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Domestic Abuse Practice Guidance for Children and Family Social Workers
2
AIMS AND INTRODUCTION
The following guidance is aimed at social workers within the
remit of children’s services in England, who carry out the critical
work of supporting domestic abuse victims/survivors which
includes children. We understand that social workers are time-
pressed; juggling competing demands of caseloads means that
time for research and training is often scarce.
This guide aims to provide a succinct In creating the guide, we have consulted with
overview of the most up to date findings domestic abuse victims/survivors. Their
around domestic abuse in England, the messages are the golden thread which keeps
legislative framework, and evidence-based this guide real, relevant, and focused on
models which can be readily applied to people with lived experience.
practice.
Written amid the coronavirus pandemic, the
guidance was developed through the lens of
The guide is split across the following
social work in national emergencies; learning
sections:
is still emerging, however early evidence from
both statutory and voluntary UK agencies
1 Understanding Domestic have highlighted the increased risk of
Abuse domestic abuse. Refuge has reported a 25%
Black and Minoritised increase in calls and online requests since
2 March 2020, and visits to their helpline
Communities
website have increased by 150%. The pattern
3 LGBTQI+ is not unique to the UK; according to the UN
Population Fund, at least 15 million more
4 Disability and Learning cases of domestic abuse are predicted around
Disability the world in 2020-2021 as a result of
5 pandemic restrictions.
Deaf Awareness
Mental Health, Substance These figures are startling, and though the
6
Misuse and Multiple pandemic itself will pass, the suffering
endured by domestic abuse victims/survivors
Disadvantage
may last a lifetime. Without meaningful
7 Top Tips from Survivors interventions, there will be long term impact
on victims/survivors lives, including children.
8 Initial contact with families - For this reason, we have included both
approach and assessment preventative and responsive interventions
within.
9 Effective Practice Models and
Support We must ensure that any learning from
10 Children and Young People this difficult period must be preserved, to
ensure the right response in future emergency
11 Legislation and Policy contexts.
12 Links to Other Resources
3
4
“Domestic abuse does not discriminate, it can
happen to anyone,” so began Laura Winter, TV
Presenter and sports journalist – it soon became
clear that she was speaking from experience.
Recalling the night she was attacked, she
continued “I thought I was going to die. I’d never
felt pure terror until that night and it will never
leave me... There are times when it feels like a life
sentence,”
“I am lucky. I have a job I love, I had the financial
means to leave, I had family and friends. There are
thousands of women who have no way out, who
are coerced, who aren’t believed. I’m fortunate,
many women aren’t.”
Laura’s testimony, spoken from a place of
privilege, reminds us that domestic abuse occurs
at every intersection of society.
Social workers in all specialisms, working with
people with lived experiences of diverse
backgrounds across race, class and cultures know
this.
Not only this, but domestic abuse has many faces
and takes many forms, will be covered in more
detail within the guide.
5
Gender As social workers we must seek to understand
the complexity of children’s and parents’
Our aim is for this guide to be as inclusive as experiences and identities that can act as
possible, recognising that victims/survivors barriers in terms of how they access support
identify with a range of gender and how professionals relate to them. For
identities. Every experience must be taken example, it is important to recognise the
seriously, but we wish to acknowledge this experiences of racism or homophobia that
whilst also recognising that most can create barriers to reporting to the police
victims/survivors are in fact women – or seeking support from other state
domestic abuse is a gendered crime. Refusing authorities. We explore some of these barriers
to recognise this ignores the established in more detail in following chapters and invite
evidence base and minimises women’s you to approach this guide and your work
experiences. with this intersectional lens.
Key distinctions between male violence
against women and female violence against Wherever you see the following symbol
men are found in the amount, severity and
impact. Research highlights women are likely
to be repeat victims and are ‘much more likely
to be seriously hurt’ (ibid) or killed than men
(ONS, 2018). Furthermore, men are more within the guidance, this will act as a prompt to view
likely to be killed by a stranger; in the year
each section through an intersectional lens.
ending 2018, 33% of men were killed by a
stranger, compared to 17% of women (ibid).
From April 2014 to March 2017, 73% of victims Black and Minoritised
of domestic homicides (by a previous or
current partner or family member) were
Communities
women (ONS, 2018). Over 83% of high This guide aims to consider the unique lived
frequency victims (involving 10 or more experiences of Black and minoritised
crimes) are women (Walby & Towers, 2018). survivors within the context of domestic
Domestic abuse is embedded in systemic abuse, who are further oppressed through
gender inequality which is deeply rooted into lifelong experiences of racial inequality.
the human psyche (Stark, 2007). To deny this It goes without saying that much remains to
would be an injustice. be addressed for social work to even come
So, within this guide, we hope to carefully close to becoming a truly anti-oppressive,
balance validating the experience of male anti-racist, anti-homophobic, transphobic and
victims/survivors in all their fullness, whilst ablest profession. And there are many
also recognising that the broader uncomfortable truths to confront in the fight
picture shows that statistically, women are at for equality and justice. We have consulted
greater risk. with specialist services led by and for Black
and Minoritised communities and are
committed to ensure this resource informs
Intersectionality anti-racist practice and eradicates western-
centric thnking.
This guide should be read through the lens of
intersectionality. An intersectional approach
l Further information can be found in
is rooted in an understanding of the lived
the ‘Black and Minoritised
experiences of those who face multiple forms
of oppression – for example relating to their Communities’ section of this guide.
gender identity, race, class, sexuality, disability,
age, immigration status and religion; and how
these experiences intersect and create distinct
experiences which require distinct responses
and support.
6
Re-shifting the focus
Further resources
In practice, we see patterns whereby survivors
are shamed, penalised and held solely This guide is by no means designed to be
responsible for their children’s welfare. an exhaustive resource. For this reason,
we have included links to the excellent
A different approach is needed. work of partnering organisations, which
can be found in the links to resources
This guide aims to recognise survivors in the section.
context of their abuse, hold perpetrators to
account, whilst also ensuring that interventions
remain child focused, and in their best interest.
Contributors
Anti-poverty
This guide has been written in partnership
This guide is being written after a decade of with those with lived experience,
austerity, which saw foodbank users increase including a focus group of victims/
from 41,000 in 2010 to 2.1 million in 2020 survivors from Women’s Aid, as well as:
(Refuge, 2020). According to MP Sarah
Champion, 86% of the reduction in government Women’s Aid Federation of England
spending is in spending on women (cited in
Alistair Sherlock Accreditation Manager
House of Commons Library, 2017). The impact
at Respect
of poverty is far-ranging; analysts in the UK and
internationally have consistently found Janaya Walker Legal, Policy and
vulnerability to DVA to be associated with low Campaigns Manager at Southall Black
income, economic strain, and benefit receipt Sisters
(UNFPA, 2020).
Dr Jasna Magić National LGBT+
Domestic Abuse Project Manager at
We encourage readers to adopt an anti-poverty
Galop
perspective when reading this guidance. For
further information in this area, the University of Lucy Allwright Project Manager at AVA
Bristol and Joseph Rowntree Foundation Marie Vickers Domestic Abuse Service
produced an informative report entitled Manager at Sign Health
‘Evidence and policy review: Domestic violence
and poverty’. Dr Michaela Rogers Senior Lecturer at
the University of Sheffield
Evidence-based practice models Natasha Rattu Executive Director at
Karma Nirvana
Throughout the guide, we refer to tried and Rebekah Pierre Professional Officer at
tested models which have been found to have BASW England
the best outcomes for children and families.
Models rooted in solid safeguarding standards Sarah Goff Safeguarding Children and
and robust ethical frameworks. Young People Manager at Ann Craft Trust
The approaches referenced are restorative, n We are grateful to everyone who
trauma-informed and strengths-based – for participated and extend a heartfelt thank
further information, please see the approaches you to survivors in particular, who
section. contributed to this guide with such
honesty and vulnerability. We would also
We recommend that you consult with your like to thank BASW members and
supervisor before applying them, to provide partnership colleagues who have
space for critical reflection and analysis with contributed to the development of this
someone who understands the dynamics of document, Kaukub Asia and Syra Shakir.
your work with children and families.
7
8
1. UNDERSTANDING DOMESTIC ABUSE
The UK Government defines* domestic Domestic abuse is about power and control.
violence and abuse as1: The Power and Control Wheel is a useful
resource to help us understand the types of
tactics a perpetrator of domestic abuser will
“ any incident or pattern of incidents of
use to create a web of fear and control over
controlling, coercive or threatening
the victim/survivor. The Power and Control
behaviour, violence or abuse between those
Wheel can also be a useful resource for
aged 16 or over who are or have been
survivors, many of whom may not recognise
intimate partners or family members
or name their experiences as domestic abuse.
regardless of gender or sexuality. This can
encompass, but is not limited to, the
following types of abuse:
l Psychological
l Physical
l Sexual
l Financial
l Emotional
Controlling behaviour is: a range of acts
designed to make a person subordinate
and/or dependent by isolating them from
sources of support, exploiting their resources
and capacities for personal gain, depriving
them of the means needed for independence,
resistance and escape and regulating their
everyday behaviour.
Coercive behaviour is: an act or a pattern of
acts of assault, threats, humiliation and
intimidation or other abuse that is used to
harm, punish, or frighten survivors.’
This definition includes so called ‘honour’
Source: www.coercivecontrolcollective.org
based abuse, female genital mutilation (FGM)
and forced marriage. It is also important to
It’s important to understand that domestic
highlight stalking, harassment, and online or
abuse isn’t always physical. Controlling and
digital abuse as forms of domestic abuse.
coercive behaviour is designed to make a
*Please note that this definition will be updated when a
person dependent by isolating them from
new statutory definition of domestic abuse passes support and regulating their everyday
through Parliament and becomes law in Spring 2021. behaviour – creating invisible chains and a
In the proposed legislation, this definition is extended sense of fear that pervades all elements of a
to include economic abuse, and to recognise the
victim’s life. It works to limit their human
impact on children and including them as victims of
domestic abuse when seeing, hearing or experiencing rights by depriving them of their liberty and
the effects of domestic abuse. reducing their ability for action. Experts like
Evan Stark liken coercive control to being
taken hostage. As he says: “the victim
1
www.gov.uk/government/publications/definition-of-domestic-violence-and-abuse-guide-for-local-areas
9
becomes captive in an unreal world created Impact on Children - Children as
by the abuser, entrapped in a world of
Victim/Survivors
confusion, contradiction and fear.”
A poor understanding of these dynamics,
It is a commonly held misconception that
particularly coercive and controlling
children witness rather than experience
behaviour, can often lead professionals to
domestic abuse. It is critical as children’s
minimise or deny domestic abuse, and/or
social workers that we have an understanding
advocate for poor and unsafe interventions
of the impact of domestic abuse on children
such as mediation.
and see children as victims and survivors
rather than mere bystanders. The need to shift
Gendered understanding and this thinking has been highlighted by the
Violence against Women and Girls inclusion of children as victims/survivors in
proposed new statutory definition of
Framework
domestic abuse (Home Office, 2020). It is
critical to understand that this impact is not
As outlined in the introduction, we advocate
only in relation to living in a physically abusive
for a gendered understanding of domestic
home, but also the impact on children of
abuse and it should be seen within the
coercive and controlling behaviour. For
context of all forms of gender-based violence
example, one study found that “non-violent
and Violence against Women and Girls
behaviours from perpetrators/fathers placed
(VAWG). VAWG encompasses rape and sexual
children in isolated, disempowering and
assault, sexual abuse and exploitation, sexual
constrained worlds which could hamper
harassment, trafficking and exploitation in the
children’s resilience and development and
sex industry, female genital mutilation, forced
contribute to emotional/behavioural
marriage and so called ‘honour crimes’, and is
problems” (Katz, 2015).
described by the United Nations as “a
manifestation of historically unequal power
relations between men and women” (CEDAW, Tackling victim-blaming attitudes
1999). Whilst not explicitly referenced here, and making the perpetrator visible
VAWG also extends to child sexual
exploitation (CSE) within social work practice It is far too common that perpetrators are
– further information on working effectively invisible in the work of children’s social care,
with CSE victim/survivors can be found on the with the non-abusive parent held responsible
BASW website. for the abuse (e.g. problematically framed as
‘failure to protect’), or the abuse is denied or
Whilst adopting a gendered approach is minimised. These responses are often upheld
critical, men and boys can and do also by many damaging myths about domestic
experience VAWG. According to Galop, queer abuse and victim blaming attitudes, and a lack
and non-binary folk, gay, bi and trans men of awareness of the risks and challenges of
and those perceived as gender non- leaving an abusive relationship. For example,
conforming, experience and disclose all types leaving the relationship is the riskiest time for
of VAWG including sexual violence, stalking a survivor, with 41% (37 of 91) of women killed
and harassment, honour based violence and by a male partner/former partner in England,
forced marriage. We know that these groups Wales and Northern Ireland in 2018 having
are largely targeted because they are seen as separated or taken steps to separate from
soft, easy, weak targets, feminine or not- them (Femicide Census, 2020). Many women
masculine enough. The abuse experienced by will remain in a relationship because of the
these groups is evidently rooted in patriarchy, very real fears of what will happen if they
gender inequality and deep-rooted social leave, and it is vital to recognise that they are
norms, attitudes and behaviours that the experts in managing their own risk and
discriminate and oppress women and girls safety. It is also important for social workers
across all communities. to consider the complex barriers to leaving
relationships, or engaging with services. For
example, understanding the impact of trauma,
shame and low confidence; the lack of
10support that is responsive to a survivor’s Intersectional understanding
unique needs; and practical barriers such as
housing and finances. Unpicking these myths It is essential to take an intersectional
and victim blaming attitudes, alongside an approach when seeking to understand
awareness of the different barriers that domestic abuse and support survivors.
survivors’ face, are essential to ensure you are People who experience domestic abuse may
supporting and empowering the non-abusive experience multiple forms of oppression.
parent and holding the perpetrator to These oppressions can also overlap
account. (‘intersect’) and include sexism, racism,
homophobia, transphobia, and discrimination
Understanding trauma against disabled people. An intersectional
understanding and approach recognises the
Living with domestic abuse is traumatic and impact of intersecting forms of oppression on
exhausting. The impact of coercion and people’s (including children’s) identities and
manipulation is exacerbated and reinforced by lived experience of abuse and services, and
the body’s emotional and physiological can respond to these diverse needs.
response to trauma. Survivors may also have
experienced other forms of trauma, including
trauma caused by other forms of oppression
such as racism, homophobia and/or been
(re)victimized by services or state systems. It is
essential to have an understanding of the
impact of trauma and be able to recognise the
reminder
different ways trauma can manifest as well as Wherever you see the following symbol
different coping strategies. This is particularly
important in regard to how survivors may
‘present’ in the safeguarding context, and how
social workers interpret or frame their actions.
For example, there are a range of reasons why within the guidance, this will act as
victims in abusive relationships may not report
abuse, may not support action against the
a prompt to view each section through an
perpetrator, or may even defend the intersectional lens.
perpetrator. Victims of coercive control may
have developed coping and survival strategies
within their relationships which impact their
behaviour and the way that they respond to Please see the following chapters for
professionals. Repeated exposure to coercive further exploration of these different
control has significant implications for how
victims ‘present’ to statutory services. Analysis
lived experiences. These sections have
of serious case reviews between 2011 and been written by specialist services
2014 published by the Government found that leading in these areas, as well as those
women living with controlling men, who with lived experience. To provide this
isolate and impose restrictions on them, may
not be able to disclose the abuse but may short guide, we have included key
highlight the fear that they are experiencing in messages and top tips, however
other ways. The analysis found that within a further, more in-depth information
context of coercion and control, women around each of these specialisms can
experience significant barriers to disclosing
either their own or their children’s suffering, be found in the ‘links to other
particularly in situations where the abusive resources’ section.
partner is present2.
2
Sidebottom, P. et al (2016) Pathways to harm, pathways to protection: A triennial analysis of serious case reviews 2011 to 2014,
Department for Education.
1112
2. BLACK AND MINORITISED COMMUNITIES
Domestic abuse is ubiquitous across the • Threats are frequently used as a form of
globe, and the devastating impact is felt by coercive control. Survivors are told that if
people of all ethnic and cultural communities. they report abuse to the police, they will be
There is, however, some evidence to suggest deported, or that the child will be removed.
that individuals from Black and minoritised • Intra-community factors mean that abuse
communities are disproportionately impacted. can be carried out by multiple perpetrators,
especially when women live in multi-
Domestic abuse is far too complex (not to generational households. If the woman lives
mention chronically underreported), to with her spouse’s family, this further tilts the
establish risk in a linear way. But according to power dynamics in his favour.
the Office for National Statistics (ONS, 2019), • Outside of the family home, abuse could be
in the year 2018-2019, the rates of domestic extended to the wider community – for
abuse victims were as follows: example, family relationships may extend to
the local place of worship or in their place of
work. It is important not to assume that the
White Asian Black Mixed wider community is a safe space.
• Victim-blaming is common. Due to the
taboo nature of divorce or separation, a
woman is often seen as dishonourable for
3.8% 7.1% leaving a relationship or even disclosing
abuse.
• Women can be prevented from seeking help
5.6% due to shame and stigma, which would
12.9% ostracise her from family and community.
• Women may be dependent on the
perpetrators for their stay in the UK or for
financial support, meaning that escaping the
abuse comes with immense challenges
It is important to recognise, however, that the
FGM, so-called ‘honour-based’ abuse and
above labels risk viewing Black and
forced marriage can also occur, which will be
minoritised groups as homogenous, and do
explored below.
not reflect rich cultural and ethnic diversity or
divisions along gender, class, sexuality and
other lines much in the same way as any Forced marriage
other community.
Karma Nivarna defines Forced marriage as
Southall Black Sisters inform that Black and being where one or both people do not
minoritised women can experience abuse in consent to the marriage and pressure or
the following ways: abuse is used. This is a deeply complex area,
and can no means be fully covered within this
• Often, perpetrators weaponise a survivor’s short guide. We strongly recommend that
insecure status as a form of coercive social workers seek the latest information and
control. Such behaviours can include research from Karma Nirvana, as well as
withholding documentation or tarnishing consulting local specialist services which can
the immigration process through other be found in the links to other resources
means. This behaviour is recognised in the section.
draft statutory guidance on domestic abuse. inful than the abusive experience itself.
13So-called ‘honour-based’ abuse appropriate reporting procedures if they
suspect this form of abuse.
As with all forms of domestic abuse, so-called • Local Authorities, family law practitioners
‘honour-based abuse’ (HBA) is a gendered and the judiciary should ensure social
crime. As stated by Dr Roxanne Khan, HBA is workers receive training on common
“Built upon rigid gender-based hierarchies, it is features of HBV cases which are relevant to
often used to promote and excuse aggressive child contact arrangements. This includes
hypermasculinity and female dehumanisation”. use of child manipulation by perpetrators
According to Save Lives (2020), women are and the impact this has on the victim’s
tasked with carrying the ‘honour’ of their ability to parent, and the prevalence of
fathers, their husbands, and their sons, and HBA extensive perpetrator networks within the
is deeply rooted in patriarchy. According to the family.
Crown Prosecution Service, 76% of victims are • Local authorities should ensure that all those
female (ibid). who work with young people, and
particularly schools as they deliver the new
Key statistics from the Spotlight Report on PSHE curriculum, are aware of referral
honour-based abuse from Safe Lives provide a pathways for young victims of domestic
snapshot into the lived experience of survivors abuse, HBV and forced marriage.
(ibid):
• Those at risk of HBA experience abuse for an In terms of practice-based tips to support
additional two years before accessing support. survivors to raise an alarm with services,
• 23% of survivors are not eligible for most Kaukub Asia, a BASW member and social
benefits, tax credits, or housing assistance. worker who has experience supporting
• Survivors of HBA are more than 7 times more survivors in this area, shares the following:
likely to experience abuse from multiple 1. Anyone who believes they may be
perpetrators compared to those not identified
taken abroad by family members
at risk of HBA.
should, if safe to do so, attempt to
• 68% are at high risk of homicide or serious place a teaspoon or any metal object
harm. in their underwear. This will alert
• 15% of those seen by the Forced Marriage Unit specially trained airport personnel that
were under 16. they require assistance and may be at
• Research suggests that at least one so-called risk.
honour-based killing takes place every month 2. When arranging initial appointments
in the UK, though the true number is thought with people with lived experiences, you
to be higher. can suggest that if they need
• 19% of survivors had attended A&E as a result assistance in this area, they can sign
of their injuries in the past 12 months, though their name in a certain colour. Be sure
only 6% were referred to domestic abuse to offer two differently coloured pens
services. to allow for this.
l Please also refer to page 10, which • 3. For individuals who may be unable to
sign, or for those with additional
outlines that queer and non-binary folk,
needs, you can adapt this to any
gay, bi and trans men and those object, such as a piece of card (i.e. -
perceived as gender non-conforming touching a red card may signify that
can also experience honor based they need help). If the individual is
violence and forced marriage amongst sight impaired, they could tear or
other forms of VAWG. discreetly fold a card to indicate this.
On your way out, offer to take litter
The report made the following with you, thus scooping up paper or
recommendations for Local Authorities: card in the process.
• Local Authorities should ensure that local
agencies, including those that work with l Further information can be found with
children, are made aware of the issue of specialist ‘by and for’ services e.g.
transnational marriage abandonment and of Karma Nirvana
14As a brief overview, Syra Shakir, both a BASW FGM
member, senior teaching fellow at Leeds
Trinity University, as well as a social worker Female genital mutilation (FGM) is a collective
with direct experience supporting survivors in term for a range of procedures which involve
this area provides the following top tips: partial or total removal of the external female
genitalia for non-medical reasons. It is
sometimes referred to as female circumcision,
1. Women will experience all forms of or female genital cutting (Refuge, 2020).
abuse that will be justified in the
Social workers should be aware that FGM is a
name of both culture and religion -
crime in the UK, and, that it is illegal to take a
how they are invoked will vary from
British national or permanent resident outside
case to case. The focus must always the country for FGM, or to facilitate this by
be on how to protect women and helping someone else trying to do so.
children, rather than worrying about
what her religion or culture might FGM is often performed by traditional
say or does not say about these circumcisers or cutters who do not have any
matters. What is paramount is what medical training, often using knives, scissors,
the women wants and needs to scalpels, pieces of glass or razor blades, and
remain safe. anaesthetics are not generally used (Savera
2. Never underestimate the power and UK, 2020). It is very painful and can cause
grip of family loyalty. Victims will feel long-term problems with sex, childbirth and
guilt for going against family mental health (NHS, 2019).
traditions and expectations despite
Who is most at risk?
knowing they are wrong. Victims will
feel loyalty and love for their families
FGM is usually carried out to girls between the
even if they are the perpetrators of age of 1-15, but just because someone sits
the abuse. outside of this age range, it does not mean
3. Never assume you understand or they are not at risk.
know their position. Be particularly
vigilant about this if you are not of Further risk factors include:
similar background or heritage to • Having family members who have
the victim or family. If you do not experienced FGM.
understand something, then seek • Marrying into a family where FGM practiced
guidance or co work with a • Coming from, or marrying into, an FGM-
practitioner who does possess more practising country.
knowledge. • If family are planning a long holiday. Girls are
4. Never underestimate disclosures of most at-risk during the summer holidays, as
harm or potential future harm, even this allows time for the procedure to be
when you have doubt about their completed and for some healing to take
authenticity. Forced marriage and place before returning to school (NHS,
FGM remain very hidden and covert 2019). Further information can be found at
forms of abuse, as do the Forward
perpetrators and victims. • If a female elder is coming to visit.
5. Never underestimate the pain of
loss, separation or being ostracised Signs FGM may have taken place
from one’s family despite being (NSPCC, 2021):
made safe from the abuse. The
loneliness which encompasses the • Difficulty walking, standing or sitting.
victim post abuse can often be more • Spending longer in the bathroom or toilet.
painful than the abusive experience • Appearing quiet, anxious or depressed.
itself. • Acting differently after an absence from
school or college.
15• Reluctance to go to the doctors or have entitled. For further information on how to
routine medical examinations. support women in these situations contact
Southall Black Sisters.
Language
Systemic inequalities
In terms of language used, FGM is sometimes,
but not always, referred to as a ‘special Systemic inequalities faced by Black and
procedure’, ‘special occasion’, or ‘becoming a minoritised communities means that not only
woman’ (ibid). Other terms include female are survivors more likely to experience
circumcision or cutting, sunna, gudnin, domestic abuse, but they are also less likely to
halalays, tahur, megrez, and kithan (NHS, access support and subsequently escape.
2020).
The double jeopardy of racism and gender
manifests in the way in which women from
If you suspect someone you work with may
Black and minority communities experience
be at risk, discuss this with your manager
intervention. Black women are often subject
immediately and contact the police. It is also
to insensitive responses from statutory
crucial to partner with local services who
services (National Education Union, 2019),
specialise in supporting those at risk with
and are more likely to be criminalised and
FGM, who can provide a wealth of insight and
viewed as complicit, as opposed to victims
knowledge.
(ibid). According to research, between five
and 12 contacts are made by women
Support for those at risk can be found at:
experiencing domestic abuse before receiving
a positive response, which rises to 17 if the
• Forward +44 (0)20 8960 4000 or email woman is Black (ibid).
forward@forwarduk.org.uk
www.forwarduk.org.uk/violence-against- Differential treatment begins early;
women-and-girls/female-genital- adultification is a term used to describe a
mutilation/?gclid=Cj0KCQiA4feBBhC9ARIsA form of racial prejudice whereby Black and
Bp_nbXgbdPE_jqMLmLONa0MHmdsRIkVV minoritised children are treated as older than
WycZOPnJfl6FVBWnWpHWak- is reasonably expected in terms of child
9V0aApSPEALw_wcB development, which can result in punitive
• Refuge.org.uk responses from professionals.
• NSPCC FGM helpline 0800 028 3550 or It is important that social workers supporting
email fgmhelp@nspcc.org.uk children and young people (both of which will
• If someone is worried about being taken be explored later in the guide) are aware of
abroad, they can contact the Foreign and this, so that appropriate challenge can be
Commonwealth Office on +44 (0) 20 7008 made where needed amongst professionals
1500 supporting survivors.
Transational marriage We know that Black children and families face
systematic inequality within social work;
abandonment research shows that White British children are
ten times more likely to be in care than ‘Asian
Transnational marriage abandonment is a Indian’ children, and ‘Black Caribbean’ children
form of domestic abuse. It involves the are 20 times more likely (Bywaters et al,
deliberate removal of vulnerable women from 2018). Once placed, Black and Minority Ethnic
the protections of this country by their (BME) young people are more likely to be
husbands and in-laws who take them back to placed in areas of high deprivation and high
their countries of origin and abandon them crime rates than their white counterparts (ibid).
sometimes with and sometimes without their
children. The Practice constitutes an extreme Social workers are encouraged to refer to the
form of coercive control since it involves a PDSP Resources and Tools Guide on
deliberate strategy on the part of perpetrators Understanding the Lived Experience of Black
to deny women access to protection, redress and Ethnic Minority Children and Families for
and justice in the UK to which they are further insight.
16Health inequalities No recourse to public funds
Further layers of disadvantage include health Please refer to our No Recourse to Public
inequalities. An alarming report found that Funds Statement and Guidance (2020), which
Black women were five times more likely to aims both to explain the complexities of the
die in pregnancy (MBRRACE-UK, 2018). Racial NRPF status, provide our position, and
bias within medicine means that the pain of signpost social workers to practice issues.
Black patients is often dismissed (Hoffman et
al, 2016). Destitution Domestic Violence (DDV)
Concession (Shelter, 2021)
Given the threat posed to the physical safety
of survivors within domestic abuse cases, it is From 1 April 2012, the Home Office can grant
imperative that social workers advocating on a DDV concession to people:
behalf of Black or minoritised survivors are • who entered the UK as the partner (i.e.,
able to challenge such discrimination in the spouse, civil partner, unmarried or same sex
health field. partner) of a British citizen or a person
settled in the UK
Poverty • whose relationship has broken down due to
domestic abuse
The UK poverty rate is twice as high for Black
• who are destitute without access to
and Minority Ethnic groups as for white accommodation or the means to support
groups (Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 2017). themselves, and
• who are going make an application for ILR
When it comes to alleviating poverty, and under the domestic abuse rule.
improving the extent to which survivors can
become financially independent, develop a To qualify, it is essential that the applicant
sense of agency and have the means to entered the UK as the partner of a settled
escape, social workers should be aware of the person in the UK (i.e. British national or person
following means of support (although further with indefinite leave to remain).
legal advice should always be sought):
l Further information can be found on the
Shelter website.
KEY MESSAGES • If victims/survivors are treated as potential
immigration offenders, this heightens their
fear and isolation and destroys trust in
Three key messages from Southall Black frontline services. It may also place them at
Sisters (Charity supporting survivors from risk of re-victimisation if they are forced to
Black, Asian and African-Caribbean return to abusers or to seek shelter and
Communities): assistance elsewhere, placing them at risk of
further harm.
• Our extensive casework has highlighted
1. Treat domestic abuse survivors as some of the most common themes to
victims/survivors foremost irrespective emerge in encounters with children’s social
of immigration status. care, which include:
• Immigration enforcement should have no – Outright refusal to assist women and
place in social care intervention. The main children, and a failure to provide reasons
priority should be the duty to safeguard why.
vulnerable children and families without – Failure to undertake risk assessments.
discrimination. – Unlawfully providing immigration advice.
• Women experience abuse at the – Attempting to mediate with abusers for
intersection of gender-based violence and the purpose of returning women and/or
punitive policies around immigration status, their children to their abusive partners.
which impacts their ability to seek help.
17– Threatening to only accommodate 3. Build relationships
children and not their mothers. With BME specialist services
– Insisting that women and children return – Partnership working with local BME VAWG
to their country of origin irrespective of specialist services specialist organisations
the circumstances and risks involved. is crucial – here, you will find expert
– Forcing women to return to originating knowledge and understanding of the
boroughs where they face risk. specific issues faced by Black and
– Making inappropriate and judgemental minoritised women in your area.
comments and harassing women to – Specialist groups often provide advocacy
pursue options that place them and their support, advice on child protection
children in danger or work against their procedures or immigration matters, as well
interests. as emotional support.
2. Try to learn as much as you can about – Introducing survivors to specialist services
the wider context of the hostile can help to build their support network, at
environment a time when they may be isolated.
• Social workers should have an awareness
of the risks for families with no recourse to With survivors
public funds (NRPF) and the need to – Take the time to address the basic
provide support where children are communication needs of survivors. Ensure
involved. Our experience finds that social that translators are booked ahead of time,
services deter women with NRPF from that the correct variation of a language is
making applications using S17 the Children chosen, and that the interpreter has some
Act 1989 and fail to support them. training around the dynamics of domestic
• Make sure you are aware of the provisions abuse. All too often, interpreters collude
available to NRPF families in your local with perpetrators which perpetuates the
authority, including any discretionary funds unequal power dynamics.
and support that may be available. This – Children or perpetrators must not be used
could include for example, eligibility for as translators under any circumstances.
free child care or free school meals. Also be – Keep in mind that it can be intimidating for
aware of any support for migrant women anyone to be presented with complex,
with NRPF that may be available from written information about child protection
specialist VAWG organisations in your area, procedures and especially so for those for
and from organisations such as Southall whom English isn’t a first language or who
Black Sisters who are specialists in this area. may have low levels of literacy… allocate
• Take the time to reflect on the impact of additional time in your diary to ensure that
the ‘hostile’ or ‘compliant’ immigration women understand every step of an
environment on the children and families intervention. Ensure that they are spoken
you work with, both in terms of day-to-day to alone, without the presence of a
life as well as long-term implications. perpetrator and even family or community
members. Note that in black and
minoritized communities women are
subject to multiple perpetrators of abuse
and family or community members may
be complicit in the abuse.”
183. LGBTQI+
As indicated earlier in this guide, domestic Experiences of abuse differ across and
abuse can be experienced by people between LGBTQI+ subgroups. As such, there
irrespective of their gender and gender are some specific forms of abuse which can
identityand/or sexuality. This is reflected in the be targeted towards trans people such as
growing body of global literature which withholding medication, preventing
explores the nature of domestic abuse as treatment, hiding or destruction of gender
experienced by lesbian, gay, bisexual and signifiers (clothing or hair pieces) that are
trans (LGBTQI+) communities. In terms of UK needed to express gender identity or coercing
prevalence, please refer to the important key someone into not pursuing medical treatment
messages written by Galop later in this guide. or gender transitioning. Identity abuse can
occur when an abuser refuses to use
Whilst heterosexual/straight and LGBTQI+ somebody’s preferred name or the correct
people might experience similar patterns of pronouns (an abusive act of misgendering) or
domestic abuse, there are unique aspects of threatens to out a person by disclosing
LGBTQI+ lived experience of abuse. This someone’s trans history (Rogers, 2020). An
includes: abuser might use derogatory names and/or
‘body shaming’ tactics (being derisory or
• Threats of outing through disclosure of ridiculing a person’s body image) to
sexual orientation and gender identity to manipulate and control (abusive acts of
family, friends or work colleagues (Galop, pathologising (Rogers, 2020). The impact of
2019). these abuses can often serve as distinct
• Threats of outing through disclosure of barriers in seeking help and accessing
sexual orientation and gender identity to services.
officials (for example, social workers for
people with children) (Galop, 2019). When professionals adopt the ‘public story’ of
• Undermining someone’s sense of gender or domestic abuse (University of Durham, 2006),
sexual identity and exploiting a person’s they can fail to recognise LGBTQI+ people as
internalised negative self-beliefs. victims/survivors or they may trivialise or
• Limiting or controlling access to support minimise LGBTQI+ client disclosing abuse
and networks that exist to support someone (Galop, 2019). Similarly, LGBTQI+ survivors
when coming out and coming to terms with may experience feelings of anxiety or
gender and sexual identity. reluctance to disclose same-sex relationships
and explain LGBTQI+ identity within
• Controlling someone by convincing them
mainstream settings (i.e. to social workers)
that no-one would believe the abuse is real:
perhaps due to previous experience of real or
by exploiting heterosexist or
perceived homophobia/ biphobia/transphobia
heteronormative myths based on the ‘public
from service providers (Galop, 2019). The
story’ of domestic abuse in which it is a
barriers in reporting are reflected in service
problem of ‘weaker heterosexual cisgender
data as a report from Safe Lives (2018) stated
woman abused by a physically stronger
that just 2.5% of all victims/survivors accessing
man’ (University of Durham, 2006).
domestic abuse support in England and Wales
• Manipulating survivors into believing that
identify as LGBTQI+.
abuse is a ‘normal’ part of same-sex
relationships or pressuring victims/survivors
Finally, it is important to be mindful that
into submission by minimalising abuse in the
effectively assessing and supporting
name of protecting the image of the
victims/survivors relies on an understanding
LGBTQI+ community.
of the way in which abuse is rooted to
structural inequalities (gender inequality and
19stereotypes, poverty and other forms) but It is important to remember, however, that
LGBTQI+ survivors may also experience abuse when research has been undertaken with
of power and control closely associated with trans or non-binary people, sample sizes have
their LGBTQI+ status. It is important, been small or the subset of trans and non-
therefore, that all social workers obtain and binary people are not separated out and their
keep up-to-date an awareness of the experience of domestic abuse is subsumed
workings and impact of homophobia/ into the broader LGBTQI+ perspective
biphobia/transphobia. (Rogers, 2020).
KEY MESSAGES • Equally, professionals adopting the
dominant narrative may fail to recognise
LGBTQI+ people experience domestic
Three key messages from Galop (charity abuse and may dismiss trivialise or
specialising in LGBT+ domestic abuse, minimise LGBTQI+ client disclosing abuse
sexual violence and hate crime) (Galop, 2019).
• LGBTQI+ survivors may experience
1. Lesbian, gay, bi and trans (LGBTQI+) feelings of anxiety or reluctance to disclose
people experience disproportionately same-sex relationships and explain
high rates of domestic abuse in the UK: LGBTQI+ identity within mainstream
• ONS (2018) found bisexual women are settings. For some, this will arise from
nearly twice as likely to have experienced previous experience of real or perceived
partner abuse in the last 12 months than homophobia/biphobia/transphobia from
heterosexual women (10.9% compared with service providers (Galop, 2019).
6.0%).
• ONS (2016) also estimates that more than
3. LGBTQI+ survivors share similar forms
one in four (27.5%) gay men and lesbian
of domestic abuse as their heterosexual
women and more than one in three (37.3%)
cisgender peers and disclose abuse
bisexual people report at least one form of
from both intimate partners and family
domestic abuse since the age of 16.
members.
• The figure for trans survivors, whose
• In addition to abuse rooted in patriarchy
experiences are significantly under-
and gender stereotypes, LGBTQ+ survivors
researched, is likely to be higher (Galop,
may also experience abuse of power and
2019).
control closely associated with having their
LGBTQI+ status used against them. Most
2. Despite this higher prevalence of abuse, commonly this includes intimidation and
many LGBTQI+ survivors experience threats or actual disclosure of sexual
distinct barriers due to their sexual orientation and gender identity to family,
orientation and/or gender identity in friends, work colleagues, community and
access to services: others without consent (Galop, 2019).
• LGBTQI+ experiences do not easily fit • LGBTQI+ survivors are not a homogenous
within the public story of domestic abuse group. Experiences of abuse differ across
which traditionally views it as problem of and between the subgroups. Abuse
‘weaker heterosexual cisgender woman disclosed by lesbian women may be
abused by a physically stronger man’ different to that of bisexual and trans
(University of Durham, 2006). This women, equally, gay men’s experiences
perception can affect the decision to seek may be different to that of bisexual or trans
help, as LGBTQI+ people may be less likely men (Galop, 2019).
to recognise themselves as a survivor or
abuser.
204. DISABILITY AND LEARNING DISABILITY
One in five members of the population are abuse can often be directly linked to that
disabled (DWP, 2011) and there is evidence person’s impairments including: using an
that people with disabilities experience impairment to belittle and exploit, withholding
disproportionately higher rates of domestic assistance or preventing access to treatment,
abuse (PHE, 2015). The Crime Survey for therapy or everyday living aids (McCarthy et
England and Wales (ONS, 2020) reported that al., 2015). It is also important to note that
14.7% of disabled women experienced abuse is often perpetrated by an intimate
domestic abuse. In addition, women with partner or family member who the disabled
learning disabilities are at a higher risk of more person relies on for care (SafeLives, 2017).
frequent and prolonged domestic abuse than
non-disabled women and disabled men As such, there can be specific risk and
(McCarthy et al., 2015). vulnerability factors for women with
disabilities (PHE, 2015). Women with learning
Despite these rates of prevalence, there is disabilities are more likely to experience
only a modest body of research detailing the domestic abuse as they do not receive
experiences of victims/survivors living with adequate sex education, often lack the
physical and sensory impairments (Thiara et knowledge of what is appropriate within a
al., 2011). In fact, there is evidence to argue relationship leaving them vulnerable to
that women with disabilities are strikingly exploitation and less likely to report abuse
absent from domestic abuse policy and (McCarthy, 2017b). There are other barriers to
practice (McCarthy, 2017a). When making disclosures and accessing appropriate
experienced by disabled people, domestic support for women with disabilities, such as,
21the availability of safe and accessible
accommodation, or a lack of accessible
information in easy-read format for
KEY MESSAGES
women with learning disabilities
(McCarthy et al., 2015). Additionally,
making a disclosure brings risks including Three key messages from Ann Craft Trust (a
the loss of care and support, or the fear of charity which develops bespoke training,
losing their children. carries out practice reviews and contributes
to practice research, to support
Risk assessment tools, such as the organisations to safeguard adults and
Domestic Abuse Risk Assessment young people at risk:
Checklist (DASH RIC) are not always
appropriate for women with disabilities 1. Many young disabled people have not had
especially for woman with learning the right help to recognise abuse and
disabilities as it does not address the harm; they face far higher risks, are less
specific risk or vulnerability factors of the likely to be able to express it or be heard
person being assessed in terms of their and believed. All those working with
impairment, and research suggests that young deaf and young disabled people
professionals lack the knowledge and need to reflect on what work they should
confidence to assess and support people be doing to help young people recognise
with learning disabilities when they are safe and healthy relationships, have a
experience domestic abuse (Olsen et al., network and people they trust, prevent
2017). To counter this lack of knowledge isolation and know where to go for help.
or confidence, social workers should be
alert to the following signs: 2. Not all domestic abuse organisations keep
statistics on who they reach or have links
l Physical injury particularly those linked to disabled young people’s groups and so
to ‘accidents’ and/or hospital these organisations need to start to reach
admissions, or missed appointments out, make links across the sector and start
l Social isolation: do not assume that this to develop how they reach out so that
is linked to disability or limited mobility those who do not know these services
as isolation can be a risk factor or an exist
outcome of an abusive relationship
l An overattentive partner or carer which 2. Make sure you ask, notice and observe;
results in the inability of an interview find out about and think as a team about
without their presence: thus, limiting a how you can develop your skills and
disabled women’s opportunity to confidence to communicate with disabled
disclose or seek help young people, know how to contact
l Lack of confidence or willingness to signers and interpreters and develop a
make decision without consulting their better understanding of the increased
partner/carer. (Woodin, 2020) risks and unmet needs of the disabled
young people out there in your
It is vitally important that social workers community. Recognise that it takes deaf
remain attuned to spotting these signs as and disabled young people longer to find
these can easily be missed and you, that the abuse they have suffered
inaccurately attributed to a woman’s may have gone on for a long time and
impairment. It is especially important as been across many aspects of their lives;
research has shown that it is likely that twice the risks and far fewer services are
social workers do not recognise domestic available. One size does not fit all – we all
abuse unless there is a direct disclosure need to make reasonable adjustments!
made (Thiara et al., 2011).
225. DEAF AWARENESS
The Deaf community remains one of the most In almost all walks of life, deaf and hard of
marginalised groups in the UK, despite making hearing people are faced with additional
up around 9 million of the population. Barriers barriers when it comes to seeking the right
to equality arise early. According to Susan support. Unfortunately, deaf awareness
Daniels, chief executive of NDCS, “deaf training is rarely provided for social workers,
children arrive at school with amazing which means that the specific needs of
potential only to begin a lifetime of being left children and families, including domestic
behind.” abuse survivors, are frequently
misunderstood. Below, our partners at Sign
And obstacles do not disappear once a child Health have provided crucial insight as to how
reaches 18 - 56% of deaf or hard of hearing best to support deaf survivors and their
employees have experienced discrimination children.
during their career, making the Equality Act
2010 appear redundant. With statistics like
these, it is unsurprising that Deaf people are
twice as likely to suffer from depression as
hearing people.
23KEY MESSAGES 2. Seek education
• Try to educate yourself on how best to work
with Deaf families. There are many linguistic
Three key messages from Sign Health (Charity and cultural nuances which means the
Offering Support to Deaf People Experiencing needs of deaf families are different.
Domestic Abuse) • Recognising where an advocate and a Deaf
relay Interpreter may be needed.
1. Identify the specific communication • Ensure that interpreters are provided with at
need, and ensure it is met least some training around domestic abuse
• There are different forms of sign language, so so that they are better equipped to work
please do not make assumptions as to which alongside you.
form is used. The most commonly used sign • Do not try to compare children born into
language in England is British Sign Language deaf culture to those who are not. Deaf
(BSL). children and CODAs (children of deaf adults)
• Recognising language deprivation and experience the world differently – providing
needing communication to adjust them with ‘pen and paper’ direct work may
accordingly. not work, so try to tailor this to their
• Try to book the same interpreter for communication needs.
continuity, and to allow for a positive • The actions of Deaf families can often be
relationship to form which will help the deaf misunderstood. For example, it is normal for
person to communicate openly. deaf adults to ‘tap’ children or pull their face
• Ensure that interpreters are registered with the toward them to gain their attention. Try to
NRCPD and are carrying their registration learn more about how the family typically
badges. interact before making assumptions.
• Book interpreters in advance. Unfortunately, • Understand that deaf people cannot access
many children are asked to translate on behalf emergency services in the same way hearing
of their parent, which is highly inappropriate. people can. Make sure the Deaf person
On other occasions, perpetrators have even knows to register their phone with 999 SMS
been asked to interpret, which affords them service where they will be able to liaise via
more power and control. SMS. An alternative option to this would be
• Provide regular breaks for interpreters – the for the deaf person to 999 and then press 55
process requires a high amount of so the operator knows they are deaf. Ensure
concentration, and the process diminishes that you explain how best to use this system
after around 20 minutes. and how to send a text message rather than
• In meetings with multiple professionals, book assuming this is already known.
more than one interpreter to allow for these
breaks. This will also mean that when one 3. Be aware that the dynamics of a deaf-
person is not interpreting, the other can feed hearing relationship can be complex
into something the other may have missed. • Do not assume that a Deaf person cannot
• Make sure the Deaf person is given a voice, accomplish tasks without support. Often,
and an advocate who understands any hearing perpetrators undertake medical or
procedure that is taking place. administrative tasks on behalf of their
• All written information should be translated. partner, which takes away their autonomy
English is not the first language of a deaf and diminishes power.
person, meaning that information can • Often patterns occur where the hearing
sometimes be lost through written reports. partner will try to reduce the confidence of a
BSL, for example, has a different structure to deaf partner by ridiculing their signing or
English. criticising their skills.
• A lack of reading/writing skills is often seen • Exclusion is a common tactic – hearing
negatively, even though the Deaf person is perpetrators have been known to insist that
living in a world designed for hearing people. they care for children or reduce the extent
Adopting an understanding and supportive to which children communicate in sign
approach here is crucial. language to the hearing parent.
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