Central Indian Ocean MARINE REGION 10
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MARINE REGION 10
Central Indian Ocean
Sue Wells, S. N. Dwivedi, Samar Singh, and Robson Ivan
BIOGEOGRAPHY AND MARINE (May–October when the surface current
BIODIVERSITY flows eastward and splits to form clockwise
currents in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of
The Central Indian Ocean Marine Region in- Bengal). There is also a major difference in
cludes the following countries: Bangladesh, salinity. In the Arabian Sea, evaporation ex-
the British Indian Ocean Territory (Chagos ceeds precipitation and runoff, leading to
Archipelago), India (including the Laccadi- the formation of high salinity water masses
ves, Andaman and Nicobar archipelagos), that flow south. The Bay of Bengal has com-
Maldives, Myanmar and Sri Lanka. paratively low salinity due to high runoff and
The region consists of three distinct ar- precipitation; in the southwest monsoon,
eas: part of the Arabian Sea, the Bay of maximum salinity is found at depths of
Bengal and a large area of the Indian about 500 meters, as high salinity water
Ocean proper south of India and Sri Lanka. moves into the Bay from the Indian Ocean
(Pernetta 1993a).
Oceanography The coastline surrounding the Bay of Ben-
gal is heavily influenced by the monsoons,
The Indian land mass forms a major physi- particularly the southwest monsoon that
cal division between the Arabian Sea and brings heavy rains. Tropical storms also
the Bay of Bengal. Oceanographically, the have a major impact; of the 12–13 that oc-
Bay of Bengal differs from the Arabian Sea cur each year in the Bay of Bengal, three or
in maintaining a clockwise circulation of ma- four of cyclonic strength affect India, Bangla-
jor currents during both the northeast and desh and Burma. The northern part of the
southwest monsoons. The circulation in the Bay of Bengal is prone to impact from
Arabian Sea reverses, with surface water storms because it concentrates energy from
masses circulating counterclockwise in the storm centers (Pernetta 1993b).
northeast monsoon (November–April, when
the North Equatorial Current flows west)
and clockwise in the southwest monsoon
1314 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas
Ecosystem diversity is probably most com-
prehensively documented for Sri Lanka,
Shallow accreting coastlines, with deltas where a number of surveys of critical
and coastal lagoons, dominate in Bangla- coastal habitats have been carried out, and
desh and parts of India and Sri Lanka. The maps prepared (Pernetta 1993e). The eco-
Bay of Bengal has largely soft substrates nomic value and pressures on the main eco-
off the mainland, due to the extensive river system are discussed in the 1993 country
discharge, which are overlain by shallow, reports edited by Pernetta.
usually turbid waters. The coastline of Bang-
ladesh is particularly low-lying, and is Coral Reefs
unique in the region in that the influence of
the sea is felt for a long distance inland. It is Information on the reefs of this region is
characterized by a vast deltaic network, an available in UNEP/IUCN (1988). All three
enormous discharge of sediment laden major reef types (atoll, fringing and barrier)
water and numerous offshore sand and occur, and the region includes some of the
mud bars (Pernetta 1993b). The northern most diverse, extensive and least disturbed
part of the coastline of Myanmar is similar, reef areas of the Indian Ocean, many of
due to the Irrawaddy delta (UNEP/IUCN which are among the least scientifically
1988). The east and west coasts of India known.
have very different characteristics. The In the north, reef growth is inhibited by
west coast is exposed with heavy surf, massive freshwater and sedimentary inputs
rocky shores and headlands, whilst the east from the Indus, Ganges and other rivers,
coast is shelving and low lying with and in the northwest by cold upwelling as
beaches, deltas, lagoons and marshes well. Bangladesh has almost no reef devel-
(Pernetta 1993c). opment due to the high turbidity and soft
The Maldives, the Chagos Archipelago, substrates present, although there is a
and the island chains belonging to India small reef around Jinjiradwip (St. Martin’s Is-
(Laccadives, Andamans and Nicobars) are land).
archipelagic. The Maldives, the Chagos Ar- The mainland coast of India has two
chipelago and Laccadives are composed widely separated areas containing reefs:
entirely of atolls, with reefs and sandy is- the Gulf of Kutch in the northwest, which
lands, and form the Laccadive-Chagos has some of the most northerly reefs in the
chain that extends southward from India to world, and Palk Bay (with a long fringing
the central Indian Ocean. In contrast, the reef) and the Gulf of Mannar (with numer-
Andaman and Nicobar Islands are high vol- ous fringing reefs around small islands) in
canic islands, arising from a submerged the southeast. There are patches of reef
mountain chain that follows a southward ex- growth on the west coast, for example at
tension of the continental shelf. Gaveshani Bank. The Andamans and Nico-
bars have fringing reefs around many is-
lands, and a long barrier reef (320
kilometers) on the west coast. The reefs are
India has important examples of all the poorly known scientifically but may prove to
main ecosystems found in the region. Sri be the most diverse in India and those in
Lanka and Myanmar have similar diversity the best condition. The Laccadives have ex-
but on a smaller scale. Bangladesh is domi- tensive reefs but these are equally poorly
nated by estuarine and mangrove ecosys- known.
tems, and the Maldives and the Chagos There are few true coral reefs in Sri
Archipelago are made up entirely of atolls. Lanka but there are extensive areas ofMarine Region 10: Central Indian Ocean 15 coral around the coast, mainly close to the (with 60 genera). There is some variation in shore. Most consist of coral communities published figures for this area: for example, growing on ancient sandstone (along the 66 genera (240 species) for the Maldives, west coast) or gneiss or granite outcrops and 67 genera (about 200 species) for (along the east coast). True reefs are found Chagos, but these do not alter the general in various localities such as fringing reefs at picture. The Chagos reefs are of particular Hikkaduwa and Trincomalee and other lo- interest for the presence of an endemic calities in the south and east, and offshore coral Ctenella chagius (UNEP/IUCN 1988). reefs in the north such as Bar Reef (prob- A similar pattern is seen going north ably the most extensive area of true reef in along the east and west coasts of India, the country) and the south such as the with highest diversity in the south (134 spe- Basses Reefs (reputed to be among the cies in Sri Lanka, 117 in the Gulf of Mannar most spectacular and undisturbed in Sri and Palk Bay) and lower diversity to the Lanka). Fringing reefs are also found in the north (44 species in the Gulf of Kutch and north along the Gulf of Mannar and off the 13 genera at Jinjiradwip in Bangladesh). Jaffna Peninsula, and on several places on Other figures for coral diversity in these ar- the east coast (Pernetta 1993e). eas include 65 genera (171 species) in Sri The main reef areas in Myanmar are in Lanka; 39 genera (179 species) in the An- the Mergui Archipelago, which lies suffi- damans and Nicobars (Pande and Singh ciently far from the coast to have clearer 1991); and 76 genera (342 species) for the water. These reefs are barely known to sci- whole of India. About 60 species in 30 gen- ence, although two brief studies have sug- era have been recorded from the Mergui Ar- gested that they are diverse and extensive chipelago in Myanmar, and it has been (UNEP/IUCN 1988). suggested that these reefs could have over The Maldives contain extensive and 40 genera (UNEP/IUCN 1988). largely intact reefs, and comprise perhaps one of the most complex reef systems in Mangrove Forests the world. Several of the atolls have un- usual ring-shaped reefs (faroes) in the la- Of the 22 countries containing the world’s goons, each with its own sandy lagoon and major mangrove areas, Bangladesh and In- rim of living corals. The atoll lagoons also dia rank 12th and 14th respectively (Hutch- have numerous knolls and patch reefs ings and Saenger 1987). Since half of the (UNEP/IUCN 1988). 22 countries occur in the Atlantic man- The Chagos Archipelago has the largest grove province, the South Asian mangroves expanse of undisturbed reef in the Indian assume considerable importance from a Ocean, as well as some of the most di- global perspective: within the Indo-Pacific, verse. In addition to five atolls, there are these countries rank third and fifth in impor- two areas of raised reef and several large tance. submerged reefs. Blenheim Reef is notable Distribution of mangroves is a mirror im- for its large algal ridge, and the Great age of that for coral reefs. While the most Chagos Bank is the world’s largest atoll in extensive and diverse reefs are found in the terms of area (UNEP/IUCN 1988). south of the region, the major mangrove ar- In the Laccadives-Chagos chain, a trend eas are in the north. Figures for total area of increasing coral diversity has been re- covered by mangrove are extremely vari- corded, from the Laccadives (with nine gen- able but the northern Bay of Bengal, the era in the northern atolls) to the Maldives Sunderbans and the Ganges delta support (with 41 genera in the northern atolls and over 500,000 hectares. The Sunderbans 55 in the south) to the Chagos Archipelago make up the single largest contiguous block
16 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas of mangrove forest in the world, with 60 per- stroyed since 1963. Both in western and cent of the area within Bangladesh and the southern India, and throughout the Bay of rest in India. Extensive stands are also Bengal, much of the originally extensive found along the northern coastline of Myan- mangrove stands have been removed mar, which has a total of some 517,000 hec- (UNEP 1985). tares, mainly in the Irrawaddy Delta (much of which has been degraded), on the Tenas- Seagrass Beds serim and Arakan coast and the offshore is- lands. Large seagrass beds are present in south- Total estimates for India range from ern India in Palk Bay and the Gulf of Man- about 100,000 to 700,000 hectares, de- nar and in the numerous estuaries and pending on whether degraded areas are in- embayments of Sri Lanka. However along cluded. The most important area is the much of the coast of western India dense Sundarbans; good stands are also found in seagrass beds are uncommon or not exten- the Kaveri and Godavari Deltas, in Bhi- sive, probably because of the degree of ex- tarkanita and the Gulf of Kutch has about posure and turbidity of these waters. There 52,500 hectares. Extensive stands are also are some seagrass beds in the Laccadives found in the Andamans and Nicobars, total- and they are possibly extensive around the ling about 115,200 hectares, and much of Andamans and Nicobars. this is still relatively pristine. In Sri Lanka seagrasses cover an area Mangroves are less developed in Sri far in excess of that covered by mangroves Lanka and patchy or thin in the atoll islands and coral reefs, and probably make the larg- of the Indian Ocean. In Sri Lanka, 60 per- est contribution to the primary production of cent of the mangroves in the country are inshore waters (UNEP 1985). They are found on the northwest coast in the Put- most extensive in the north, particularly talam Lagoon and the Dutch and Portugal from Dutch Bay to Jaffna Lagoon and from Bay areas. The total area for the country is Mannar to Rameswaram, and may support estimated at 10,000–12,000 hectares. more than 50 percent of the country’s near Pernetta (1993e) lists the most important shore fishery production. Other important stands, such as those at Puttalam, Batti- seagrass areas are listed in Pernetta caloa, Trincomalee, Jaffna and Gampalia. (1993e). The Maldives has a few small stands, with There is little evidence for the existence very low diversity (Pernetta 1993d). of major seagrass beds off the coast of About 12 genera of mangroves are found Bangladesh, perhaps because of the large within the region (compared with 13 in the seasonal fluctuations in salinity (Pernetta Indo-Pacific) (Hutchings and Saenger 1993b), and there are only small areas of 1987). Indian mangroves are most diverse seagrass in the Maldives. with 45 recorded mangrove species and as- UNEP (1985) estimated that perhaps five sociates; Sri Lanka has 28 mangrove spe- percent of the seagrass beds of the Indian cies and mangrove associates, Bangladesh Ocean had been destroyed by dredging or 27 and Maldives about five (Pernetta infilling. 1993a). The total floral diversity of the Sun- darbans amounts to some 330 species. Other Wetlands As is the case elsewhere, the mangroves of the region have great economic value Wetlands, including mangroves (see and have been heavily utilized. For exam- above) are one of the dominant ecosys- ple, a 1977 study estimated that roughly 50 tems in this region due to the presence of percent of India’s mangroves had been de- the large deltas of the Ganges, Brahmapu-
Marine Region 10: Central Indian Ocean 17
tra and Irrawaddy rivers that dominate the Rocky shores are absent from the Maldi-
head of the Bay of Bengal, the delta in ves, Laccadives, Chagos Archipelago, east
Bangladesh comprising the largest such coast of India and Bangladesh. There are
system in the world. Bangladesh probably small amounts in Sri Lanka, and more ex-
has the greatest area of coastal wetlands in tensive areas on the west coast of India
the region, with an estimated total of 2.5 mil- and in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
lion hectares of tidally inundated land (al-
though much has been diked or converted Islets
to shrimp ponds): floodplains and coastal
mangrove swamps cover almost one third There are a number of large archipelagos
of the country (Pernetta 1993a,b). Scott in the region. The Andamans (50 islands, is-
(1989) provides a detailed description of lets and rocks) and Nicobars (20 islands)
the coastal wetlands of the Bay of Bengal. are a volcanic chain. The Mergui Archipel-
India has about 3,900,000 hectares of es- ago lies off the southern coast of Myanmar
tuarine wetlands (134 brackish and 19 and consists of over 800 islands; two other
coastal wetland areas have been docu- groups of islands are found in Burmese wa-
mented). There are also extensive tidal wet- ters, one extending from the Andaman and
lands in Sri Lanka that has an estimated Nicobar islands to the mainland coast, and
80,000 hectares of estuaries and deep la- another lying off the northern coast. The
goons and 40,000 hectares of shallow la- Preparis Islands and Coco may have impor-
goons, tidal flats and mangroves. There are tant seabird colonies. Numerous islands
about 45 estuaries and 40 true coastal la- and islets are found in the Laccadives-
goons, many of which lie along the south Chagos chain; the Maldives, which is the
and east coasts. Numerous seasonal la- largest group, has 1,200–2,000 islands, the
goons form during the wet season and are majority of which are less than one square
important for fisheries, salt production and kilometer in size. The Laccadives has about
wildlife habitat (Pernetta 1993e). The main 25 islands on 11 atolls.
wetland sites in the region are described in There are also small rocky islets off the
Scott (1989). coasts of the continental countries, such as
Sri Lanka (off Hikkaduwa, Trincomalee, Jaf-
Beaches, Dunes, and Cliffs fna and the islets of Adam’s Bridge) and In-
dia (the Gulf of Mannar islands).
Bangladesh is notable for its 145 kilometer In addition to the various rocky, coral or
stretch of beach from Cox’s Bazar to the tip sandy islands lying off the coasts of the con-
of the Teknaf Peninsula (Pernetta 1993b), tinental countries in the region, the deltaic
and there are numerous sandy beaches on areas are notable for the large number of
the islands of the atoll chains. Sri Lanka temporary, semipermanent and permanent
has about 11,800 hectares of beaches and islands formed by the networks of distribu-
spits extending over 300 kilometer of coast, taries. In the Sundarbans, these are called
and sand dunes covering an area of 7,606 chars, and are constantly being formed
hectares (Pernetta 1993e). Sand dunes are where easily eroded sands and mud collect
present on some of the more exposed parts (Pernetta 1993b).
of the coast of northern Burma
(UNEP/IUCN 1988) and on the south-facing Open Ocean, Deep Sea, and Upwellings
coasts of the islets making up Adam’s
Bridge, which extends from Sri Lanka to In- The Swatch of No Ground is a deep canyon
dia. that runs across the continental shelf off
Bangladesh; the Burma Trench is another18 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas
deep canyon in the Bay of Bengal (Pernetta as in some others, both Sri Lanka and the
1993b). Upwellings occur off Orissa (north- Maldives export reef fish for the aquarium
east India), the Andamans and the west trade. The Bay of Bengal is particularly rich
coast of Sri Lanka during the northeast because of the nutrient input from the large
monsoon. rivers and there is extensive information
available for the fisheries of this area
through the Bay of Bengal Programme on
marine fishery resources.
Algae There has not been time to gather infor-
mation on fish diversity but this is expected
About 78 genera and 174 species of algae to be high particularly in regions where
have been recorded from Sri Lankan wa- there are reefs; over 1,200 species of fish
ters (Pernetta 1993e), 285 species from the have been recorded from the reefs and sur-
Maldives (Pernetta 1993d) and 624 species rounding ocean of the Maldives
from India (Pernetta 1993c). Several spe- (UNEP/IUCN 1988). However, the Chagos
cies are exploited commercially on a large Archipelago has a relatively low fish diver-
scale in the region, particularly in India and sity (compared with that for corals and mol-
Sri Lanka. lusks), perhaps because algal diversity and
abundance is also low. The pygmy angel-
Invertebrates fish Centropyge flavipectoralis is thought to
be endemic to Sri Lanka.
Diversity is high, and for some groups
may show a similar trend to that for corals Marine Turtles
described above, but it has not been possi-
ble to collate available data. A total of 384 Five species of marine turtle are found in
mollusks has been recorded from the the Indian Ocean, and are considered to be
Chagos Archipelago, suggesting this area at risk in most countries. These are the
has a high diversity (UNEP/IUCN 1988). green (Chelonia mydas), the hawksbill
Many invertebrates are harvested and are (Eretmochelys imbricata), the loggerhead
of economic importance; there is evidence (Caretta), the leatherback (Dermochelys
that some mollusks and crustaceans have coriacea) and the Olive Ridley (Lepidoche-
been overexploited, and species such as lys olivacea). Information on their distribu-
the coconut crab, horseshoe crabs, and cer- tion in Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka and the
tain mollusks are of conservation concern. Maldives is given in Pernetta (1993 b,c,d,e).
There are a number of globally and region-
Fish ally important nesting sites. These include:
• Green: Gulf of Kutch and Saurashtra
Commercial and subsistence fisheries are Peninsula in India; uninhabited islands in
important throughout the region and are Laccadives, Maldives and the Chagos Ar-
briefly described for Bangladesh, India, the chipelago.
Maldives and Sri Lanka in Pernetta (1993 • Hawksbill: Largest population (probably
b,c,d,e). In most countries the bulk of the of regional importance) in the An-
catch is subsistence or artisanal. Hilsa is damans, particularly South Reef and
the main species taken in the Bay of Ben- North Brother; probably also nests in the
gal; tuna fisheries are important in Sri Chagos Archipelago and on uninhabited
Lanka and the Maldives; and although reef islands in the Maldives.
fisheries are not as important in this regionMarine Region 10: Central Indian Ocean 19
• Olive Ridley: The most common species winter, but there may be small independent
in Bangladesh, India and Sri Lanka; stocks in the northern Indian Ocean. There
about 300,000–500,000 nest in Orissa are a large number of small cetaceans,
(two important nesting beaches); many some of which are not well known, and
other nesting sites on mainland coast, for many of which are harvested either inten-
example, Sundarbans, Andamans and tionally or incidentally. The most threatened
Nicobar, Laccadives; several thousand species are the river dolphins of the
nest in southwest Sri Lanka at several Ganges and Irrawaddy; these are some-
sites. times found in estuarine waters but are not
• Leatherback: Uncommon, but main popu- truly marine animals and so are not consid-
lations in Andamans and Nicobars, with ered here. The Indian Ocean populations of
a small population in Sri Lanka. the humpback dolphin Sousa chinensis and
• Loggerhead: Rare. the spotted dolphin Stenella attenuata are
considered at risk; the distribution of the lat-
Birds ter appears to be closely correlated with
mangroves (Pernetta 1993b). Cetaceans
Globally threatened marine and coastal spe- are reasonably well known in this region
cies that occur in Bangladesh, India, Sri and further information is available in the
Lanka and the Maldives are listed in 1993 country reports and in Gaskin (1985).
Pernetta (1993 b,c,d,e). There are a num- The distribution of the dugong extends
ber of globally threatened coastal wetland over most of the region, but appreciable
species such as the Spot-billed Pelican Pe- numbers are no longer found. The most im-
lecanus phillipensis and the Lesser Adju- portant area for this species in the region,
tant Leptoptilos javanicus. Important coastal and possibly in the whole Indian Ocean, is
areas for birds include the Gulf of Kutch, the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay in India,
Chilka Lake, Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary and possibly also in the north of Sri Lanka.
and the Sundarbans in India and several ar- Small numbers may still occur in the Gulf of
eas in Sri Lanka. Kutch. In the Andamans and Nicobars the
The seabirds of the region are poorly only remaining sites where they definitely
known and do not appear to be abundant occur are Ritchie’s Archipelago and North
in India, Bangladesh or Sri Lanka. The Reef.
Sundarbans are an important staging and
wintering area for gulls and terns, and the
islets of Adam’s Bridge, off Sri Lanka have
some seabird colonies. Many of the atoll The classification used here has been de-
islands in the Laccadives-Chagos chain veloped by Dwivedi, Singh, and Ivan (1994).
may have seabird colonies, such as Pitti The Central Indian Ocean Marine Region
and Baliapani in the Laccadives and sev- lies in the middle of the decreasing trend in
eral of the Chagos Archipelago islands. Fur- diversity from Southeast Asia to the East Af-
ther information on seabirds in the Maldives rican coast. The eastern part shares bio-
and other island chains is available in Feare geographic characteristics with Southeast
(1984). Asia, while the western part is more like the
Arabian Sea and western Indian Ocean. In
Mammals terms of zoogeography, the region includes
parts of both the Indian and Malayan subre-
Antarctic stocks of baleen whales move gions of the Indo-Malayan zoogeographic
north into the Indian Ocean in the Antarctic realm, with Myanmar in the latter, Bangla-20 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas desh at the junction and the other countries cussed the Bay of Bengal ecosystems. The in the former. Hayden, Ray, and Dolan major biogeographic divisions of the Cen- (1984) place the whole region within the tral Indian Ocean are: Indo-Polynesian province. • Western Indian Ocean along the Indian The Central Indian Ocean described in Coastline: the report can be divided into five major ar- • Southwest coast of India eas as given here. These are in general • Central west coast of India conformity with Hayden (1984), but subsys- • Northwest coast of India tems that are important and distinct from • Eastern Indian Ocean: the point of view of species distribution • Southeast coast of India and Sri have also been recognized. Some of these Lanka including Palk Bay and Gulf of have been recognized earlier by Dwivedi, Mannar extending up to the Krishna FAO-BOBP reports and Sherman and oth- delta. ers (1993). • Northeast coast of India off Andhra The Indian Ocean and the adjoining Ara- Pradesh and Orissa extending up to bian Sea and Bay of Bengal lie in the tropi- the border of west Bengal. cal monsoon belt. Here the oceans play a • Northern Bay of Bengal covering the major role in determining the climate, rain- coasts of West Bengal and Bangladesh. fall, productivity and biodiversity. However • East Bay of Bengal off southern part of due to the presence of a large continent, Bangladesh and the coast of Myanmar in- the oceanographic features change from cluding the Irrawaddy mouth. one region to another. • The Central Indian Ocean including the The Arabian Sea does not have major es- Maldives and the Chagos Archipelago. tuaries and wind induced upwelling plays a dominant role in governing productivity, spe- cies distribution and biodiversity. The pro- ASSESSMENT OF EXISTING MPAS ductivity of the area is affected due to the width of the shelf. The Bay of Bengal has a large number of estuaries and input of lower salinity water is significant. This cou- There are a number of terrestrial and ma- pled with storm surges and cyclones, which rine protected areas in the Central Indian are a regular feature in the northern part of Ocean Marine Region, that include habitats the Bay, has resulted in creating a surface important for marine biodiversity, such as la- layer up to 100 meter depth with low salinity goons, mangroves or turtle nesting and high temperature and a deeper layer beaches. In many cases it has been difficult with higher density and more saline water. to determine how far the boundaries of Bearing these considerations in mind, the these areas extend and to determine Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, and open In- whether subtidal marine elements are in- dian Ocean are recognized as major sub- cluded. Nevertheless, an attempt has been systems. These are further divided due to made to identify, on the basis of available in- coastal morphology, water and silt inputs by formation (the main sources being Dwivedi, rivers and estuaries that determine the Singh, and Ivan 1994; Pernetta transparency, salinity and density of water. 1993a,b,c,d,e; IUCN,1990 and information These form subsystems that are described in the World Conservation Monitoring Cen- here. Recognition and characterization of tre Protected Areas Database), which of large marine ecosystems have been dealt these protected areas have a marine focus with by Sherman and others (1993). and which are primarily coastal land. Avail- Dwivedi (1993, in same publication) has dis- able information suggests that there are 15
Marine Region 10: Central Indian Ocean 21
Table 10.1 Number of Existing • Char Kukri-Mukri Forest Reserve and
MPAs by Country in the Central Wildlife Sanctuary: Important for man-
Indian Ocean Marine Region groves and intertidal mudflats. Site ac-
Marine Coastal counts in IUCN (1990) and Scott (1989).
Country Sites Sites • Teknaf Game Reserve and Himchari Na-
tional Park: Adjacent to the coast, but
Bangladesh 0 3 probably do not include intertidal habi-
British Indian Ocean Territory 0 tats. Mangroves in the Chakaria Sundar-
(Chagos Archipelago) bans Forest Reserve have been logged
India 10a 6 or so severely degraded that it can no
Andaman and Nicobar 1 13 longer be considered a protected area;
Islands
Scott (1989) provides a site account.
Maldives 0
Myanmar 0
British Indian Ocean Territory
Sri Lanka 4 12
(the Chagos Archipelago)
Total 15 34
No MPAs have been established; the inac-
protected areas that include subtidal ele- cessibility of the area provides some meas-
ments and a further 33 that include terrestrial ure of protection.
coastal and in some instances intertidal fea-
tures. India
Map 10 shows those MPAs that have
been recorded as including a subtidal com- The Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 provides
ponent; these areas are identified in the na- for the establishment of national parks and
tional sections below; other coastal protected sanctuaries by state governments, and they
areas are also listed. Table 10.1 shows the are administered by the Ministry of Environ-
number of marine and coastal protected ar- ment and Forests. The Gulf of Kutch Marine
eas by country. Sanctuary and Marine National Park, the
Gulf of Mannar National Park and Wandur
Bangladesh Marine National Park have been estab-
lished primarily to protect marine habitats.
The Forest Department of the Ministry of However, many other protected areas in-
Environment and Forests is responsible for clude important marine ecosystems
the management of protected areas. Wild- (Pernetta 1993c) and it is often not clear
life Sanctuaries are established under the where the seaward boundary is; for exam-
Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order ple, all protected areas in the Andaman and
1973. The Marine Fisheries Ordinance Nicobars have at least part of their bounda-
1983 provides for the establishment of ma- ries adjacent to the marine environment,
rine reserves but none has been desig- and in many cases cover saltwater creeks
nated (Pernetta 1993b). There are two that extend inland (Pande and Singh 1991).
coastal protected areas that include interti- The main MPAs are identified below. Other
dal habitat and may include subtidal habitat coastal areas are also listed:
(although the latter could not be confirmed): \ Gulf of Kutch Marine Sanctuary and
• Sundarbans Forest Reserve, east Wild- Marine National Park (two areas): Im-
life Sanctuary, south Wildlife Sanctuary portant for fringing reefs, mud and
and west Wildlife Sanctuary: Important sand flats, coastal marsh, mangrove
for mangroves; site accounts in Scott forest (about 50,000 hectares) prob-
(1989) and IUCN (1990). ably best developed on western Indian22 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas
coast, nesting green turtles, occa- (100,000 nesting turtles in 1970s); site
sional leatherback and Olive Ridley; description in Scott (1989).
dugong sometimes present; resident
and migratory birds; site description in Other coastal areas include:
Scott (1989) and UNEP/IUCN (1988). • Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary; mangroves.
\ Malvan Sanctuary: Important for coral • Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary; impor-
reefs, sandy beaches, turtle nesting tant for saltmarsh, mudflats, waterfowl,
and mangroves. wintering migrants and associated terres-
\ Chorao Island Wildlife Sanctuary: Es- trial habitats and wildlife; at eastern end
tuary, mangroves; recreation and edu- of large Vedaranayan Swamp; adjacent
cation centre. turtle nesting project; site description in
\ Pichavaram Forest Reserve: Part of Scott (1989).
much larger (11,000 hectares) man- • Coringa Sanctuary; important for man-
grove system—only remaining man- groves, shallow lagoons, saltwater croco-
grove area in Tamil Nadu and one of dile; site description in Scott (1989).
the richest and most interesting in In- • Krishna Reserved Forest; mangroves;
dia; also important for coastal lagoon, site description in Scott (1989).
fishing, mollusks, crocodiles; site de- • Mahanadi Delta crocodile conservation
scription in Scott (1989). area (16,835 hectares); important for salt-
\ Pulicat Lake Sanctuary (46,102 hec- water crocodile, mangroves; site descrip-
tares in Tamil Nadu, 58,000 hectares tion in Scott (1989).
in Andhra Pradesh): Important for salt- • Gahirmatha Wildlife Sanctuary; important
water lagoon (second largest in India), for saltwater crocodile (main Indian popu-
migratory shorebirds, fishing; one of lation); mangroves, Olive Ridley turtle
the largest coastal lagoons in the nesting; site description in Scott (1989).
country; site description in Scott
(1989). Other protected areas on the mainland
\ Gulf of Mannar National Park (20,000 that may also have marine, or at least in-
hectares, of which 623 hectares is tertidal, habitats (see Pernetta 1993c) are
land): Most important mangroves in Khijadiya Wildlife Sanctuary, Little Rann of
southern India, seagrass beds, many Kutch Wildlife Sanctuary, Vedanthangal
small islands major green turtle feed- Wildlife Sanctuary, Vettangudi Wildlife Sanc-
ing ground, occasional olive ridleys, tuary, Balukhand Wildlife Sanctuary, Lo-
dugong, dolphins, coral reefs; site de- thian Island Wildlife Sanctuary, Halliday
scription in UNEP/IUCN (1988). Island Wildlife Sanctuary, Sajnakhali Wild-
\ Chilka Lake Wildlife Sanctuary; Ram- life Sanctuary.
sar site: One of largest concentrations There may also be a seabird sanctuary
of migratory waterfowl in the region on Pitti Island in the Laccadives, but this is
and one of the largest coastal la- unconfirmed.
goons; site description in Scott (1989).
\ Sundarbans National Park: Estuarine
areas, important for mangrove forest; Andaman and Nicobar Islands
site description in Scott (1989).
\ Bhitar Kanika Wildlife Sanctuary: Is- All the 100 protected areas in the Andaman
lands and beaches located in a deltaic and Nicobars comprise part or all of small is-
area on the coast of Orissa; globally lands and have intertidal, coastal areas;
important site for nesting Olive Ridleys many have mangroves. According to Pande
and Singh (1991), a number of these haveMarine Region 10: Central Indian Ocean 23
subtidal habitat; however, it has not been eas and mangroves.
possible to identify these in this report. Wan-
dur Marine National Park includes subtidal
marine elements and is highlighted below; Maldives
other important coastal protected areas are
listed: As yet no MPAs have been established.
\ Wandur Marine National Park: Possi- However, a number of other activities re-
bly the least disturbed group of islands lated to protection and management of the
and the richest coral reefs in the An- marine environment are under way. In par-
damans; four turtle species; dugong; ticular, the National Environment Action
mangroves; site description in Plan provides a framework for environ-
UNEP/IUCN (1988) and Pande and mental planning and management. Meas-
Singh (1991). ures are in place to restrict coral mining and
reduce marine pollution.
Other coastal areas include:
• Saddle Peak National Park: includes a Myanmar
long rocky beach
• North, Middle and South Button Island Current conservation and wildlife legislation
National Park: nesting turtles, mangroves does not provide specifically for the estab-
• Barren I. Sanctuary: active volcano, with lishment of MPAs. Thamihla Kyun Wildlife
coral communities Sanctuary and Moscos Island Sanctuary,
• Battimalv I. Sanctuary (Nicobars): man- managed by the Forest Department, are
groves coastal but do not protect marine habitats
• Interview I. Sanctuary: mangroves, (UNEP/IUCN 1988).
hawksbills
• South Reef I. Sanctuary: lies off the tip of Sri Lanka
Interview I
• Megapode I. Sanctuary (Nicobars): The focus of marine conservation in Sri
reefs, mangroves Lanka is coastal zone management, and
• Narcondam I. Sanctuary: mangroves MPAs per se have received less direct at-
• North Reef I. Sanctuary: beaches, cor- tention. The Coast Conservation Act en-
als, mangroves acted in 1981 covers the area within 300
• La Touche I. Sanctuary: green turtle meters landward of mean high water level
• Saltwater Crocodile Sanctuary: an exten- and two kilometers seaward of mean low
sion of Wandur Marine National Park to water. The Act required the development
the north; numerous creeks and inlets, and implementation of a coastal zone man-
mangroves, turtles, crocodiles agement plan that places most emphasis
• South Sentinel I. Sanctuary: small coral on control of erosion and sand and coral
island, beaches, large green turtle nest- mining, with a permit system for develop-
ing beach, mangroves; established ment activities (Lowry and Sadacharam
mainly for coconut crab 1993).
• Tillongchang I. Sanctuary: cliffs, man- Marine Sanctuaries are established un-
groves, beaches der the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordi-
nance that is to be revised to include
Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve, on the specific reference to MPAs. A draft new
southernmost island of the Nicobars (only Fisheries Bill prepared in the early 1980s in-
145 kilometers from Sumatra) has no legal cluded provisions for marine reserves and
status yet but includes important marine ar- sanctuaries, but it is not known if this is being24 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas
followed through. Marine areas come under site account in UNEP/IUCN (1988) under
the jurisdiction of many government depart- “Trincomalee Reefs.”
ments: the Department of Wildlife Conserva- • Wilpattu National Park: includes 40 kilo-
tion is responsible for Marine Sanctuaries, meters of rocky coastline with cliffs,
the National Aquatic Resources Agency some sandy beaches, dunes and man-
(NARA) for marine research, the Coast Con- groves; site account in Scott (1989).
servation Department for coastal zone man- • Chundikkulam Sanctuary: coastal la-
agement, and the Ministry of Fisheries and goon, mangroves, seagrass beds; inade-
Aquatic Resources for fisheries. quate protection; site account in Scott
MPAs are being established through the (1989).
Special Area Management (SAM) project • Trincomalee Naval Headworks Sanctu-
that is establishing management areas at ary.
Hikkaduwa Reef and Rekawa Lagoon (see • Great Sober Island Sanctuary.
the Appendix). • Madhu Road Sanctuary.
There are 16 protected areas that include • Seruvila-Allai Sanctuary: includes the
coastal elements, four of which include sub- western part of Ullackalie Lagoon; exten-
tidal elements (Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctu- sive mangrove, water birds; site account
ary and Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary have under “Ullackalie” in Scott (1989).
been established specifically to conserve • Kudumbigala Sanctuary.
coral reef areas; other areas cover impor- • Yala East National Park: coastal area in-
tant estuarine, mangrove and other habi- cludes a complex of brackish/saline la-
tats): goons and extensive sandy beaches;
\ Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary: Coral Kumana Villu Lagoon has extensive man-
reefs; includes the Rocky Islets Sanc- groves and is protected as a bird sanctu-
tuary; currently management being im- ary; site account in Scott (1989).
proved through a SAM project; site • Bundala Sanctuary: includes four shal-
account in UNEP/IUCN (1988). low brackish lagoons and adjacent sea
\ Kokkilai Lagoon Sanctuary: Estuarine coast; designated a Ramsar site in 1990;
lagoon, sea grass beds, small amount birds, fisheries, tourism; site account in
of mangrove; water birds; poorly pro- Scott (1989).
tected; site account in Scott (1989). • Kalametiya Kalapuwa Sanctuary: two
\ Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary: Important brackish lagoons fringed with mangrove;
for coral reefs; recently established very important for water birds; site ac-
and management plan being devel- count in Scott (1989).
oped through NARA, which has a • Honduwa Island.
nearby research station.
\ Ruhuna (Yala) National Park: Coastal There are site accounts for several of
area includes a complex of brackish la- these areas in IUCN (1990).
goons, several estuaries and 64 kilo-
meters of shore; mangroves and
abundant wildlife; site account in Scott
(1989).
World Heritage Convention
Other coastal areas include:
• Pigeon Island Sanctuary: marine areas The following countries are party to the
may not be included within boundary; World Heritage Convention: Bangladesh, In-Marine Region 10: Central Indian Ocean 25
dia, Sri Lanka, Maldives (and possibly the Table 10.2 Number of MPAs
Chagos Archipelago through the UK). in Biogeographic Zones of the
The only marine World Heritage Site in Central Indian Ocean Marine Region
the region is the Sundarbans National Park Number of
in India. It has been recommended that the Biogeographic Zone MPAs
Chagos Archipelago should be nominated.
I. Western Indian Ocean 4a
Ramsar Convention II. Eastern Indian Ocean 8
III. Northern Bay of Bengal 2
The following countries are party to the IV. East Bay of Bengal 1
Ramsar Convention: Bangladesh, India, Sri V. The Central Indian 0
Lanka. Ocean
There is one marine Ramsar site (Chilka Total 15
Lake, India), and two other coastal areas
(Sundarbans, Bangladesh and Bundala, Sri IUCN/UNEP (1985) and the 1993 reports
Lanka). Several other sites have been pro- used in this review.
posed for India, including Point Calimere,
Khijadia and the Gulf of Kutch. Other
MARPOL Relatively few regional initiatives are under-
way in this region, apart from the fact that
No areas in the region have been identified the whole area lies within the Indian Ocean
under MARPOL. Whale Sanctuary. Research into fisheries
management issues is being carried out in
UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme the Bay of Bengal through cooperation by
FAO and other agencies.
The following countries have national MAB
committees: Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka.
No marine biosphere reserves have been
designated in the region but a number have
been proposed for India, including the Gulf The degree to which MPAs in the Central In-
of Kutch, Gulf of Mannar, Chilka Lake and dian Ocean Marine Region represent the
the Sundarbans (Scott 1989). There is a biogeographic regions identified is dis-
biosphere reserve in the Nicobar Islands cussed below. This assessment considers
but this is not part of the MAB programme only those 15 protected areas recorded as
(Pernetta 1993c). including a subtidal component. There are
an additional 34 protected areas which in-
UNEP Regional Seas Programme clude terrestrial coastal and in some in-
stances intertidal features.
A Regional Seas Programme was estab- Most MPAs are located in the Eastern In-
lished in 1983 for the South Asian Seas Re- dian Ocean biogeographic zone, that in-
gion (which covers Pakistan, India, cludes eight MPAs. Four of these are
Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and the Maldives) located around Sri Lanka and four along
but there is no Convention or Action Plan east the coast of India. There are four
yet. A number of preliminary country stud- MPAs covering three separate sites along
ies have been produced such as the west coast of India in the Western In-26 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas
dian Ocean zone. There is one MPA in the Malayan Realm (Thorsell 1985). Most sets
East Bay of Bengal, Wandur Marine Na- of recommendations stress the global and
tional Park, which is located in the An- regional importance of the coral reefs of the
daman Islands. There are two MPAs in the Maldives, the Chagos Archipelago and Lac-
Northern Bay of Bengal zone, (Sundarbans cadives and the coastal wetlands of India,
NP and Bhitar Kanika Wildlife Sanctuary in Bangladesh and Myanmar. Several areas
India). need at least bilateral conservation action,
A more detailed analysis would be re- such as the Sundarbans (India and Bangla-
quired to determine whether the existing desh), the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay (In-
MPAs effectively conserve a representative dia and Sri Lanka) and the eastern Indian
range of the habitat and ecosystem types Ocean atoll systems (India, Maldives, the
within each of the zones that are repre- Chagos Archipelago).
sented. However, even without such an The following areas have been identified
analysis it is clear that there are some ma- on the basis of existing and available infor-
jor gaps. mation by Sue Wells (see Map 10).
Four of the six countries or territories in Dwivedi, Singh, and Ivan (1994) provided a
the region (Bangladesh, Maldives, Myan- subsequent review of priorities. The recom-
mar and the Chagos Archipelago) have no mendations have not yet been reviewed by
subtidal MPAs (although Bangladesh has government authorities in the countries
two coastal land protected areas that in- concerned.
clude intertidal features). The atoll groups
of the Laccadive-Chagos chain and the Bangladesh
coast of Myanmar are also not represented.
There is only one MPA in the Andaman and Recommendations for future action in the
Nicobar island group. coastal and marine environment are given
Rodgers and Panwar (1988) assess rep- in Pernetta (1993b). The priority areas for
resentation of the coast and island bio- marine biodiversity conservation are given
geographic zones in protected areas in below.
India. Protected areas on the coast cover
2.4 percent of the country (two National Proposed new MPAs:
Parks and 17 other protected areas), and is- \ The Sundarbans: Primarily important
land protected areas cover 0.3 percent of for mangroves and associated fauna
the country (six National Parks and 100 and flora; there are several existing
other protected areas), mainly in the An- protected areas that include intertidal
daman Islands. The Laccadives and Nico- habitat and may include subtidal habi-
bars have poor coverage. However, there is tat; the area is an important breeding
no assessment of MPAs as such by these and nursery area for a range of ma-
authors. rine species and should be a priority
for a MPA.
\ Naaf Estuary islands (and adjacent ar-
PRIORITY AREAS AND eas including Teknaf Peninsula and
RECOMMENDATIONS Chakaria Sundarbans): Supports a
small stand of mangroves with the
only population of crab-eating ma-
caques in the country; site accounts
for some areas in Scott (1989).
Recommendations are given in the Corbett \ Jinjiradwip and surrounding marine
Action Plan for Protected Areas in the Indo- areas: Important for coral reefs, winter-Marine Region 10: Central Indian Ocean 27
ing ground for wildfowl, turtle nesting nesting beaches; site account in Scott
beach; site account in Scott (1989); (1989).
recommended for protection in the \ Kundapar Wildlife Sanctuary and estu-
Corbett Action Plan. The mudflats on aries of Karnataka coast: Mangroves
the northwest and southeast coasts and shorebirds; site account in Scott
are important for waterfowl, with the (1989).
highest priority being Nijhum Dweep \ Chilka Lake Wildlife Sanctuary Exten-
(site account in Scott; 1989). sion (see above): Proposed extension
to the existing Sanctuary to include
Existing MPAs that require management Nanda Island and important turtle nest-
support: ing beaches.
There are no existing MPAs. \ Point Calimere National Park (see
above): Existing coastal terrestrial
British Indian Ocean Territory Sanctuary is proposed to be upgraded
(the Chagos Archipelago) to National Park, with the extension to
include turtle nesting beaches and
Proposed new MPAs: possible designation of adjacent ma-
This is the largest, most pristine and pos- rine areas as a Ramsar site.
sibly most diverse expanse of reef in the In- \ Kazhiveli Wildlife Sanctuary: Man-
dian Ocean. groves, waterfowl; one of the last high
quality lagoon and estuarine systems
Existing MPAs that require management on the east coast of India; recom-
support: mended as a Biosphere Reserve.
There are no existing MPAs. \ Sundarbans: There is an existing Na-
tional Park (see above) that includes
India intertidal and estuarine areas, as well
as terrestrial features. The area is an
A proposal for a protected areas network important breeding and nursery area
has been drawn up by the Wildlife Institute for a range of marine species and
of India (Rodgers and Panwar 1988). Many should be a priority for sustainable
new sites are recommended for protection, management of the entire marine envi-
others for expansion, and others for im- ronment. This could be achieved
proved management, with the aim that five through the establishment of a large,
percent of each biogeographic province integrated multiple-use MPA.
should be protected. This would result in 18 \ Lakshadweep Archipelago (Laccadi-
parks and 40 protected areas for islands, ves): Management is urgently needed
and seven parks and 32 protected areas for in this area. Improved protection for
coasts. These and other recommendations nesting turtles is recommended for the
for future action in the coastal and marine Indian part of the Indus delta.
environment are given in Pernetta (1993c).
The more important areas for marine biodi- Existing MPAs that require management
versity conservation are listed below. support:
\ Bhitar Kanika Wildlife Sanctuary (see
Proposed new MPAs: below): To be extended to include tur-
\ Gulf of Khambhat Wildlife Sanctu- tle nesting beaches; management sup-
ary: Important for mangroves, shore- port is required.
birds, green and olive Ridley turtle \ Gulf of Kutch: Improved management
of existing Marine Sanctuary and Ma-28 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas
rine Park, particularly in the southern Reef Island; South Sentinel Island;
part; the main threats are cutting of Barren Island; and all islets in the west
mangroves, exploitation of shells, al- coast Shearme group, the northern
gae and oysters, dredging and pollu- Landfall group, and the east coast Ta-
tion from salt industries and shipping; ble-Brush group
coral reefs reportedly reduced in area • Little Andamans: 300 square kilometer
by nearly 50 percent and the man- National Park proposed for southwest-
groves by about 20 percent over the ern half of island to include turtle nest-
last 10–15 years. The main require- ing beaches and coconut crabs
ments are to control commercial fish- • Little Nicobar with surrounding islets:
ing, identify and control sources of proposed as a National Park
pollution, plan for sustainable tourism • Great Nicobar: northern area (north of
development, evolve effective guide- Casuarina Bay-Dogma River and Mt
lines for planning and managing the Thullier) to be a wildlife sanctuary
marine national park, and to involve • Extension of Mount Harriet National
the local community (see below). Park to include a marine area.
\ Gulf of Mannar National Park: Prior to There are also proposals for amalgamat-
declaration of the park, reefs in the ing some of the tiny individual island sanctu-
area had undergone noticeable dete- aries into ten larger units for more efficient
rioration, possibly as a result of in- administration; for bringing a larger area of
creased water turbidity from coral mangroves into the protected area network;
mining; management measures need and for creating a number of other pro-
to be improved, particularly to control tected areas. Highest priorities relating to
dugong exploitation (probably the MPAs are as follows (Pande and Singh
most important area in the region for 1991):
dugong), and ban coral mining (see • Creation of North Andaman Peninsula
below). Wildlife Sanctuary
\ Malvan Sanctuary (see below): One of • Creation of a sanctuary in West Rut-
the least disturbed areas on the west land to act as a buffer for the Marine
coast of India. National Park
• Establishment of Little Andaman Na-
Andaman and Nicobar Island (India) tional Park (see above)
• Upgrading of South Sentinel Wildlife
Proposed new MPAs: Sanctuary (see above) to National
\ Andaman and Nicobar Islands: These Park
islands include coral reefs, important • Extension of Button I. National Park
nesting beaches for leatherback, (see above) to include Outram I. and
hawksbill, olive Ridley and green tur- surrounding waters
tles; dugong and saltwater crocodiles. • Upgrading of Narcondam Wildlife
A number of sites already receive Sanctuary (see above) to National
some protection but this is mostly for Park
coastal land areas only. Further pro- • Upgrading of North Reef Wildlife Sanc-
tection is needed for dugong. Propos- tuary (see above) to National Park
als for the protected area system that • Establishment of Great Nicobar Wild-
relate to the marine environment in- life Sanctuary (see above)
clude (Rodgers and Panwar 1988; • Establishment of Little Nicobar Na-
Pande and Singh 1991): tional Park (see above).
• Upgrading of some sanctuaries to
Park status: Narcondam Island; NorthMarine Region 10: Central Indian Ocean 29
Existing MPAs that require management \ Lampi Island and adjacent areas
support: of the Mergui Archipelago: Coral
\ Wandur Marine National Park: Possi- reefs, some turtle nesting; proposed
bly the least disturbed group of islands as a marine park to be managed in
and the richest coral reefs in the An- conjunction with proposed Pakchan
damans; four turtle species; dugong; Nature Reserve for mangroves; site
mangroves; site description in account in UNEP/IUCN (1988) and
UNEP/IUCN (1988) and Pande and Scott (1989).
Singh (1991). \ Irrawaddy Delta: There are many Re-
served Forests in southern part of the
Maldives delta but no marine protected areas;
protection needed for mangroves, tur-
Numerous recommendations have been tles, estuarine crocodiles, waterfowl;
produced for the Maldives (see Pernetta three sites proposed as Wildlife Sanc-
1993d; UNEP/IUCN 1988), and many of tuaries: Meinmahla Kyun, Kadonlay
these are now outdated, irrelevant or im- Kyun (also recommended for protec-
practical within the current socioeconomic tion in Corbett Action Plan), Letkokken
and development context of the country. Islands; all are small estuarine is-
The National Environment Action Plan lands, surrounded by shallow water
(which was not available for consultation for with mudflats, mangroves and croco-
this report) has established a program of ac- diles; site account in Scott (1989).
tivities, and recommendations for MPAs \ Sittang Estuary and Gulf of Martaban:
must fit in with these. Given the global im- Important estuarine system with a
portance of the Maldives for marine biodi- large area of mudflats; site account in
versity, this area should, however, be Scott (1989).
represented in any global network of MPAs. \ Central Tenasserim coast and north-
ern Mergui Archipelago: Large area of
Myanmar bays, estuaries, mudflats, mangroves,
some reefs, turtles, estuarine croco-
Proposed new MPAs: dile; site account in Scott (1989).
In the 1980s, and under the Corbett Ac-
tion Plan (Thorsell 1985), a number of ma- Existing MPAs that require management
rine areas were recommended for support:
protection (UNEP/IUCN 1988): There are no existing MPAs in Myanmar.
\ Moscos Island Wildlife Sanctuary:
Coral reefs, turtle nesting; extension Sri Lanka
recommended to create a marine re-
serve; site accounts in UNEP/IUCN Priorities for coastal and marine conserva-
(1988) and Scott (1989); recom- tion and management have been identified
mended for protection in Corbett Ac- in a recent report Coastal 2000 (Olsen and
tion Plan. others 1992) and a large number of coastal
\ Thamihla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary: and marine sites have been recommended
Formerly a major green and olive for some form of protection (Pernetta
Ridley turtle nesting site; extension 1993e). A recent initiative is the develop-
recommended to create a marine re- ment of SAM plans that will promote local in-
serve; recommended for protection in volvement in marine resources
Corbett Action Plan; site account in management for sites of ecological and eco-
Scott (1989). nomic importance. Two SAM projects have
recently been initiated:30 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas
• Hikkaduwa Area: A number of recom- Other areas recommended for protection
mendations and management proposals and listed in Pernetta (1993e) include:
have been made for improved manage- • Unawatuna Reefs: Recommended as an
ment of this area (Pernetta 1993e). MPA
• Rekawa Lagoon: Important for man- • Polhena Reef: Recommended as a ma-
groves, lagoon, fish and shrimp fishery; rine sanctuary
adjacent area is a turtle sanctuary (estab- • Thenaddi Bay, Vandeloos Bay,
lished under a project run by the UK- Pasekudah and Kalkudah Bay area:
based society Care for the Wild). Reefs, coastal wetlands, mangroves; rec-
ommended for protection; site account in
Sites that appear to be of highest priority UNEP/IUCN (1988) and Scott (1989)
(Pernetta 1993e) are listed below. • Pigeon Island
• Muthurajawela Swamp: Mangroves; site
Proposed new MPAs: account in Scott (1989)
\ Puttalam Lagoon, Dutch Bay and Por-
tugal Bay areas: Important for coastal The Corbett Action Plan recommends pro-
wetlands, seagrasses, mangroves, tection of waters adjacent to Wilpattu Na-
water birds, turtles, dugong; includes tional Park. Scott (1989) lists numerous
Karaitivu and Kalpitiya lagoons; site other wetland areas as being of signifi-
account in Scott (1989). cance.
\ Negombo Lagoon: Mangroves and
seagrass beds; site account in Scott
(1989).
\ Jaffna Peninsula and Lagoon area:
Many important coastal wetland ar- The areas outlined have been selected as
eas; details in Pernetta (1993e) and regional priorities for the establishment and
Scott (1989). improved management of MPAs protection
\ Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar: Includ- using the criteria outlined in the introduction
ing Adam’s Bridge area wetlands and to this report (see Map 10). Priorities were
coral reefs; details of sites in Pernetta identified in a report prepared for IUCN-
(1993e) and Scott (1989). CNPPA by Dwivedi, Singh, and Ivan
\ Basses Reef: Recommended as a ma- (1994). These areas provide broad bio-
rine sanctuary; site account in geographic and geographic coverage of
UNEP/IUCN (1988). most areas and represent a range of differ-
\ Rekawa Lagoon: SAM site (see ent ecosystem types. In selecting the areas
above). the necessity of support from national gov-
ernments has been recognized and where
Existing MPAs that require management possible preference has been given to ar-
support: eas where the concerned Government has
\ Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary (see expressed interest in marine biodiversity
above) conservation and action is already under-
\ Bar Reef: Research under way and way.
management plan being developed Insufficient information has been avail-
with SAREC funding able to recommend any areas in Myanmar.
Gathering the data to make such recom-
mendations should be a high priority.You can also read
