The Batteries Report 2018 - The Advanced Rechargeable & Lithium Batteries Association - Recharge Batteries
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The Advanced Rechargeable & Lithium Batteries Association
The Batteries Report 2018
Content
Recycling
2 Content
3 Executive Overview
4 Mission, Strategy, Governance of RECHARGE
5-11 Batteries Markets and Technology Trends
12-19 Legislation impacting batteries
Batteries in Europe: public initiatives and regulatory aspects - Batteries Directive 2006/66/EC
Regulation 493/2012 on Recycling Efficiency – Need for adaptation?
Other European Directives and Regulations impacting batteries
Key messages to the EU from Umicore
Scientific & technological roadmap of advanced rechargeable batteries:
20-37
research, materials, production, applications, projects
Research
UL Safety studies on aged lithium-ion cells and modules
Root causes failure analysis for lithium-ion batteries
Materials
Albemarle Powering the World’s Future Energy Potential
Umicore Path forward for Sustainable Cobalt Sourcing
ProSUM Batteries stocks and flows in Europe
Production
SAFT Advanced battery manufacturing: high-tech enabling a sustainable future
Panasonic Lithium battery porfolio – energizing tomorrow’s applications
Applications
Power tools EPTA Battery Technology, the new driver in the power tool market
Stanley Black&Decker Sustainability through Excellence
E-mobility Blue Solutions The Bluebus, 100% electric produced in France
IT Varta Smaller and more powerful, coin cells for more design freedom
ESS FDK Advanced premium rechargeable batteries for special applications
Project
Batteries Product Environmental Footprint - PEF
38-45 Transport & Safety
Battery Transport Regulation & Safety
REMONDIS New solutions for new problems
SAE G-27 Packaging Standard
IEC 62902 Marking Standard
ISO 17840 Standard for Information to emergency services
46-51 Recycling
BEBAT Belgian e-bike battery collection up by 75% in 2016
TOYOTA Environmental challenges towards 2050 – establishing a recycling-based society
ACCUREC Dynamic development in Li-ion battery recycling
SNAM You create, SNAM recycles
EBRA Recycling Efficiency for end of life batteries: what is the status?
52 Membership
2
Executive Overview
Dear Reader,
The RECHARGE Report is meant to be a reference and overview document for the interested reader.
• The importance of advanced rechargeable batteries.
Advanced rechargeable batteries are the enablers of energy in multiple applications such as cordless power tools
(for household or professional use), e-mobility transportation (e-bikes, motorcycles, electric-type automobiles),
e-communication devices (i-pods, i-pads, PC, mobile phones), and in numerous stationary energy storage applications.
This ongoing development has triggered challenges for the economic operators and for legislators throughout the
complete value chain related to innovation, manufacturing, transport, collection, storage, treatment, recycling, whilst
taking into account the overarching regulatory, safety and health requirements.
• Circular Economy and the production of advanced rechargeable batteries in Europe.
As green as the electricity they are using, advanced rechargeable batteries are directly linked to key priorities for
Europe: climate change and the reduction of CO2, renewable and low-carbon energy, critical raw materials, and
resource efficiency. In line with the Circular Economy plans, it is critical that advanced battery development and
production in Europe becomes more mature and specialized.
The action plan of the European Union Battery Alliance to support battery manufacturing is very much welcomed by
RECHARGE.
• The need to bring legislation and regulation up-to-date with the market development.
A revision of the Batteries Directive 2006/66/EC and Regulation 493/2012 on Recycling Efficiency seems logic in view
of these market developments. The EU institutions should consider - in addition and in line with possible adaptations -
the assurance of sustainable competitiveness of companies in Europe.
Key messages:
• Recycling should become a real economic
opportunity in order to balance the burden
of extended producer responsibility.
• Environmental ‘equivalent’ conditions
for production and recycling of batteries
outside the EU has to be supported and
promoted.
• Re-use and second life of batteries
has to be managed by professionals
understanding the battery management
systems (BMS) and all safety aspects,
in addition to the regulatory requirements.
• Transport of waste batteries has to be
harmonized and safety legislation enforced.
Patrick de Metz
SAFT & Chairman of RECHARGE
RECHARGE Report 2018 3
Mission, Strategy, Governance of RECHARGE
Mission
The Mission of RECHARGE is to promote Advanced Rechargeable & Lithium Batteries as a technology that will contribute
to a Sustainable Society, a Resource and Energy Efficient policy and to the achievement of a Green Circular Economy.
Strategy
RECHARGE members contribute to the EU policy framework and to the Circular Economy Package in order to promote
the role of advanced rechargeable & lithium batteries in the society, to secure the development of an EU rechargeable
battery industry and long-term sustainability. Recharging these batteries reduces the use of primary raw materials and
recycling them in the EU brings secondary raw materials back into the EU economy.
Governance
The objective of the General Assembly of RECHARGE is to review and address, under the applicable confidentiality rules,
issues concerning the program and its achievements. The minutes of the General Assembly will reflect all significant
matters discussed between those member companies present.
No discussions will be held, formally or informally, during specified meeting times or otherwise, involving, directly or
indirectly, express or implicit agreements or understandings related to: (a) any company’s price; (b) any company’s terms
or conditions of sale; (c) any company’s production or sales levels; (d) any company’s wages or salaries; (e) the division or
allocation of customers or geographic markets; or (f) customer or suppliers boycotts; or (g) any disclosure of information
which may affect applicable rules on Competition Law.
RECHARGE members, as a group, will make no recommendations of any kind and will not try to reach any agreements
or understandings with respect to an individual company’s prices, terms or conditions of sale, production or sales levels,
wages, salaries, customers or suppliers. RECHARGE members agree to comply with the rules of the Antitrust Compliance
Program communicated to them by the secretariat of RECHARGE
The EU Commission wants to ensure that EU legislation is ‘fit for purpose’.
This will be an important contribution to promoting a business-friendly environment by simplifying and streamlining
legislation, supporting the Battery Alliance framework.
The EU legislation should consider that the EU Industry cannot be placed in a less competitive position than its partners
at a global scale.
The EU should focus more on implementing policies rather that coming up with new policies that will be difficult to
Member States to comply with.
Striving towards implementation of European legislation in all Member States in a harmonized and uniform way is a
key objective of RECHARGE.
Claude Chanson
General Manager
RECHARGE
4
Batteries Markets and Technology trends
This chapter presents the product trends for the batteries markets:
• Changes in the demand for batteries, i.e. on the markets of the battery-containing products, which are mainly EEE,
electric vehicles and energy storage systems,
• Technological changes of the electrochemical systems used to power a product or store energy and their characteristics
(battery weight, composition, lifespan etc.)
1. Batteries market trends
1.1. Decisive factors for changes on the battery market
The battery market is dependent on the product markets in which batteries are used. Changes at product function
level, i.e. market changes due to new developments of the usages of the products, are the main drivers for changes on
the battery markets and, therefore, changes of the batteries technologies. It also can be considered that the new battery
technologies are enabling new products to be proposed to the public. Battery markets are at different stages on the S curve
of market maturity. While the diffusion of batteries for electric mobility is increasing very rapidly, other markets like batteries
for portable Electric Electronic Equipment are already very developed and slowly increasing or stagnating.
In general, the decisive factors for changes of the batteries technologies are not changes of the composition of batteries
with a specific electrochemical system, but market shifts from an electrochemical system to another.
The following factors may have a significant influence:
• Technical requirements related to the function of the product in which the battery is used:
o Battery specific energy
o Charge/Discharge rate capability
o Lifetime and calendar life
o Battery volumetric energy
• Economic requirement: battery price.
• Legislative requirements: Article 4 of the Batteries Directive 2006/66/EC prohibits the placing on the market of
portable batteries or accumulators that contain more than:
o 0,0005 % of mercury by weight
o 0,002 % of cadmium by weight including since January 1st 2017 for batteries used in cordless portable tools
According the Batteries Directive, the batteries placed on the market in EU are classified in 3 categories:
1. The industrial batteries (mainly corresponding to the electric mobility and energy storage markets),
2. The automotive batteries (mainly the lead acid batteries for the vehicles starting and lighting)
3. The portable batteries (neither industrial nor automotive, mainly corresponding to the portable equipment
applications like laptop, phones, powertools, cameras.., and most of the alkaline primary cells …)
1.2. Smaller, lighter, more powerful batteries
In general, there is a trend to more energy-efficient devices, which means either that the battery weight remains stable
and the devices offer more functions, or the weight of the battery decreases (e.g. shift from an AA to an AAA battery, or
to button cells, or use of lighter batteries) for the same product functionality.
The changes can be very abrupt. A product-centric example of a rapid change of the technical requirements is the shift of portable
PC towards thin and “ultraportable” notebooks, in which the traditional battery shape used since the 90’s (based on a standard
cylindrical shape Li-ion cell having a diameter of 18 mm) cannot be used anymore. The new batteries designs are requiring a
maximum thickness of 10 mm or less, and therefore, the usage of a new battery technology with a new material composition.
1.3. Divergence and convergence
The trends of Electric and Electronic Equipment are reflected on the battery markets.
On the one hand, the trend towards ‘smarter’ hardware where products (including vehicles) are increasingly embedded
with electronics, fitted with sensors, communication, data modules and other technologies results in the diffusion of batteries
over new types of smart products. The consequence that products containing electronics and batteries will be ever more
diffuse also increases the usage of advanced batteries. The further diffusion of batteries dominates the fact that, on the
other hand, a convergence can be observed through the combination of products, causing recession on some markets of
battery-containing products like digital cameras and MP3-players.
RECHARGE Report 2018 5
Batteries Markets and Technology trends
1.4. Advanced Batteries technologies enabling new products and services
Advanced batteries technologies provide a combination of technical features progressively enabling new products. For
example, the strong improvement of the life duration and the autonomy of the batteries, required by the electric-mobility,
will probably in the future allow for the new usages in other autonomous equipement like robots for gardening or
personal care.
On the other hand, new miniaturized or flexible batteries will be used for new applications in wearables and internet-of-things.
2. Battery Market Data
Avicenne (2016) estimates that whereas electronic devices accounted for 50% of the sales of lithium-ion batteries in
2015, the largest application is expected to be electric mobility in 2025 with a share of 56% (Figure 1). This is in line with
other estimates, who expect that, depending on the scenario and its underlying framework conditions, between 50 and
more than 70 percent of lithium-ion batteries are expected to be used in electric mobility applications in the next 10 years,
alongside stationary applications and mobile or portable electronic products (Prosum -2018).
Figure 1: Lithium-ion battery sales forecast in MWh, worldwide (Avicenne, 2016)
Based on this analysis and on a screening of the uses of batteries based on the available put on the market data (WP3),
three battery applications were identified as keys for future trends:
1- Electric mobility, including vehicles, e-bikes, e-scooters etc.
2- Portable electric and electronic equipment
3- Energy storage
Applications in military, wearables, robotics and internet-of-things are early adaptations that may become key in the
future.
2.1. Electric mobility
Battery technologies for electric mobility
According to the E-mobility Battery R&D Roadmap 2030 of Eurobat (2015), three existing battery technologies are
expected to have the greatest potential for further technological improvements over the next decade:
• Advanced lead-based batteries – for start-stop vehicles and micro-hybrid vehicles
• Lithium-ion batteries – for electric vehicles and all types of hybrid vehicles
• Sodium nickel chloride batteries – for heavy duty electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid vehicles
Avicenne (2016) expects an increase of the market shares of advanced lead-acid and lithium-ion batteries between 2010
and 2020, related with an increase of the sales volumes of P-HEV and full HEV (Figure 2). Advanced lead-acid batteries
are smaller, lighter batteries and offer an approximate 20% lead weight reduction. For example, valve-regulated lead acid
(VRLA) batteries containing enhanced levels of carbon in the negative plate belong to the advanced lead-based batteries.
In the European market, lead-based batteries are not considered as promising for traction purposes. Sodium nickel chloride
6
Batteries Markets and Technology trends
batteries have been commercialized since the 1990s and originally found application in electric vehicles and hybrid electric
vehicles, mostly buses, trucks and vans.
Figure 2: Trends in the use of batteries in vehicles (Avicenne, 2016)
Current research activities aim at developing new or alternative technologies like lithium-air, lithium sulphur, lithium-
polymer and solid-state lithium. A significant advancement in one or more of these chemistries could prove disruptive to
the industry; however, the extensive testing needed to bring a new chemistry into a production vehicle makes it unlikely
this would occur before 2020 or 2025, as there are no game-changing technologies approaching the consumer market
(Navigant Research, 2015; Thielmann et al., 2012b; Blagoeva et al., 2016; Avicenne, 2016).
Laslau et al. (2015) forecast lithium-sulfur and solid-state batteries to reach 4% and 2% market penetration in 2030 in
transportation, respectively, rising to 8% and 12% in 2035 (Figure 3). Until 2020, Li-ion will dominate, evolving to become
advanced Li-ion, defined as a varied mix of higher-voltage and higher-capacity materials, a step beyond today’s NMC
(Nickel Manganese Cobalt oxide) or NCA (Nickel Cobalt Aluminium oxide) paired with graphite.
Figure 3: Battery type market shares in transportation between 2015 and 2035 (Laslau et al., 2015)
Because the literature clearly states that li-ion technologies have the most competitive position in electric mobility and that
this is not expected to change before 2025, a special focus was set during the data collection on lithium-ion batteries.
Focus on lithium-ion batteries
According a commercial report providing confidential global market forecasts until 2024 of Navigant Research (2015), the
global market for Li-ion batteries in light duty and medium/heavy duty vehicles is expected to grow from $7.8 billion in
2015 to $30.6 billion in 2024. This development is pushed by national and European policies, including the setting of EV
deployment targets by the Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) for 2020, the Paris Declaration on Electro-Mobility and Climate
Change and Call to Action for 2030, and the IEA 2DS.
RECHARGE Report 2018 7
Batteries Markets and Technology trends
The mass production of HEVs and small industrial trucks using lithium-ion batteries started approximatively in 2015.
The forecast of the following products equipped with lithium-ion batteries:
• Between 2015 and 2020 for PHEV and BEV, scooters, hybrid forklift and 3.5 t vans
• Approximatively 2020 for starter batteries and hybrid tractors
• After 2020 for electric forklifts, electric buses and hybrid trains
An overview of the current and future uses of lithium-ion batteries for electric mobility is provided by Thielmann et al.
(2015a) from Fraunhofer ISI (Table A). It shows the forecasted market development for electric mobility.
Table A: Global market for lithium-ion batteries
2015 2020 2030 >2030
Application for
electric mobility Current LIB
Market size Market size Market size Diffusion trend
technology
Two-wheelers (ebikes, scooter, ~10 Mio, ~ kWh, ~x*10 Mio, ~
NMC ~5 Mio, ~10 GWh Diffusion
pedelecs, motorbikes etc.) >10 GWh kWh, ~x*10 GWh
~1,5 Mio, ~1 ~1 Mio, je ~1
Batteries Markets and Technology trends
Figure 4: 2000-2025 lithium-ion batteries market, MWh, by application (Avicenne, 2016)
The portable applications, because of their low but steady market growth, can be classified as large and reliable markets,
even though the markets for some consumer electronics applications like digital cameras and camcorders are stagnating
(Thielmann et al. 2015). Large numbers from 10 million to several billions of products using Li-ion batteries with less than 100 Wh
are sold each year, for instance mobile phones (100 % li-ion batteries), tablets (100 % li-ion batteries) and laptops (100 %
li-ion batteries). They represent 10 GWh markets having, for tablets and mobile phones, a dynamic development. Further
portable products using small batteries with markets up to 1 GWh are Power Tools (50 to 70 % li-ion batteries, increasing),
cordless phones (15 to 35 % li-ion batteries, beside Ni-MH), camcorders und video games (100 % li-ion batteries), digital
cameras and MP3-Players (90 to 100 % li-ion batteries, beside primary batteries), toys with electronics (40 to 60 % li-ion batteries,
beside NiMH and primary batteries) as well as household appliances, and medical devices (Thielmann et al. 2015).
2.3. Energy Storage Systems - ESS
Energy Storage Systems can provide a variety of application solutions along the entire value chain of the electrical system,
from generation support to transmission and distribution support to end-customer uses (EPRI, 2010). The roadmap of
Thielmann et al. (2015) distinguish (1) decentralised photovoltaic battery systems, (2) optimisation of electricity consumption
with larger energy storage including peak shaving, (3) direct marketing of renewable energies and (4) balancing power.
According to Avicenne (2016), the market of energy storage systems will increase from 36 GWh in 2015 to 65 GWh in
2025.
Figure 5: Forecast of the market of energy storage systems (Avicenne, 2016)
RECHARGE Report 2018 9
Batteries Markets and Technology trends
The main technology used today in ESS is the Lead acid batteries. The mass production of Energy Storage Systems using
Li-ion batteries is expected to be achieved between 2015 and 2020 for decentralised photovoltaic battery systems, which
already entered the market, around 2020 for larger energy storage between 100 kW and 1 MW, direct marketing of
renewable energies and balancing power, and between 2020 and 2030 for energy storage over 5 MW
(Thielmann et al., 2015).
Lithium-ion batteries will increasingly replace the lead-acid batteries until 2020. Most energy storage systems for
decentralised photovoltaic battery systems currently use LFP/graphite-based lithium-ion batteries. Li-ion batteries with
NMC, NCA, LCO and LMO cathodes, LFP batteries with LTO anodes and lead-based batteries represent in total less than
half of the market. Costs, efficiency, cyclical and calendar lifetime are the main factors influencing the choice of one or
another battery type.
Several other technologies are available, such as sodium sulfur or sodium nickel chloride batteries. Research is currently
conducted to reduce the heat losses by developing low temperature systems, which mass production may be expected
after 2020 (Thielmann et al., 2015). Also redox flow batteries with a low energy density such as the vanadium redox flow
batteries (VRFB) may be relevant for instance for large stationary storage applications after 2020 (Thielmann et al., 2015).
EPRI forecasted in 2012 that batteries using the electrochemical systems sodium-sulfur, sodium-nickel chloride, advanced
lead-acid and lithium-ion will be deployed the mature technologies available on the market in 2020.
Figure 6: Technology Readiness of Energy Storage Technologies as depicted by EPRI in 2012 and cited by Baxter
(2016)
2.4. Market maturity
The findings of the market analysis are summarised by Figure 7, which provide a snap-shot of the market penetration of
different battery electrochemical systems in the main applications of the sectors electric mobility, portable EEE and energy
storage in 2017. The figure shows the dynamism of the li-ion markets over the three sectors. A limitation of the figure is
that even though the S-curve theory is expected to be applicable to all products, the speed of the progress along the S-curve
and the existence of enhancements cannot be estimated or forecasted with the available data.
10Batteries Markets and Technology trends
Figure 7: Market penetration of battery electrochemical systems in applications of the sectors electric mobility,
portable EEE and energy storage in 2017
References
Avicenne (2016). The Rechargeable Battery Market and Main Trends 2015-2025. Presentation by Christophe Pillot at the
Batteries congress 2016, September 28th, 2016, Nice, France.
Baxter, R. (2016). Energy Storage Financing: A Roadmap for Accelerating Market Growth. A Study for the DOE Energy
Storage Systems Program. Worldwide, Sandia National Laboratories. Available online: www.sandia.gov/ess/publications/
SAND2016-8109.pdf
Blagoeva, D. T.; Alves Dias, P.; Marmier, A.; Pavel, C.C. (2016) Assessment of potential bottlenecks along the materials supply
chain for the future deployment of low-carbon energy and transport technologies in the EU. Wind power, photovoltaic
and electric vehicles technologies, time frame: 2015-2030; EUR 28192 EN; doi:10.2790/08169
EPRI (2010). Electricity Energy Storage Technology Options. A White Paper Primer on Applications, Costs, and Benefits.
Technical Update, December 2010. Available online: http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2012/ph240/doshay1/docs/EPRI.pdf
Laslau, C.; Xie, L.; Robinson, C. (2015). The Next-Generation Battery Roadmap: Quantifying How Solid-State, Lithium-Sulfur,
and Other Batteries Will Emerge After 2020. Lux Research Energy Storage Intelligence research sample, October 2015
Navigant Research (2015). Advanced Energy Storage for Automotive Applications. Available online:
www.navigantresearch.com/research/advanced-energy-storage-for-automotive-applications
Chancerel P., Chanson C., Peck D., European funded program Prosum, 2017.
Recharge (2013). E-mobility Roadmap for the EU battery industry. The European Association for Advanced Rechargeable Batteries.
Available online: www.rechargebatteries.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Battery-Roadmap-RECHARGE-05-July-2013.pdf
Thielmann, A.; Sauer, A.; Isenmann, R.; Wietschel, M.; Plötz, P.; Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research
ISI (Karlsruhe) (Hrsg.): Product roadmap lithium-ion batteries 2030; Karlsruhe: Fraunhofer ISI, 2012.
Available online: www.isi.fraunhofer.de/isi-en/t/projekte/at-lib-2015-roadmapping.php
Thielmann, A.; Sauer, A.; Isenmann, R.; Wietschel, M. (2012b). Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research
ISI (Karlsruhe) (Hrsg.): Technology roadmap energy storage for electric mobility 2030; Karlsruhe: Fraunhofer ISI, 2012.
Thielmann, A.; Sauer, A.; Wietschel, M. (2015a); Fraunhofer-Institut für System- und Innovationsforschung ISI (Karlsruhe)
(Hrsg.): Gesamt-Roadmap Lithium-Ionen-Batterien 2030; Karlsruhe: Fraunhofer ISI, 2015.
Available online: www.isi.fraunhofer.de/isi-en/t/projekte/at-lib-2015-roadmapping.php
RECHARGE Report 2018 11Legislation impacting batteries
Batteries in Europe: public initiatives and regulatory
aspects - Batteries Directive 2006/66/EC.
1. The creation of an European Union Battery Alliance to support battery manufacturing
In a press conference on 11 October 2017, Mr. Maroš Šefčovič, Vice-President of the European Commission, in charge of
the Energy Union stated that batteries are at the heart of the ongoing industrial revolution. They represent a key enabling
technology in the context of the Energy Union. Their development and production play a strategic role in the ongoing
transition to clean mobility and clean energy systems. Batteries embody the EU ambition to help our industries remain or
become world leaders in innovation, digitization and decarbonization.
The lack of a domestic, European cell manufacturing base jeopardizes the position of EU industrial customers because of the
security of the supply chain, increased costs due to transportation, time delays, weaker quality control or limitations on the design.
The strong and weak points of the EU manufacturing industry have been clearly analyzed in the 2017 JRC report (1): the
battery assembly for e-mobility application is already widely developed in EU, and closely linked to the vehicles architecture
decisions, under the OEM control. Therefore, the main focus of an action plan should be to support the development in
Europe of Li-ion components and cells manufacturing, for integration in the Eu e-mobility batteries and vehicles.
Key enablers to support the industry investment in EU have been identified in the conclusions of JRC report (1):
• Considerations on EU competitiveness in LIB cell manufacturing should target innovation in cell chemistries, formats
and manufacturing technologies/processes.
• Efforts for establishing LIB cell manufacturing capacity in the EU should primarily target LIB cells of generation-2b and
beyond and should focus on production stages which are critical for LIB quality, performance and safety.
• Competing with non-EU LIB cell producers on cost-only basis is unlikely to be successful. A competitive EU LIB cell
production should offer added value beyond cost, in terms of enhanced sustainability, safety and performance.
RECHARGE supports these recommendations. A further study from CEPS(2) presents 2 scenarios (low and high collection
and recycling rates) where the economical and employment benefit of Co and Li recycling are presented. It indicates that
the recycling is possible in an economical approach, but significant investment are needed, and the process cost ensuring
the payback is uncertain.
This European competitive disadvantage needs to be overcome and the EU should capitalize its leadership in many sectors
of the battery value chain, from materials to system integration and recycling. As this cannot be done in a fragmented
manner, a Europe-wide approach is promoted by the Commission.
Members of the EU industry and innovation community will be working in close partnership with the European Commission,
the European Investment Bank and interested Member States, to establish a competitive manufacturing chain, capture
sizeable markets and boost jobs, growth and investment across Europe.
A strategic plan will be developed in 2018, in the form of a comprehensive roadmap for an EU Battery Alliance.
A number of working groups will be organized starting 2018, to the supply chain, investment financing and engineering,
trade issues, research and innovation, with participation of industry.
RECHARGE will be actively involved in this process.
2. The Revision of the Batteries Directive
The Batteries Directive 2006/66/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council was published in the Official Journal of
the European Union on 6 September 2006.
Since then, the Directive has been amended with important changes for the whole industry, such as:
1. The removal of the exemption for the use of Mercury in button cells as of 1 October 2015.
2. The removal of the exemption for the use of Cadmium in cordless power tools as of 1 January 2017.
3. Changes were made to provisions on placing on the market (article 6.2) and the removability of batteries (article 11).
References:
(1) JRC report: EU Competitiveness in Advanced Li-ion Batteries for E-Mobility and Stationary Storage Applications –Opportunities and Actions
Steen, M. Lebedeva, N. Di Persio, F. Boon-Brett, L., 2017, JRC (https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/publication/eur-scientific-and-technical-research-reports/lithium-
ion-battery-value-chain-and-related-opportunities-europe ).
12 (2) CEPS report: Circular economy perspectives for future end-of-life EV batteries, Eleanor Drabik, Vasileios Rizos, The Center for European Policies Studies 2017.Legislation impacting batteries
The purpose of the Batteries Directive was the protection of health and environment through improved environmental
performance of batteries and of the activities performed on batteries during their life cycle, i.e. reduce the quantities of
hazardous substances in waste, aid consumer choice by providing end-users with transparent, reliable and clear information,
ensure efficient use of resources, improve recycling.
What has the Batteries Directive made possible so far?
• A clear assignment of responsibilities through the EPR (Extended Producer Responsibility) concept
• An operational definition of battery categories
• A dedicated network of CROs (collection & recycling organizations) and take back systems
• A substantial volume of collected End of Life batteries
• A well-established industry of Battery Recyclers
• A substantial volume of SRM (secondary raw materials)
Can the Batteries Directive be improved to respond better to the changed market conditions since 2006?
In view of a possible revision of the Batteries Directive, the EU Commission over the years conducted several ex-post
evaluations of the Directive (fitness check) and detailed evaluations on coherence, relevance, effectiveness, efficiency and
EU added value, in combination with other waste stream Directives, and in view of the Circular Economy approach.
A Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) document on the Batteries Directive was updated by the EU Commission in 2014.
An EU Commission public consultation started in September 2017 and ran until the end of November 2017 as a first step
of a review process, in which the Commission assesses whether the Directive meets its objectives and contributes to the
general objectives of the EU environmental policy. The results of this public consultation will be available in 2018 and the
review and assessment might bring proposals for a revision & implementation of the changes to the Batteries Directive at
Member State level towards the period 2020-2022.
Extending the product life of batteries as a waste prevention measure in support of the circular economy.
The EU Commission acknowledges that extending the product life of batteries through better re-use of batteries or providing
used batteries a second life are possible new markets, which fully complies with the thinking of the circular economy principles:
1. Circular Economy keeps the added value in products for as long as possible and eliminates waste.
2. Member States shall take measures to promote re-use activities and the extension of the life span of products,
provided the quality and safety of products are not compromised, by encouraging the establishment and support of
recognized re-use networks and by incentivizing remanufacturing, refurbishment and repurposing of products.
From numerous contacts, presentations and congresses, it seems that the priorities of the legislator regarding
batteries is now evolving into the direction of:
1. Extension of the product’s service life
2. Re-use and second life
3. Use of recycled components and materials
The lack of definition for re-use and second life.
RECHARGE has on numerous occasions highlighted the lack of coherence in a number of definitions across the waste stream
Directives, or even indicated a complete absence of definitions. It has requested the EU Commission and EU Parliament to
introduce a much clearer stance on producer responsibilities, particularly concerning the second life of products, and to
ensure that the Batteries Directive prevails over other waste stream Directives at any time reference is made to batteries.
In this regard, it is important for defining re-use and second life to make first a clear distinction between the different types of
batteries (portable, automotive, industrial) as some legal requirements are different per type (collection or take-back obligations),
and to clearly understand and accept the borderline between a battery as a product, and a battery as a waste.
A Portable battery is any battery, button cell, battery pack
that is sealed, can be hand-carried, is neither an industrial
nor an automotive battery. There is a collection obligation by
producers, with a collection target by Member State of 45%
as of September 2016.
RECHARGE Report 2018 13Legislation impacting batteries
An Automotive battery is any battery used for automotive starter, lighting or ignition power
(SLI). There is also a collection obligation by producers. Most of the automotive batteries are
lead acid (Pb-Acid) batteries and traditionally have a very high collection rate because of the
positive value of lead. However, the use of lead in general is under much scrutiny by authorities
and environmental groups.
An Industrial battery is any battery designed
for exclusively industrial or professional uses
or used in any type of electric vehicle. Here a
take-back obligation by producers applies.
The difference between collection and take-back.
Collection means that Member States shall ensure that appropriate collection schemes are in place for waste portable and
automotive batteries. Take-back means that Member States shall ensure that producers of industrial batteries shall not
refuse to take back waste industrial batteries from end-users, regardless of chemical composition and origin.
Is a battery at collection or at take-back a product or a waste?
A rather important observation is to be made here.
It concerns batteries which already are in a waste status. Because waste is defined as any substance or object which the
holder discards or intends or is required to discard (Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC - WFD). A waste battery is a
battery which is waste within the meaning of ‘waste’ in the WFD.
For a portable battery used mostly in household appliances, the user decides when/if/how the battery can/will be discarded,
the battery has no monetary or economic value or need any more for the user who wants to discard it as waste.
For an industrial battery (heavier, larger volume, long service life, expensive in purchase) the decision whether a battery
(or components of that battery) still has a monetary or economic value (re-useable) is taken after a diagnose by a professional.
The decision whether that battery can be discarded as waste or can be re-used as a product is mostly taken in a business
to business (B2B) context.
In this regard, it is interesting to note that according to the EU Council Presidency compromise text on amending Directive
2008/98/EC on waste of 6 January 2017, an object can be transferred from one holder to another holder without the
intention to discard. This implies that the take-back of an industrial battery should not – by default – be regarded as a
waste generation.
In addition, and according to the Compromise Amendments of 11 January 2017 on the Waste Framework Directive, re-
use is a process entailing the treatment of products to prevent waste generation.
As such, the refurbishment or remanufacturing of an industrial battery should therefore be regarded as a specific waste
prevention measure.
Based on the above, RECHARGE is proposing the following definitions:
• Re-use means any operation by which batteries or accumulators that are not waste are used again for the same purpose
for which they were conceived, with the understanding that a repair of a battery is considered a sub-set of re-use, and
does not change the extended producer responsibility (EPR) for the producer/importer having placed that battery on the
market for the first time.
• Second life means any operation by which batteries or accumulators that are not waste are used for a different purpose
for which they were conceived and placed on the market for the 1st. time, with the understanding that a remanufacturing
of a battery for a second life does change the EPR, as the battery will be used for a different purpose (application) than after
its first placing on the market. The importer/producer/remanufacturer of the second use battery has now the EPR obligation
(and other obligations of the Batteries Directive and Regulation on the calculation of RE), irrespective of a new label or not.
This should be addressed in a potential future revision of the Batteries Directive. Because the absence of this legal background
for the re-use and the second life of batteries creates a grey zone full of different interpretations amongst EU Member
States, and fundamentally raises the issue of applying correctly the Extended Producer Responsibility.
14Legislation impacting batteries
Regulation 493/1012 on Recycling Efficiency
– need for adaptation?
The Commission Regulation (EU) No 493/2012 that was published in the Official Journal of the European Union on 11 June 2012 is
laying down detailed rules regarding the calculation of recycling efficiencies of the recycling processes of waste batteries. This
was followed by a publication in May 2014 of a Guidance document on the application of the Regulation on the Recycling
Efficiency Calculation methodology.
Some of the key issues identified when introducing the Batteries Directive 2006/66/EC were the hazards represented by
the heavy metals Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg) and Cadmium (Cd) in case of lack of end-of-life process control.
Two major targets have been set up or this purpose:
1. Collection target for portable batteries, to avoid incineration or landfill with household waste.
2. Recycling Efficiency (RE) target for a minimum recovery of the heavy metals.
The Recycling Efficiency targets to be achieved at the recycling process level as described in the Batteries Directive 2006/66/EC
are 65% for lead-acid batteries, 75% for Nickel-Cadmium batteries, and 50% for other types of waste batteries, amongst
others Li-ion and Ni-MH batteries.
The first reporting by the recyclers on RE took place in 2015 covering the calendar year 2014.
For the calculation of the RE, there is a need to distinguish between the treatment of portable battery packs and industrial batteries:
1) Portable battery packs RE is calculated on the weight of cells entering the Recycling process as an input fraction.
The weight of the plastic outer casing of a portable battery pack is not considered as an input fraction of the recycling
process (Annex 1 § 6 of Commission Regulation 493/2012).
2) Industrial batteries Recycling Efficiency is calculated on the total weight of the industrial battery, including the external
jacket as indicated in Annex 1 § 6 of Commission Regulation 493/2012.
Should the Recycling Efficiency definition
and measurement be updated?
These are some of the questions raised during the 2017 International
Congress of Battery Recycling in Lisbon:
• What is a the meaning of qualifying output fractions?
The end of waste criteria should be clarified?
• How to properly trace the chain of recycling subcontractors throughout
the complete value chain?
• Should the energy efficiency of recycling be measured, or should other
parameters be used?
RECHARGE position:
1. Assure that reporting is harmonized across EU member States according to the requirements of this Regulation.
Alignment with EUROSTAT reporting documents is requested to avoid confusion for Member State Competent
Authority responsible for the reporting.
2. 50% RE is considered an excellent result for Lithium batteries.
3. No distinction should be made between exclusive battery recyclers and WEEE recyclers who also recycle batteries.
In case the EU Commission proposes modifications to the recycling efficiency calculations, RECHARGE is open
for discussion and for offering advice.
RECHARGE Report 2018 15Legislation impacting batteries
Other European Directives and Regulations impacting
batteries
The Batteries Directive 2006/66/EC has a large interface with other waste stream Directives.
Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC (WFD)
This Directive published in November 2008 lays down measures to protect the environment and human health by preventing
or reducing the adverse impacts of the generation and management of waste and by reducing overall impacts of resource
use and improving the efficiency of such use. Some general definitions , such as “waste”, “extended producer responsibility”,
etc.. ,are defined in the WFD. In addition, its annex 3 presents the “List of Waste”.
List of Waste
In May 2015, the battery industry in Europe was informed that the technical adaptation committee (TAC) on batteries has
been requested to re-assess the classification of waste batteries under the List of Waste. This is a very important exercise
which could lead to significant changes in the transport of waste batteries, cross-border transfers of waste and recycling
permits. All actors involved in the end-of-life management of waste batteries will be affected.
Several battery industry associations, including RECHARGE, have advocated that any changes to the List of Waste should
be based on a coherent methodology. This will require a proper impact assessment to evaluate the consequences of any
proposal in terms of modifying the classifications which should in particular look into the administrative and economic
consequences for waste batteries and WEEE industries.
Due to the diversity, complexity and constant evolution of the composition of batteries and the wide range of composition
observed, it will be justified to include some mirror entry classifications (both hazardous and not hazardous), codes (AH=
absolute hazardous, ANH= absolute non hazardous, MH and MNH= mirror codes for hazardous or non hazardous waste).
The proposal was to develop a methodology to properly classify waste batteries and mixtures of various types of waste
batteries in the List of Waste and to assess the overall impact and consequences.
The process for identification of the waste status relies first on the existence of waste codes. It is the case for the batteries:
3 codes for AH (16 06 01* Lead, 16 06 02* Cd , and 16 056 03* Hg containing batteries) and 2 codes for ANH (16 06 04
alkaline batteries without mercury, 16 06 05 other batteries).
In addition, in the definition of the waste category 16 01, batteries are excluded from the category 16 01: “end-of-life vehicles
from different means of transport (including off-road machinery) and wastes from dismantling of end-of-life vehicles and
vehicle maintenance (except 13, 14, 16 06 and 16 08)”.
Consequently, the category 16 01 21* should not be used for the batteries dismantled from the car, but only 16 06, and
particularly 16 06 05 for the Lithium batteries. It is an ANH (absolute non-hazardous classification, no mirror code).
End-of-Life Vehicles Directive 2000/53/EC (ELV)
This Directive published in 2000 covers certain categories of vehicles, including their components such as batteries. Batteries in
vehicles covered by the ELV Directive should fall within the scope of the Batteries Directive, unless there are specific provisions
in the ELV Directive that apply to batteries used in such vehicles.
There is a distinction between the Recycling Efficiency targets of the Batteries Directive (a RE target based on the recycling process)
and the ELV Directive targets (re-use, recycling, and recovery based on total average vehicle weight). The batteries in the ELV
account for 100% in weight into the calculation of the re-use & recycling (target of 85%), and re-use & recovery (target
95%).
To further reduce the use of hazardous substances, the EU Commission has in the meantime also started with the 9th. Revision
of the End-of-Life Vehicle Directive 2000/53/EC relating to the use of lead in batteries.
16Legislation impacting batteries
Picture: Courtesy of BOSCH
A recent press release from Bosch promotes the use of a 48 Volts lithium-ion battery to
replace the lead SLI (starting, lightning, ignition) automotive battery. This alternative and
advanced technology will of course put pressure on the lead battery industry to remove
the exemption for lead batteries usage in vehicles.
Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive
2012/19/EC (WEEE)
Batteries used in electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) fall within the scope of
the Batteries Directive unless there are specific provisions in the WEEE Directive
that apply to batteries if the batteries are part of the EEE when it becomes waste.
Portable batteries, including those incorporated into appliances, should be reported as specified in Article 10(3) of the
Batteries Directive.
The WEEE Directive regulates the end of life management of batteries contained in equipment. The WEEE Directive requires
the selective treatment of materials and components of WEEE and, as a minimum, the removal of components such as
batteries.
The Batteries Directive mentions that where batteries are collected together with WEEE, batteries shall be removed from
the collected WEEE, but flexibility is provided for the process to remove the battery, as long as recycling is achieved in an
identified flow.
When an EEE is containing a battery, the complete battery weight (100%) should count towards achieving the targets
under the WEEE Directive 2012/19/EU.
When a battery is at its end-of-life and is made available for recycling, the WEEE recycler should record & report evidences
about the recycling efficiency according to the requirements of the Battery Directive 2006/66/EC and of the Commission
Regulation 493/2012.
Restriction of the use of certain Hazardous Substances in electrical and electronic equipment.
Directive 2011/65/EU (RoHS 2)
RoHS 2 provisions apply to all EEE placed on the EU market regardless of whether they are produced in the EU or in third
countries. RoHS 2 affects mainly industrial manufacturers, importers and distributors of EEE, as well as EEE customers.
REACh Regulation 1907/2006/EC on the Registration, Evaluation, Authorization, and restriction of
Chemicals
Batteries are classified as Articles under REACH and not as Chemicals in a container.
When batteries are containing Substances of Very High Concern SVHC which are placed on the authorization list, they are
subject to notification.
REACh is of major importance to the battery manufacturers due to the chemical management of producing batteries and
also because of the incentive for substitution of SVHC.
Eurometaux promotes a ‘risk-controlled cycle situation’ whereby the use of hazardous substances is safely controlled.
RECHARGE supports that approach.
RECHARGE Report 2018 17Legislation impacting batteries
Key messages to the EU from Umicore
What can the EU policy making do to promote and facilitate the creation of a European knowledge-
anchored rechargeable battery production?
1. Consistently support the creation of a local market for de-fossilized mobility
2. Increase and focus Research & Innovation support to prepare Europe for industrialisation of next generation
rechargeable batteries
3. Encourage and facilitate the creation of a European “Battery Value Chain Project of common strategic interest”
4. Promote sustainable and responsible sourcing of raw materials
5. Include the principles of circular economy
1. Consistently support the creation of a local market for de-fossilized mobility
De-fossilized mobility (including electro-mobility, H2-technology, bio- and synthetic fuels) has to be encouraged, further
developed and promoted. As the advantages are mainly societal (clean air, lower CO2) and the possible disadvantages
directly felt by the consumer (lower driving range, limited charging infrastructure, higher upfront cost), government support
for de-fossilized mobility is needed to take off. Financial and non-financial incentives have to be considered. Especially
investment in public charging infrastructure is needed.
2. Increase and focus Research & Innovation support to prepare Europe for industrialisation of next
generation rechargeable batteries
In line with 2016’s European Commission Communication “Accelerating Clean Energy Innovation” as well as Action
7 “Batteries for e-mobility and stationary storage” of the Integrated SET Plan, R&I support at European level should be
increased and focussed to develop next generation batteries in Horizon 2020 and forthcoming FP9.
Industrial Research & Demonstration to develop ‘Advanced Li-ion Batteries’:
Development of large format (> 150 Ah) cells with high energy density (> 300 Wh/kg) could make ‘Advanced Li-ion Batteries‘
a reality. Smart combination of high energy density active materials (cathode and anode) operated under challenging
conditions (e.g. charging at > 4.5 V) will enable significant gains in driving range of electric vehicles. Smart combination
will require though a full Li-ion battery cell ‘system’ approach to optimize all material components of the battery cell
(i.e. electrolyte, anode, cathode, separator, current collectors, can,…).
Advanced Research to develop ‘Solid State Li-ion Batteries’:
Identifying the suitable active materials and better understanding the battery electro-chemistry and physicochemical properties
of the material interfaces is absolutely needed to develop batteries with higher energy density. Solid state Li-ion batteries
offer the potential to overcome the range issue, limiting full development of electro-mobility.
Targeted R&I efforts as well as adapted education programs at European level as well as in Member States will position
Europe as a front runner and industrial player in field of new battery technologies while enabling full realization of
European Energy Union.
3. Encourage and facilitate the creation of a European “Battery Value Chain Project of common
strategic interest”
At least the large EU car manufacturing countries should join forces to create a full battery production value chain. The EU
has a lot of competences in the battery value chain: fundamental battery research, materials technology, pack assembly,
information technology and recycling. The missing link is battery cell production.
Pilot and demonstration projects for improved mass production of new generation battery cells need support. So far, the
EU missed the opportunity to create mass scale production technology of today’s Li-ion battery cells. Significant support
to develop mass production processes for advanced Li-ion technology (and in a later phase for solid state batteries) could
reshore battery cell production to the EU.
18Legislation impacting batteries
4. Promote sustainable and responsible sourcing of raw materials
Batteries contain several ‘technology metals’ like Lithium, Cobalt, Nickel,... Some of them are classified as ‘critical raw materials’
and/or are sourced from regions with delicate human right situations (armed conflicts, social rights, environmental issues).
The EU should support a dynamic responsible sourcing culture, in order to avoid supply chain disruptions as a result of
public scandals and geopolitical tensions. As not all risks can be mapped, nor foreseen in future, a strict regulatory framework
might not be the best approach. Voluntary schemes in co-operation with field experts, may generate more concrete
results.
5. Include the principles of circular economy
Facilitate the deployment of the circular economy principles; non-efficient administrative hurdles to reuse and recycle
batteries should be removed. Extended Producer Responsibility for refurbished batteries has to be made clear; reversed
logistics to refurbishment and recycling plants should be simplified.
The resource intensity of mobility can be reduced considerably by promoting car sharing and intermodal transport (using
the optimized transport mode for the individual mobility need).
RECHARGE Report 2018 19Scientific & technological roadmap of advanced
rechargeable batteries: research, materials production,
applications, projects
Research
UL - Safety studies on Aged Commercial Lithium-ion Cells and Modules
Introduction
Lithium-ion batteries have the highest energy density of rechargeable battery systems in the market. With the service life
and calendar life associated with them, their use has extended from portable electronic applications to electric vehicles
and stationary energy storage systems. The reuse of automotive batteries in stationary energy storage installations is a new
trend. But the safety of the aged cells and batteries has not been studied well. The current study focused on studying the
safety of aged cells and modules. The tests carried out focused on understanding not only capacity loss and internal resistance
changes but also on cell component changes. The aged cells and modules were tested for safety using external short
and overcharge conditions and compared to the characteristics of the fresh cells and modules. The objective of the study
was to determine if safety changes with cycle life aging, if certain parameters need to be characterized after first life and
before installation in the second life application and what parameters need to be studied closely during usage in second life.
Experimental
Lithium-ion 18650- model cells of 3.35 Ah capacity purchased in a single lot from one manufacturer were tested. The cells
had the internal PTC and CID devices. The separator had a ceramic coating on the sides facing the cathode. Cycle life tests
were carried out with a charge and discharge rate of 1C. In this case, testing
was stopped at 10%, 15% and 20% capacity loss. The voltage range for
the cycle life testing included that recommended by the manufacturer (4.2
V to 2.7 V), as well as a reduced range of 4.0 V to 2.9 V. Cells were also
subjected to a Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) protocol until 25% capacity loss
at three different temperatures of 10 °C, 25 °C and 40 °C. Fresh cells as
well as cells subjected to every condition mentioned above were opened
and the components studied to characterize the changes due to the cycle
life aging process. Three cells were tested under each of these conditions.
Modules of a 3P9S configuration were also cycled to 25% capacity loss and
safety tests carried out on fresh and cycled modules.
Results and Discussion
The cycle life studies indicated that the number of cycles obtained at 20
to 25% capacity loss more than doubles if the voltage range is reduced by
200 mV at each end. The external short and overcharge tests did not show
any significant changes in temperature although it was consistently
observed that under the overcharge test, the CID activated much faster in
the cycled cells than with the fresh cells which may be due to the collection of
gases during the cycling process. Under the various temperatures and HEV
profile, the number of cycles obtained at 25% capacity fade decreased by
17% at 40 °C and by 55% at 10 °C. The destructive analysis of the cells
showed that with just cycle life aging, there was some delamination of the
electrodes and the ceramic coating on the cathodes. The aged cells that
were subjected to the external short and overcharge tests showed
significant delamination of the cathode electrodes and the ceramic coating.
The most significant observations were found in the cells that underwent
the HEV cycling where the electrodes showed a lack of lithiation in the center
of the entire electrode length (Figure1a) and several areas showed lithium
plating and delamination (Figure 1b). Finally, it was observed that fresh
Figure 1. Destructive analysis of cells under
HEV protocol showing a) unequal lithiation modules underwent complete thermal runaway as expected, while the
and b) lithium plating. cycled modules did not exhibit any catastrophic event.
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