Unearth the Facts on Brighton Museum's Archaeology Gallery
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Unearth the Facts on
Brighton Museum’s
Archaeology Gallery
1
How does this period fit into
worldwide prehistory?
Use of fibres First
to produce Invention pyramids Iron Age First
Ice Age
Black Rock clothing of wheel built Hollingbury Writing
220,000 years ago 35,000 years ago 5,500 years ago 4,700 years ago 2,800 years ago 2,000 years ago
First Homo Neolithic Hieroglyphic Bronze Age Romans Anglo
sapiens Whitehawk
script Hove Barrow Springfield Road
2,000 years ago Saxons
Africa 5,700 years ago 3,500 years ago
Stafford Road
200,000 years ago developed 1,400 years ago
5,100 years ago
Welcome to the Ice Age
When was the Ice Age?
It started 220,000 years ago, but we’re
technically still in it!
What is the Ice Age?
The Ice Age is known for epic changes
in the global climate, which alternated
between warm and cool. These
periods of warming and cooling
shaped human development. As
people coped with changes in climate
they learned to walk upright and make
tools. They also became more
complex mentally and socially.
About 12,000 years ago, the climate warmed and open grassland and tundra (treeless
plains) became woodland. Large animals like reindeer and mammoth were replaced
by smaller, faster species like red deer, wild boar and wild ox. Around this time Britain
was connected to France, until the last land bridge was flooded about 8,000 years
ago when sea levels started to rise. Britain was an island again.
Who lived then?
The Ice Age is so long ago that nobody is completely sure about the people that lived
in Britain at the time. But we can make some pretty good guesses…
Early humans (Homo antecessor) could have arrived in Britain as early as one
million years ago. Homo antecessor was between 1.68m (5’ 5”) and 1.83m (6’ 0”) tall
and weighed up to 90kg (200lb). They had smaller brains than modern people.
By 500,000 years ago, we think another species (Homo heidelbergensis) arrived. The
remains of one of them were found at Boxgrove, near Chichester. He’s called
1
‘Boxgrove Man’. Although slightly smaller than their ancestors, Homo heidelbergensis
were hunting large animals across Sussex.
In Europe around 350,000 years ago, Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis)
evolved. They became shorter and stockier so they could live better in a cold climate.
They were shorter and heavier than us, with larger brains.
By about 40,000 years ago, modern humans (Homo sapiens) arrived in Britain.
Evidence suggests that modern humans had families with Neanderthals and that both
species lived together in Northern Europe for around 10,000 years before
Neanderthals died out. We’ve got some different ideas about what might have
happened to them. Did they fail to adapt to climate change? Fight to the death with
Homo sapiens? Or interbreed with them?
Today, we’re the only species left. But since up to 4% of our DNA is Neanderthal, the
past has definitely left its mark.
Reconstruction of Neanderthal Woman Reconstruction of early Modern Man
2
What were their lives like?
As soon as people developed tools, they could do more than their ancestors, from
using weapons to harvesting fruit.
These tools changed everything. For example, they could make tiny flint blades called
Microliths into arrows to hunt animals through forests, as well as tools to harvest wild
seeds and fruit from trees and shrubs. They learned to eat more fish and shellfish too.
People lived in small temporary homes. They moved across the land to make best
use of the resources available during the different seasons. As time went on, we think
they probably moved less. Instead, they started to control the landscape around them
to provide what they needed to survive. They started to express themselves through
cave painting and take part in rituals.
What do we have in the gallery?
We’ve got a large selection of stone tools from the Ice Age. They include the hand
axe – which people used to cut up animals for at least 1.8 million years. There’s also
a fantastic collection of bones and fossils from animals that lived alongside people in
Britain during the Ice Age. These include mammoth, woolly rhino, bear, wild horse
and auroch (ancient wild cattle).
Which local site can we look at to tell us more about Ice Age life in Brighton &
Hove?
Behind ASDA at the Marina you can still see evidence of a 220,000-year-old raised
shingle beach at Black Rock. When the beach was formed, Brighton was in a warm
stage with high sea levels. It’s possible Neanderthals were hunting big game there,
including horse, red deer, bison and mammoth.
Brighton & Hove must have been good hunting grounds with lots of big game around.
People could easily find local flint to make hand axes to butcher what they’d killed.
As the climate cooled, the sea retreated and shifts in the earth’s surface pushed the
stranded beach further up and inland. Slowly, as the landscape froze and thawed out
again, the chalk cliff started to crumble. In time the beach was covered by a layer of
3
chalk sludge and other claylike deposits. Gideon Mantell, the 19th century geologist
and fossil collector, named these deposits the ‘Elephant Beds’, because they hid so
many fossilised ‘elephant’ bones. The bones would actually have belonged to
mammoths!
Archaeologists have found a hand axe at Black Rock. It probably dates from the
Lower Palaeolithic, hundreds of thousands of years before the beach was formed.
Next time you wander along the Undercliff Walk behind ASDA in Brighton Marina,
look up. You can still see the shingle beach suspended in the cliff line, covered with
chalk and layers of orangey-brown silt. You might even see a mammoth tusk poking
out!
4
Welcome to the Neolithic, or New Stone Age
When was the Neolithic?
Around 6,000 to 4,500 years ago.
What was the Neolithic?
It began with an explosion of ideas coming from the
Continent. These included:
• Growing crops
• Keeping animals
• Building large landscape monuments
• Formal burial
• Making pottery and polished stone axes
• Developing long-distance trade networks
What were people’s lives like?
People made the tools they needed for farming in the same place year after year.
These included specialist flint tools like scrapers, awls and fabricators, picks made out
of antlers and shovels made from oxen shoulder blades. They made quern stones out
of sandstone for processing wheat and special axes for trading and clearing land.
These axes were often ground smooth and polished. Neolithic people travelled long
distances and dug deep mines to find the best quality stone.
Neolithic people are also known for their mysterious large monuments, like large
causewayed enclosures built with circular ditches and banks. We think they were
places to feast or even bury the dead. As time went on they built circular monuments
of wood and stone, possibly to mark changes in season.
Pottery arrived in Britain. Handmade pinch and coil pots became more heavily
decorated. Later came Impressed Ware – pottery decorated with twisted cord and bird
bone. Next, people developed flat bottomed, more angular vessels, called Grooved
Ware.
5
Meet the locals – Whitehawk Woman
Female aged 17-25, height 1.45m (4’ 9”).
This woman was buried in a ditch at an
entrance to Whitehawk Causewayed
Enclosure. Buried with her were:
• Two small pieces of chalk with holes in
• Two fossil sea urchins
• Half the leg bone of an ox and other
animal remains
Small and slight, she probably died in
childbirth. Her careful burial at Whitehawk
may mean she was part of an important
Reconstruction of Whitehawk Woman
family. She probably grew up close to
Wales, Normandy, Brittany or Spain. Her
clothes were made from animal skins. She
would have worked hard looking after
animals, growing crops and grinding wheat
into flour. Most Neolithic people didn't live
longer than 35 years.
6
What do we have in the gallery?
We have a large Neolithic collection. It’s mostly
from local sites such as Whitehawk and the Sussex
flint mines. In the gallery you can see:
• The skeleton of Whitehawk woman with her
grave goods
• A scored chalk block
• Fossilised sea urchins (otherwise known as
Shepherd’s Crowns)
Scored chalk block found at Whitehawk
• Butchered animal bone
• Entire restored pots
• Stone tools including polished axes
Which local site can we look at to tell us more about Neolithic life in Brighton &
Hove?
Whitehawk Causewayed Enclosure was built around 5,600 years ago. That’s up to a
thousand years before the major stone circles at Stonehenge! We think it took one or
two whole generations to complete.
It’s made up of at least four concentric rings of ditches and banks which cover around
six hectares, making it a major monument in the landscape. People would have been
able to clearly see the white chalk banks from miles away. The gaps in the banks and
ditches would have allowed people to access the inner circle.
Causewayed Enclosures became very popular in southern England about 5,700 years
ago. Most may have remained in use for only a few decades. However, we think
Whitehawk Enclosure was used for up to 250 years as a large arena where the
communities gathered, traded, celebrated and possibly worshipped.
Large amounts of animal bone found in the ditches suggest a lot of feasting must
have happened there. We’ve also found lots of stone tools. Many people were buried
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there too. The remains of four complete burials have been found in the ditches. They
include the body of an eight-year-old child as well as Whitehawk Woman.
We think that these enclosures were created when societies were becoming more
settled. They took a massive amount of work and resources to build, suggesting they
were proud symbols of local communities. Each community may have had its own
leader and identity. The fact that they fell out of use so quickly shows how fast society
was changing at this time.
8Welcome to The Bronze Age
When was the Bronze Age?
Around 4,500 to 2,700 years ago.
What was the Bronze Age?
Just as the final stone circles were being built at Stonehenge
4,500 years ago, a new culture arrived in Britain. They
became known as the Beaker culture, after the beaker-like
shape of the pots they used. The Beaker culture introduced
metalwork to Britain and started a major change in British life.
What were people’s lives like?
People still gathered in small farming communities but
now lived in roundhouses and wore clothes woven from
wool. A form of class system evolved and people started
to be more interested in wealth and belongings. People
were buried in individual graves, often with important objects buried with them.
In the Middle Bronze Age (around 1500BC) things changed again. Larger villages
were built. People used ditches and banks as borders for their homes, suggesting that
it mattered who owned what.
At around 1000BC the climate became colder and wetter. Lots of people left some of
the upland settlements, like Dartmoor. This may have led to conflict between
communities as people moved into warmer areas where others already lived. Status
within settlements became important for the first time, with evidence of farmsteads
and defended homes, as well as hill forts.
Towards the middle/end of the Bronze Age there was a trend to deposit objects and
bronze hoards in areas where land meets water, such as fens and bogs. We don’t
know why.
9Meet the locals – Ditchling Road Man
Male aged 25-35, height 1.71m (5’ 6”).
The skeleton of this man was found when
Ditchling Road was being built. He was
buried in a crouched position with a pottery
beaker at his feet. An arrowhead was placed
under his head and snail shells in front of his
mouth.
He was one of the new wave of
metalworking people from Europe. Most
were farmers. He was anaemic and weak
and his teeth show us that his diet was poor.
Reconstruction of Ditchling Road Man At times he might not have had enough to
eat. He would have worn clothes mostly
made from skins.
What technology did they use?
Flint: Flint was still used throughout the Bronze Age. Many of the tools became more
crudely made with less care or time spent on making them.
Metal: Bronze alloy, made of copper and tin, started to be widely used. It was much
tougher than pure copper and encouraged trade between Britain and the Continent.
This trade created demand for skilled local metalworkers who also made high status
objects out of gold. Many bronze weapons and tools were produced during the period.
Pottery: At first the new Beaker pottery was being made at the same time as local
pottery. As the Bronze Age continued, large urns appeared, often in burial sites. We
10also see smaller, flat-bottomed food vessels decorated with etched lines or applied
clay. Towards the end of the Bronze Age, large bucket and barrel urns appeared.
These had less decoration and were more rounded.
Cloth: The technology to weave cloth from wool also arrived from the Continent. No
cloth has survived in Britain from this period. However, loom weights have been found
at Bronze Age sites. The imprint of cloth is also sometimes left in fired clay.
What were Bronze Age burials like?
People were often buried in a crouched position in round burial chambers, or barrows.
They were buried with a wide range of burial goods, often including a pottery vessel.
After 1900BC, bodies started to be cremated and put in pots. These were buried with
a wider range of objects, including new types of dagger and stone battleaxes. The
Middle Bronze Age (1500BC) saw a switch to flat cremation cemeteries. Towards the
end of the Bronze Age formal burial seems to have become less popular. It may have
been that ashes were scattered rather than buried.
What do we have in the gallery?
We have an extensive Bronze Age collection that’s recognised around the world. In
the gallery you can see:
• The skeleton of Ditchling Road man with his grave goods
• Bronze axes of all types
• Swords and daggers
• Entire pots of various styles
• Bronze Age hoards (including jewellery)
• High status burial goods (from local barrow burials, including the Hove Barrow)
11Which local site can we look at to tell us more about Bronze Age life in Brighton
& Hove?
In 1856 workers uncovered a large burial chamber when building Palmeira Square in
Hove – a rare and special find. They discovered an oak coffin about nine feet below
the surface with fragments of human bone. The body was buried with an amber cup, a
stone pendant, a bronze dagger and an axe hammer.
The most important item they found was the Hove Amber Cup. The cup is about nine
centimetres in diameter and slightly less in height. It’s made from a single piece of
amber from northern Europe.
It’s one of only two Bronze Age
amber vessels surviving in Europe,
and is by far the best preserved. The
stone battle axe and pendant are
also rare imported objects. This
suggests that the Hove Barrow was
a very important burial monument.
Evidence points to an elite Bronze
Hove Amber Cup
Age group in Sussex, part of a
complex society with trading links that stretched as far as the Baltic.
In 1913 or 1914 an important Bronze Age hoard was also uncovered at Black Rock in
East Brighton. Three Sussex, or Brighton, Loops were found in the hoard. These are
finely crafted bracelets made from a thick bronze rod which was bent double. The rod
forms a loop at one end, and then bends round into an ‘O’ shape. The ends of the rod
fit back into the loop.
Nearly 40 loops have been found
in the South Downs/Weald area.
Strangely, they are mostly found
buried in hoards in twos or
threes, often buried with other
12
Sussex Loop from Black Rock Hoarditems of Bronze Age jewellery and weaponry. Some of these objects have been made
on the Continent.
As none have been discovered outside this area, we think they are the work of a local
craftsman or workshop and must have had some sort of local significance. Were they
a badge of honour for a Bronze Age tribe living in or around Brighton?
13Welcome to the Iron Age
When was the Iron Age?
Around 800BC to 43AD.
What was the Iron Age?
Because people could trade with other countries, ideas
and fashions from the Continent continued to influence
life in Britain. Around 150 years before the Roman
invasion, many local tribes benefited from trade with
Rome. We know wine was being traded for slaves,
grain and minerals. It was these good relations that
gave the Romans a foothold in the south when they
invaded in 43AD.
What were people’s lives like?
Farmsteads and small farming villages of roundhouses continued into the Iron Age.
Sheep and wool were probably what Sussex mainly produced. Barley and wheat were
becoming important staple crops, and people started to plough fields.
At the beginning of the Iron Age settlements seem to have been based on local
chiefdoms centred around hill forts. They were getting more advanced, with ditches
topped off by wooden fences. Eventually there were fewer forts, but the ones that
remained were bigger and more complex. At the same time chiefdoms were taken
over by tribal kings that ruled over towns.
As the climate improved, people became more efficient farmers with more effective
tools, and got better at looking after the land. We think this led to more people getting
together to make ‘urban’ communities.
14Meet the locals – Slonk Hill Man
Male aged 25-30 years old, height
1.71m (5’ 7”).
This man was buried at the bottom of a
storage pit near Shoreham. His body
Mee
was resting on a bed of mussel shells.
A fossilised sea urchin had been placed
above his head. He had a cleft chin. His
bones show that he had very large
muscles on his right-hand side. He
must have been active and strong.
Reconstruction of Slonk Hill Man
What technology did they use?
Metal: Iron technology arrived from Europe. More aggressive, warlike Celtic tribes
used horses and chariots in warfare and introduced long iron swords. However,
Bronze objects continued to be made or imported into Britain until roughly the third to
fourth centuries BC. At this point ironwork started to take over and people began to
make weapons and jewellery with decorative spirals, curves and scrolls – the Celtic
style we know today.
Pottery: New forms and fabrics developed during the Iron Age in lots of different
regional styles. More angular jars and urns with light, impressed decoration evolved
into finer, more rounded, bulbous jars and bowls. People developed straight-sided
tubs and saucepans and decorated pottery with stamps and zigzags as well as rings
and dots. The Belgae people introduced the potter’s wheel. Closer trade with Rome
also brought more exotic styles from the Mediterranean.
15Coins: Right at the end of the Iron Age, coins arrived in Britain. This was probably
encouraged by widespread European trade. The designs on coins can be traced back
to the Continent. However local ‘kings’ in Britain started to produce coins with their
name and tribal designs on them too. Like in the Bronze Age, coins and other
valuables were buried in hoards. We’re not sure why.
What were burials like during the Iron Age?
They were all very different! We don’t think that everyone was buried the same way,
and it’s rare to find evidence of formal burials. Bodies were probably left in the open
air until their flesh rotted away or was eaten by animals, and then bones were buried
in pits around the settlement.
We’ve found evidence of cremation in south east England, as well as people being
buried inside their chariots in Yorkshire.
People also started to bury bodies in bogs. Luckily, the bogs preserved them well and
so we know that people suffered injuries before they were buried. Were they human
sacrifices – or being punished for a crime?
What do we have in the gallery?
Highlights of the gallery are:
• The skeleton of Slonk Hill Man with his grave
goods
• An iron gang chain perhaps used for enslaving
people
• Loom weights and other weaving-related items Iron gang chain perhaps used for enslaving people
• Gold coins
• A small bronze boar
16Which local site can we look at to tell us more about Iron Age life in Brighton &
Hove?
About 2,600 years ago, in the Early Iron Age, people built a hill fort at Hollingbury on
the same site as some Bronze
Age burial chambers.
They dug a single ring ditch
about 2-3 metres deep,
enclosing an area of about
300x400 metres. The chalk
rubble from the ditch was
deposited between a double
Hollingbury Hill Fort Site from the air
row of parallel posts. This
created a box rampart behind the ditch. These posts would have supported a palisade
and walkway. There was a large timber gateway built into the eastern rampart. Inside
the fort, we’ve uncovered traces of at least five roundhouses. This suggests that local
Iron Age people lived there.
But they probably didn’t live there for long. By the late Iron Age, a few hundred years
later, the site was empty, with people building bigger, more complicated hill forts
elsewhere.
It’s not always clear what these forts were used for. They had great defences, but
weren’t always built in the best positions. We think they were used for storage and
social gatherings – but there’s not much evidence they were inhabited all the time.
The forts probably made a powerful statement to others about how important the
community was and what they were like. This is evidence that communities were
becoming more tribal and centralised. By the time of the Claudian Roman invasion,
Britain had clear and often competing tribes. The Romans exploited these rivalries to
make their second invasion a success.
17Welcome to Roman Britain
When was the Romano British period?
From the year 43 to the year 410.
What was the Romano British period?
As the name suggests, the Roman Empire was
based in Rome in Italy. The Romans were more
technologically advanced than a lot of people at
the time, and had a huge organised army. This
army conquered other people and occupied their
land. The Roman Empire expanded until it
included most of Europe as well as parts of Africa
and Asia. Almost 2,000 years ago, in the year 43,
the Romans invaded Britain. Some of the reason
they were successful was because they had the
support of the local rulers. They settled and ruled for nearly 400 years before their
influence faded.
What were people’s lives like?
Poorer farmers probably led a hard physical life with no education. Ports like London
started importing goods from abroad. However, life in the countryside for poorer
people wouldn’t have changed much and exotic Roman goods would only be for
people with money.
Fathers were more important to the family than mothers, so men were generally in
charge of the household. Women were often married off by fourteen. In poorer
families women were expected to be in charge of housework, cooking and cleaning.
In richer families servants would do this for her.
A lot of poorer people continued to live in small villages in wooden houses with
thatched roofs. However, the Romans were famously great builders and engineers.
They built new towns and cities in organised grid patterns with houses, shops,
18temples, workshops and bathhouses, using materials previously unseen in Britain, like
mortared stone, brick and glass. This transformed how people lived.
The biggest change was that some people started to write things down. Writing meant
educated people could send messages, record laws and write books. Much of what
we know about Roman Britain is from this writing.
Meet the locals – Patcham Woman
Female aged 25 – 35 years old, height
1.59m (5’3”).
This woman was buried in Patcham with
the skeleton of a man at her feet. Iron
nails were found around her knees, and
one had pierced the back of her head.
She might have worked as a farm
worker, servant or been enslaved at a
nearby villa. Her back and knee bones
show signs of bending and heavy lifting.
She must have had a hard physical life.
She may have worn woven clothing in a
Reconstruction of Patcham Woman
Roman style.
Her burial is not normal. There were no
grave goods. Was she a victim of
violence, or had she committed a
crime?
19What do we have in the gallery?
Roman Britain is represented in the gallery by:
• The skeleton of Patcham Woman
• Our Bronze stag figurine
• Painted plaster and mosaic tiles
• Imported Samian ware
• Glass vessels
• Silver and bronze jewellery
• A cosmetics spoon
Roman bronze stag figurine
• A bronze stylus or pen
Which local site can we look at to tell us more about Roman life in Brighton &
Hove?
The remains of a small Roman villa were discovered on Springfield Road in the late
19th century. There’s some evidence people lived on the site in the first and third
centuries, so some people think it’s been continuously occupied for around 200 years.
The villa had decorated plaster walls and some black and white geometric mosaic
floors often seen in the period. We think the villa probably belonged to a rich local
landowning family. Several burial urns, skulls, bones, fragments of pottery, coins,
figurines and even a pair of bronze tweezers were found.
You can find a plaque commemorating the villa at the southern entrance to Preston
Park.
20Welcome to Anglo Saxon Britain
When was the Anglo Saxon period?
From the year 410 to 1066.
What was the Anglo Saxon period?
After the Romans left, people from the
north west of Europe (present-day
Germany, Denmark and The
Netherlands) started moving in. In time
they made up around 40% of the
population of large parts of England.
Today, we often call these people
Anglo Saxons. Soon, most people in
England began leading a more Anglo Saxon way of life.
What were people’s lives like?
Land was ruled by kings (cynings) supported by lords (aeoldermen) and their personal
guards (housecarls). Village leaders (thanes) could call on their farmers (coerls) to
fight to defend their land.
The villages were mostly farming settlements built on hill slopes or in valleys. The
buildings were rectangular with walls made from wooden planks.
Life in Anglo Saxon villages was tough. From around age ten children would be
expected to take on adult tasks. Boys would learn to chop down trees and plough
fields. Girls were taught to weave cloth and cook meals. Women, men and children
would fight to protect their land.
The Anglo Saxons were great craftspeople. People made:
• Iron tools
• Pottery bowls
• Jewellery from precious metals, gemstones and glass
21• A huge variety of wooden items – from furniture to wheels
Storytelling was hugely popular. Whole villages would gather together to listen to
stories and poetry as well as listen to music. Stories often featured gods, goddesses,
dragons and other mythical beasts.
Meet the locals – Stafford Road Man
Male aged 45-50 years old, height
1.75m (5’ 11”).
This man was buried in a cemetery near
Stafford Road. He was lying on his back
with his knife and spear. A small copper
buckle found next to him might mean he
had a bag too.
He would have worn woollen and linen
clothes. He was probably a farmer
ready to defend his land. Carbon dating
shows he could have been one of the
first Anglo Saxons to settle here.
Reconstruction of Stafford Road Man
He was a tall muscular man and quite
old for the period. A huge open abscess
in the front of his upper jaw might have
caused his death by blood poisoning.
22What do we have in the gallery?
Our Anglo Saxon collection is quite compact. On display
we have:
• The skeleton of Stafford Road Man with his grave goods
• A silver Saxon penny minted in Lewes
• A bronze buckle
• Iron weaponry
• Gilded jewellery
• A decorated bucket from an important warrior’s grave Silver Saxon penny minted in Lewes
Which local site can we look at to tell us more about Anglo Saxon life in
Brighton & Hove?
Anglo Saxon graves containing shields and swords have been found in Brighton near
St Luke’s Primary School, and in Stafford Road.
They would have formed parts of Anglo Saxon cemeteries for farming communities of
around 60 to 100 people. Nearby, wooden buildings would have been set out neatly
with fenced gardens. The leader might have had a bigger house or hall. There may
have been a fence or ditch and bank around the enclosure. Fields, woods and
meadows would have been nearby. In winter, animals would stay inside the
settlement.
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