any longer.
dramatic circumstances: But he was wrong; people wanted him back. He
was part of their lives; Slovaks and Czechs alike
“Louis XVI : ‘Mais c’est une révolte ?’ — ‘Non, Sire, c’est une révolution !’” could not imagine a life under the new regime
(Louis XVI: ‘But is this a revolt?’ – ‘No, Sire, it’s a revolution!’”) without him. So he kept on working, performing,
The Velvet Revolution of November 1989 prompted Karel Gott – like so recording, and singing. When he asked the West
many Czech and Slovak artists – to reconsider his activities under the Husák German rock band Alphaville, which was very
regime, during a period that in historiography is referred to as the period of popular in Europe in the 1980s and early 1990s,
Normalization (1969–1989). The concept of ‘normalization’ is telling since it to allow him to cover one of their songs,
was accompanied by the establishment of a neo-Stalinist regime following the Alphaville replied that it would be an honor. At a
Warsaw Pact invasion of August 21, 1968 that had put a brutal end to concert in Moravian Ostrava on October 13,
Alexander Dubc̆ek’s reform politics. 2019, Alphaville officially dedicated their greatest
Karel Gott had signed the anticharta in February 1977, the government- hit Forever Young to Karel Gott.
dictated statement of loyalty to Czechoslovak Socialism and Normalization To conclude: Was Karel Gott an apolitical artist
politics that, so the Party must have thought, would discredit the dissidents of or a fervent supporter of the Husák regime? In
Charter 77, at least at home. Havel, the philosopher Jan Patoc̆ka and former 1948, when the Czechoslovak Communist Party Prague, Czech Republic May 30, 2017. Famed Czech
singer Karel Gott in front of the Hybernia Theatre in
foreign minister Jir̆í Hájek were the first three spokesmen for Charter 77; their took power in a putsch, Karel Gott was nine years Prague, Czechia. Photo credit: perous / Shutterstock.com.
16 | National Czech & Slovak Museum & Library Slovo | 17old. Thus, his socialization as a teenager and young adult happened under the
Socialist regime. Gott simply did not know any other regime or government,
and even after the Warsaw Pact invasion of August 21, 1968, he was loyal to
the neo-Stalinist government. Like so many of his fellow citizens, he was used
to the fact that politics were made “on high,” by those in power.
However, this did not mean he was apolitical. I think Dubc̆ek’s reforms
politicized him, made him aware of freedom of speech as a liberty the Czechs
and Slovaks had so long been bereft of. After the invasion of 1968 he, for the
first and last time, decided to engage in an independent act, an act of political
self-determination. According to recent research by Czech historians, Gott left
with the Štajdl brothers, his music producers, on a tour to Hamburg in West
Germany in 1971, from where he did not return. In a letter to Husák, he
condemned censorship and the invasion and declared that he would not
return. The StB reacted immediately, opening a criminal case: if he did not
come back home, they would release a psychiatric assessment to the press that
indicated sexual deviation. They also threatened to interrogate his parents.
These were devilish threats. The artist was not married and an assessment Exhibiting Dissent:
hinting at a possible homosexual orientation or paedophilia signed by a
psychiatrist would have finished Gott’s career in West Germany, while his
elderly parents would have to endure the psychological terror of interrogation
EXPO 1970 AND Czechoslovakian Pavilion, Expo 1970,
Osaka, Japan.
and social isolation. Gott returned home, and Husák – who always knew when THE CZECHOSLOVAKIAN
to flaunt himself as the generous and wise father of the nation, although he was
fully responsible for the StB activities – instructed the StB to close the case.
PAVILION’S ‘FATE OF
It would be staggeringly unfair to cast judgement on Gott as a supporter of SMALL NATIONS’
“Communism.” Karel Gott’s voice was a gift from the gods; he was a kind By Amy Hughes
person, never arrogant, and people loved him. Listen to Hearts Will Go On, the
beautiful song he sang with his teenage daughter Charlotte Ella. b Unbeknownst to visitors entering the Czechoslovakian Pavilion at the Expo
1970 in Osaka, Japan, they were about to witness one of the 20th century’s
most public protests against the Soviet invasion on August 20-21, 1968. The
expression of this political unrest, however, came not from chanting crowds,
but rather from monumental art exhibitions showcased in the pavilion. The
invasion brought an abrupt end to the Prague Spring, a short-lived period in
Spring 1968 involving the relaxing of censorship and greater tolerance of
freedom of expression. Thus began the period known as normalization, in
which the Communist government implemented severe crackdowns on
freedom of expression advancements made during the Prague Spring, severed
numerous international ties, and enacted both a new round of citizen
imprisonments and purges from the Communist Party. Determined to draw
attention to the political situation in Czechoslovakia and voice their
opposition to the Soviet invasion, participating artists — who had to be
affiliated with the party in order to present their works — transformed the
SOURCES pavilion’s main exhibition space into a collection of artistic statements
Author Amy Hughes
Hannah Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem. A Report on the Banality of Evil (New York: Penguin, 2006), 279. condemning the government’s actions. Not only do these artworks shed light
https://www.karelgott.com/biografie/; accessed 18 October 2019.
Announcement of Prime Minister Babiš on the morning of 2 October on ČT1, I quote from memory. on public sentiment in the early years of normalization, but they also call
Mozart used to stay in a villa in Bertramka when he was in Prague. Back then in the 18th century, Prague was a attention to the importance of examining the under-researched sphere of
provincial town of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy — a coincidence or a sign of Gott’s emotional affinity to one of the world’s
greatest composers? individuals who worked within official structures but also expressed dissent,
Answer of duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt (1747-1827) to Louis XVI (1754-1793) on the evening of 14 July 1789 at Versailles,
on https://www.histoire-en-citations.fr/citations/rochefoucauld-louis-xvi-mais-c-est-une-revolte-non-sire; accessed 18 October
expanding understanding of dissent beyond actions in which only so-called
2019. dissidents engaged. These works also demonstrate the significant role of
See my biography with new archive material: Josette Baer, Alexander Dubc̆ek Unknown (1921–1992). The Life of a Political Icon
(Stuttgart, New York: ibidem, Columbia University Press, 2018). international fairs as “double agents,” spectacles projecting images of state
https://www.cas.sk/clanok/898127/pri-krasnej-pocte-gottovi-80-sa-tisli-slzy-do-oci-nemecka-kapela-alphaville-mu-venovala- grandeur and official propaganda as well as platforms giving voice to
piesen-forever-young/; accessed 18 October 2019.
“Važený soudruhu Husáku, psal z emigrace Gott," BLESK EXTRA, special issue Čest práci, soudruzi!, Praha (2018): 10-13. expressions of dissent. Numerous Pavilion works embodied these protests.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BibNLUQG_-4; accessed 18 October 2019. This article will look at three.
18 | National Czech & Slovak Museum & Library Slovo | 19You can also read
