Experimental Trial Demonstrates Positive Effects of Equine Facilitated Learning on Child Social Competence
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Human-Animal Interaction Bulletin 2013, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1-19 Experimental Trial Demonstrates Positive Effects of Equine Facilitated Learning on Child Social Competence Patricia Pendry and Stephanie Roeter Washington State University, Pullman, Washington Although equine facilitated programs have gained in popularity over the last decade, virtually nothing is known about the causal effects of equine facilitated interventions on human development and wellbeing. To address this gap in the literature, researchers conducted a randomized controlled trial to determine if an 11-week equine facilitated learning program enhanced 5th-8th grade children’s social competence. Children were recruited for program participation through referral by school counselors and recruitment in schools and community agencies. Researchers then randomly assigned 64 physically and mentally able children to an experimental group or waitlisted control group. Children in the experimental group participated in an 11-week equine facilitated learning program designed to increase social competence through a series of once-weekly, 90-minute sessions of individual, team, and group-focused equine facilitated activities, whereas children in the control group did not until 16 weeks later. Parents of children in both groups provided ratings of child social competence at the beginning and again at the end of the 11-week program. Results indicated significant group differences in mean levels of child social competence at posttest (p = .020), suggesting a moderate positive effect of program participation (d = .61). Waitlisted children in the control group who completed the program at a later date demonstrated significantly higher posttest levels of social competence after program completion (p = .000), compared to their own pretest scores. Using a lagged dependent variable approach, program effects were robust (p = .026) when simultaneously considering children’s pretest levels of social competence, age, gender, and referral status. Keywords: child development, equine facilitated intervention, experimental trial, HAI, social competence Patricia Pendry, Department of Human Development, Washington State University; Stephanie Roeter, Department of Human Development, Washington State University. The project described was supported by Grant Number 1R03HD066590-01, awarded to the first author, Dr. Patricia Pendry, from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health & Human Development and Mars-Waltham. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health & Human Development, the National Institutes of Health, or Mars-Waltham. We acknowledge Sue Jacobson, program coordinator of People-Pet Partnership at the College of Veterinary Medicine and Dr. Phyllis Erdman, Associate Dean of the College of Education at Washington State University, who together designed the PATH to Success program. We also acknowledge Dan Bayly and Dr. Leanne Parker for providing counseling expertise and facilitation supervision, and PATH to Success Study volunteers, research assistants, participants, their parents and teachers. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Patricia Pendry, 525 Johnson Tower, Department of Human Development, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, 99164. E-mail: ppendry@wsu.edu. 1|HAIB
EFFECTS OF EQUINE FACILIATED LEARNING Although there is growing evidence that 2004), speech and language ability (Macauley & promotion of behavioral and social-emotional Gutierrez, 2004), as well as more global competence in children and youth is an effective measures of functioning and adjustment strategy to prevent mental, emotional, and (Schultz, Remick-Barlow & Robbins, 2007). behavioral disorders in adulthood (O’Connell, Also, compared to more traditional classroom- Boat & Warner, 2009), identifying and based counseling activities, equine assisted expanding evidence-based prevention programs interventions were more strongly associated with that promote these competencies in children and lower levels of internalizing and externalizing youth constitutes a significant challenge behavioral problem (Trotter, Chandler, (Greenberg, Domitrovich & Bumbarger, 2000; Goodwin-Bond, & Casey, 2008). Other Huang et al., 2005). One type of approach that researchers, in a study on therapeutic riding has caught the attention of researchers and targeting boys with emotional disturbances in a mental health professionals is equine facilitated residential treatment program, found no learning, which combines the experience of improvement was seen in depression or anxiety equine human interaction with counseling-based (Greenwald, 2001). While current evidence processing skills to increase participants’ regarding the efficacy of equine assisted awareness and control of their emotions, approaches is promising indeed, more causal cognitions, and behaviors. Although equine evidence is needed to demonstrate the effects of facilitated programs have gained popularity equine facilities programs. over the last decade, virtually nothing is known about their causal effects on human Causal Pathways development. To help alleviate this gap in the Although there is not one specific human literature, researchers conducted a randomized animal interaction theory that postulates how controlled trial to determine the effects of an 11- equine facilitated learning programs may affect week equine facilitated learning program on the child development, Bandura’s social cognitive social competence of 5th-8th grade children. theory (1986) provides a nice framework Although research on the broader field of (Kruger & Serpell, 2010; Serpell, 2000). equine assisted interventions is in its infancy, a According to this perspective, children learn by small body of pioneering work has shown observing others, with the environment, promising results. Findings suggest significant behavior, and cognition all as important factors associations between involvement in equine in influencing development. These three factors assisted intervention and adjustment in various are not static or independent; rather, they are all socio-emotional, cognitive, and behavioral reciprocal. For example, each behavior domains, including depression (Bowers & witnessed can change a person's way of thinking MacDonald, 2001), positive behavior (Chandler, (cognition). Similarly, the environment one is 2005), behavioral and mood disorders (Mann & raised in may influence later behavior. Williams, 2002), self-esteem (Brown & This theory has implications for equine Alexander, 1991; Gatty, 2001; Katcher & facilitated learning because equines possess Wilkins, 1994), feelings of social acceptance several intrinsic and physical attributes that and peer popularity (MacDonald & Cappo, strongly influence the cognitions and 2003), interpersonal communication environments of those interacting with them (MacDonald, 2004), sensitivity towards others (McGreevy & McLean, 2010). For example, (Vidrine, Owen-Smith & Faulkner, 2002), anger horses and mules are prey animals, characterized (Kaiser, Spence, Lavergne & Vanden Bosch, by a highly attuned awareness of their physical 2|HAIB
EFFECTS OF EQUINE FACILIATED LEARNING surroundings and a strong, instinctual inclination This relates nicely to equine facilitated activities, for a fight-or-flight response. This characteristic as participants are encouraged to take on a necessitates that program participants become leadership role to facilitate positive interactions more self-aware of their behavior, thoughts, with equines, which rely heavily on the equine’s emotional intent, and verbal and non-verbal instinctual expectations about the natural communication to ensure their personal safety, hierarchy of herd dynamics, leading them to and to enhance their ability to communicate with oscillate between seeking and/ or assuming the equine. By interacting with equines in the leadership, or accepting it from others context of horsemanship activities, children (Budiansky, 1997). learn to provide and recognize non-verbal During in-hand horsemanship activities, communication cues to their equine partner (e.g., children are encouraged to engage in behaviors pressure, release, posture, intent, physiological that assert leadership to the equine by moving arousal), which may provide frequent the horse’s body in a purposeful way through the opportunity to reflect on the meaning of their use of progressive shaping techniques, or own behavior and intent. Since equines provide “…gradually increasing a behavior/pressure to immediate, meaningful feedback - pinning ears, elicit a specific behavior from the equine” swishing tail, licking lips, blinking - children (McGreevy & McLean, 2007, p. 114), and simultaneously gain experience in observing and negative reinforcement to reward compliant interpreting non-verbal cues. As children – with responses from the horse. During these the help from program facilitators - attempt to interactions children are frequently reminded by manage and direct their own behavior to evoke program facilitators who self-management, desirable responses from the horse (e.g., licking fostering a give-and-take relationship, quick lips, blinking, resting foot), rather than less decision making, and optimistic thinking are desirable responses (e.g., swishing tail, pinning important skills that facilitate successful ears, tuning out), reciprocal interactions between communication and thus completion of each the child’s behavior and cognitions take on an task. Through these interactions with the horse, important role. Using human equine interactions children thus learn to provide and interpret clear, as an analogy, program facilitators encourage non-verbal cues. In sum, equine characteristics children to reflect on their behavior, thoughts, may have a significant influence on the nature of feelings and communication skills and apply interactions between participants and horses in these to communication and collaboration with a ways that promote children’s social and human partner. Practicing of pro-social behavioral competencies through the practice of behaviors, reflecting on thoughts and feelings, pro-social behavior, as well as reflection on and feedback – from the equine and facilitator - participants’ cognitions, behaviors, emotion and may thus improve self and social awareness, intent. personal responsibility, goal-directed behavior, and communication skills. Description of Current Study and Hypotheses Social role-activity theory (Brickel, 1982) The overall objective of the current study also provides a useful perspective to explain was to conduct a randomized controlled trial to effects of horse-human interactions on child determine the efficacy of an 11 week, equine development. Role theory proposes that when an facilitated learning program in improving the individual assumes a new positive role (e.g. social competence of 5th-8th grade children. team leader), positive behavioral change may Social competence is the ability of the child to result (Lemon, Bengston & Peterson, 1972). successfully interact with other children and 3|HAIB
EFFECTS OF EQUINE FACILIATED LEARNING adults in a way that demonstrates an awareness competence are also more likely to experience of and ability to manage emotions in an age- and difficulty regulating negative emotion and contextually appropriate manner. Social arousal, which can interfere with initiating and competence is comprised of social, emotional, maintaining positive peer interactions, leading to and cognitive skills and behaviors that enhance peer rejection (Dodge & Somberg, 1987). social adaptation such as social awareness, self- Relationship problems with peers and adults, awareness, goal-directed behavior, relationship difficulty with emotion regulation, attention, skills, personal responsibility, and control of behavior, and challenges with learning and behavior. The main research question was: Does achievement contribute to the development of participation in an 11-week equine facilitated mental health issues and poor child wellbeing. learning program increase children’s social As such, enhancing child social competencies competence and/or components thereof? that support the development of self-regulation, The following hypotheses guided our academic skills, and peer social skills is analyses. The first hypothesis stated that considered a suitable target for preventive children randomly assigned to participate in an intervention programs (Greenberg, Domitrovich, 11-week equine facilitated learning program & Bumbarger, 2000). would have higher levels of social competence at posttest, compared to children assigned to a Method waitlisted condition. The second hypothesis stated that children in the waitlisted group would The Program demonstrate significant within-person gains in The program under study was PATH to social competence after program participation Success1 conducted at a Premier Accredited (i.e., after the experimental group completed the Center of the Professional Association of program). The third hypothesis stated that the Therapeutic Horsemanship, International2 positive effects of program participation on (PATH, Intl.) in a university setting. The stated posttest levels of child social competence would goal of the program under study is to enhance be independent of children’s pretest levels of child social competence through an 11-week social competence, gender, age, and referral session of once-weekly, 90-minute lessons of status. individual, team, and group-focused equine Social competence was the main outcome of facilitated activities. The program was designed, interest to program designers and researchers, implemented, and consistently supervised by a because it is considered a central domain of PATH, Intl. certified instructor in equine child development that plays a critical role in assisted mental health, and a doctoral level later academic achievement, mental health, and therapist. The curriculum contained standardized overall wellbeing (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). lessons with weekly goals and step-by-step Lower social competence is positively instructions and procedures for each activity, associated with the development of anti-social which were piloted for 3 years before this study behavior (Sørlie, Hagen, & Ogden, 2008), on its effects was conducted. The program was conduct problems and depression (Rockhill, implemented by a team of volunteer horse Vander Stoep, McCauley, & Katon, 2009), 1 substance use (Griffin, Epstein, Botvin, & PATH to Success was designed by Sue Jacobson, coordinator of People-Pet Partnership at the College of Veterinary Medicine and Spoth, 2001) and lower academic competence Dr. Phyllis Erdman, Associate Dean of the College of Education, and performance (Wentzel, 1991; Sørlie & both at Washington State University. 2 The professional association was known as the North American Nordhal, 1998). Children with lower social Riding for the Handicapped Association (NARHA) until its renaming in the Spring of 2011. 4|HAIB
EFFECTS OF EQUINE FACILIATED LEARNING specialists and facilitators, that included PATH principles of equitation science and natural certified instructors, undergraduate students in horsemanship (McGreevy, 2007; McGreevy & child-development, education, and animal McLean, 2007; 2010) - featured a combination science, professional counseling psychologists, of mounted and un-mounted activities and and graduate-level counseling students. Program horse-human interactions, including observation staff received extensive training through printed of equine behavior, engagement in equine lessons, a handbook, hands-on program training management (e.g., grooming), in-hand with horses and child actors, as well as training horsemanship activities, some riding, and in theoretical rationale of the program, principles personal and group reflection activities. A of cognitive behavioral counseling, and child description of weekly program objectives and a development through video and slide selection of sample activities are described in presentations. Weekly activities - based on Table 1. Table 1 Outline of Lesson Objectives by Week Week Lesson Objective Sample Activity 1 Basic safety: Meet horses and staff Observing horse behavior and herd dynamics 2 Respect: Self, others and horses Moving horses using 4 phases of direct or indirect pressure3 3 Communication: Verbal and non-verbal Leading horses, interpreting horse body language 4 Leadership: Assertive and aggressive cues Driving4 activity using body language and phases 5 Trust: Coping with perceptions of stress Riding and leading 6 Boundaries Driving activity using indirect pressure 7 Overcoming challenges and building confidence Desensitizing5 horses 8 Enhancing self-regulation and relaxation Horse massage6, riding 9 Prepare for parents/visitors day Incorporating horsemanship skills for team challenge 10 Parents/visitors day Participants ‘teach’ parents horsemanship skills 11 Program wrap up Obstacle course, riding and reflection 3 Pressure refers to a directly physical or implied signal to the horse with fingers/hand, or leg until the desired behavior or the equine is fulfilled (e.g., moving away from the pressure). 4 Driving refers to signaling the horse to move forward by pointing toward the desired space, and applying pressure behind the equine’s shoulder to ‘drive’ them forward of the equestrian. 5 Desensitizing refers to exercises to condition the equine to ignore a stimulus or object, thus avoiding ‘spooking.’ 6 Horse Massage refers to an exercise taught to participants in which they stroke the horse with slow, rhythmic strokes down the equines’ body to ‘relax’ the equine before riding. 5|HAIB
EFFECTS OF EQUINE FACILIATED LEARNING Children in the experimental group were counselors7, distribution of flyers and assigned to the same facilitation team for the advertisements, and information meetings in entire 11-week session that included one equine, schools and the community. Criteria for program two child participants, an equine specialist, and participation were that 1) parents and children facilitator. Each day, a total of eight child had to be able to communicate effectively in participants - divided across four equine teams English, 2) the child did not have a serious headed by four experienced equines – physical or mental disability and 3) the child had participated. The program was conducted four to attend the 5th through – 8th grade. Recruitment times a week, serving 32 children each week per for the study occurred at the informational 11-week session. The weekly lessons were meetings, during which parents and children conducted in the afternoons on weekdays and received information from the research team included transportation of participants from about the study, its screening, assessment, and school to the program site and back immediately assignment procedures as well as information following their regular school day. Children who about the process of consent and assent8. were waitlisted participated after children in the Interested parents were asked to complete a experimental group completed the program. standardized measure of child social competence for screening and sample selection purposes, for Procedures which they were paid five dollars (see measures The study was approved by the University section for description of social competence Committee on Research Involving Human measure). Children in each grade were Subjects at Washington State University. Equine subsequently rank-ordered by their social welfare of horses in the program was carefully competence score with the aim of recruiting monitored under the university’s Institutional approximately equal numbers of boys and girls Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) per grade, as well as selecting children with regulations and campus veterinarian. In addition, relatively lower social competence scores. equines were evaluated daily by a PATH, Intl. Participation in the study was voluntary and certified instructor for physical, mental, and children could attend the program without emotional well-being before, during and after enrolling in the study. each session. Although equine participation in Selected study participants were randomly the program never elicited such behavior, assigned to a treatment group or wait-listed program policy required that equines would be control group. Children assigned to the immediately released from program experimental group started program participation if they were to display stress participation 2 weeks later, whereas children behavior to ensure their wellbeing. In addition, assigned to the waitlisted control group were any inappropriate or potentially harmful behavior of humans interacting with equines 7 Children referred by school counselors were children who were receiving school counseling services for academic and/or required immediate intervention to prevent behavioral adjustment issues, or those whose parents had consulted undue distress by the equine. with school counseling staff about the presence of stress in the home. Program participants were recruited by 8 Using a slide presentation, parents were given information about program staff through referral by school the consent and assent process, along with hard copies of both forms, and a typed script of the assent procedures, which described study procedures and children’s rights using developmentally appropriate language (i.e., children 11 and younger, children 12 and older). The Principal Investigator (PI) assented all child participants in person. 6|HAIB
EFFECTS OF EQUINE FACILIATED LEARNING offered program participation in the following schools in a rural university town in the Pacific session – 16 weeks later. Parents of both groups Northwest area of the United States. Sixty-four provided ratings of child social competence children were selected (N boys = 37; N girls = 27; again at the posttest (i.e., at the end of the 11- M age = 10.93 yrs) for study participation and week program). Parents of waitlisted children random assignment to an experimental group (N were asked to report on their child’s social = 33) or waitlisted control condition (N = 31). competence a third time, after their child There were no significant differences between completed their 11-week session. participants’ age (p = .988), gender (p = .143), referral status (p = .300), grade level (p = .874), Sample Recruitment, Screening and Assignment or pretest social competence (p =.599) by group In the first year of this two-year study, status (e.g., between experimental or waitlisted). program staff recruited a total of 78 interested Sample characteristics are reported in Table 2. children and their families from 10 different Table 2 Sample Descriptive and T-Tests Comparing Group Differences ______________________________________________________________________________ Assigned (N = 64) Treated (N = 54) M (SD) M (SD) ______________________________________________________________________________ Social Competence Age 10.95 (1.06) 10.93 (1.08) Male 26 25 Female 38 29 Referred 10 8 Grade 5th 30 26 6th 21 18 7th 5 3 th 8 8 7 ______________________________________________________________________________ Sample enrollment, selection, randomization, follow up and analyses counts are described in a failure to complete the posttest assessment. Of flow diagram (Figure 1). A total of 54 all children originally assigned to the waitlist participants completed data collection at pretest control condition, a total of 20 eventually and posttest. Attrition in the experimental group participated in the active program, which was was due to two active withdrawals immediately conducted 4 weeks after children in the following assignment, one participant moving experimental group completed the program. out of the area after 6 weeks of program There were no significant group differences participation, and one active withdrawal in week (comparing waitlisted or experimental group) by four due to allergy issues. Attrition in the control age (p = .637), referral status (p = .581), grade group occurred due to active withdrawal by level (p = .639), social competence (p = .548), or three participants following random assignment, gender (p = .089) between participants who and three passive withdrawals as evidenced by completed the study and those who withdrew. 7|HAIB
EFFECTS OF EQUINE FACILIATED LEARNING Figure 1 Flow Diagram describing sample enrollment, selection, randomization, follow up and analyses Assessed for eligibility (N = 78) Excluded (N = 14) Not meeting selection criteria (N= 14) Randomized (N = 64) Allocated to Experimental Condition (N = Allocated to Control Condition (N = 33) 31) Received allocated intervention (N = 31) Received allocated intervention (N=28) Lost to follow-up Lost to follow-up Moved away from area (N = 1) Failure to complete post-test Allergy issues (N = 1) assignment (N=3) Analyzed Analyzed Included based on original data (N = 29) Included based on original data (N = Included based on pooled data in intent-to- 25) treat analyses (N = 33) Included based on pooled data in intent-to-treat analyses (N = 31) 8|HAIB
EFFECTS OF EQUINE FACILIATED LEARNING Measures T-scores were used as dependent variables As part of the screening and pre-test to analyze group differences and estimate measurement process, parents were asked to regression models. T-scores were also used to complete the parent report form of the Devereux categorize children into 3 groups ranging from Student Strength Assessment (DESSA), a low to high (0-40 = needs instruction, 41-59 = measure of child social competence (LeBuffe, typical, and 60-72 = strength) to enable Shapiro & Naglieri, 2009). The DESSA is a interpretation of causal changes for intervention behavior rating scale that assesses the social- and prevention purposes. The DESSA has emotional competencies that serve as protective excellent internal reliability and shows factors for children in kindergarten through significant, moderate-to-high correlations with eighth grade. In keeping with the prevention widely used measures with good psychometric perspective of the program designers, an properties (LeBuffe, Shapiro & Naglieri, 2009), assessment tool was chosen that was strength- including the BERS–2 (Epstein, 2004) and the based and did not assess risk factors or Behavior Assessment System for Children–2 maladaptive behaviors. The measure contains (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2004). Completion of 72-items asking respondents to indicate how the DESSA by parents occurred at the beginning often various child behaviors occurred based on (α1 = .98) and end (α2 = .98), of the first 11- a 5 point Likert scale ranging from 0 (never), 1 week program, and parents of waitlisted children (rarely), 2 (occasionally), 3 (frequently), to 4 reported once more (posttest2) more at the end (very frequently) over the past 4 weeks. The of the second 11-week program (α3 = .98). DESSA features a social competence composite score derived from 8 subscales. Examples of Results items and subscales include Optimistic Thinking (α = .87; e.g., How often did the child say good Descriptive analyses things about the future?), Self-Management (α = Descriptive analyses on observed data .86; e.g., How often did the child focus on a task revealed that overall pretest social competence despite a problem or distraction?), Goal- levels of children in the study group were in the Directed Behavior (α = .89; e.g., How often did normal range (M = 41.41; SD = 10.16). The the child keep trying when unsuccessful?), Self- distribution in the sample suggests that the goal Awareness (α = .82; e.g., How often did the of recruiting children with relatively lower child show an awareness of his/her personal levels of social competence was met, as strengths?), Social-Awareness (α = .81; e.g., approximately half of the study sample was How often did the child respect another person’s classified as needing instruction in social opinion?), Personal Responsibility (α = .87; e.g., competence (N needs instruction = 30, N typical = 31, N How often did the child prepare for school, strengths = 3). A series of one-way ANOVAs activities, or upcoming events?), Decision revealed no statistically significant differences in Making (α = .91; e.g., How often did the child pretest levels of child social competence accept responsibility for what she/he did?), and between children in the control and experimental Relationship Skills (α = .93; e.g., How often did group composites scores (M control = 40.71 (9.55), the child greet a person in polite way?). Min = 28, Max = 69; M experimental = 42.06 DESSA (LeBuffe, Shapiro & Naglieri, 2009) (10.81), Min = 28, Max = 72) or any subscale raw scores were converted to T-scores using the scores (Table 3). Also, there was no evidence to DESSA coding procedure. suggest that the distribution of social competence classification groups (i.e., needing 9|HAIB
EFFECTS OF EQUINE FACILIATED LEARNING instruction, typical or strength) was different (p subjects variable is the posttest, and the = .649) between the control (N needs instruction = 13, between-subjects variable constitutes the N typical = 7, N strengths = 1) and experimental condition (control versus experimental group). group control (N needs instruction = 17, N typical = 14, Results support the first hypothesis (Table 3) by N strengths = 2). There were significant differences demonstrating a significant treatment effect of in pretest child social competence by gender program participation as illustrated by showing higher social competence scores for significant group differences between girls (p = .010; M boys = 37.63 (9.03); M girls = experimental and control groups’ social 44.16 (10.16)) and referral status (p = .009; M competence composite scores (p = .020). Based referred = 34.45 (6.85); M unreferred = 43.08 (10.14)), on calculations using pooled variances, this although boys and girls were equally likely to be represents an effect size of d = .61, which is a referred (p = .851). moderate effect (Cohen, 1988). Researchers To determine whether participation in the explored which aspects of social competence program significantly affected child social appeared most significantly improved by competence we conducted a series of intent-to- conducting a series of ANOVAs comparing T- treat analyses. This is a strategy for the analysis scores on all subscales by treatment group. of randomized controlled trials that prevents Using Tukey’s method to correct for multiple overestimation of treatment effects by comparisons, results revealed that self- comparing participants in the groups to which awareness (p = .000) and self-management (p = they were originally randomly assigned, .001) had most significantly - and positively - regardless of whether they subsequently responded to the program participation (Table withdrew or deviated from the protocol (Fisher 3). et al., 1990). To accommodate this approach, missing data on posttest assessments on social Hypothesis 2 competence (i.e., subscale and composite T- Next, we tested the second hypothesis which scores of child social competence measures at stated that program participation by waitlisted posttest) for 10 participants were thus imputed control group children will increase their levels using five imputations according to multiple of social competence. Using t-tests, we imputation procedures (Rubin, 1987; Rubin, compared social competence scores of waitlisted 1996). Doing so retains the full sample for children obtained after they completed the 11- calculating intention-to-treat estimates and, week session to their own pretest scores under appropriate assumptions, should yield obtained during program screening. We found unbiased estimates of the intention to treat. The that waitlisted children in the control group who posttest results described in the next section thus completed the program at a later date reflect pooled estimates across five imputed demonstrated significantly higher posttest levels datasets that were generated. of social competence (M = 43.71; SD = 11.07) after program completion compared to their own Hypothesis 1 pretest scores (p = .000). To test the first hypothesis - participation in the program will improve child social Hypothesis 3 competence - researchers conducted a one-way Testing the third hypothesis- positive effects ANOVA comparing child T-scores on social of program participation on posttest levels of competence measured at posttest between child social competence are independent of experimental and control group. The within- 10 | H A I B
EFFECTS OF EQUINE FACILIATED LEARNING Table 3 Experimental Effects of Equine Facilitated Learning Program on Child Social Competence __________________________________________________________________________________ Pretest Control Experimental ANOVA M T-scores (SD) M T-scores (SD) p-value __________________________________________________________________________________ Social Competence COMP 40.71 (9.55) 42.06 (10.81) .599 Personal Responsibility 42.31 (8.90) 48.52 (9.12) .441 Optimistic Thinking 43.54 (11.07) 47.72 (11.23) .957 Goal Directed Behavior 37.85 (8.77) 43.64 (8.60) .572 Social Awareness 43.88 (11.40) 48.00 (10.13) .873 Decision Making 42.85 (10.99) 50.00 (10.60) .864 Relationship Skills 43.92 (11.00) 49.25 (10.27) .830 Self Awareness 41.92 (10.40) 50.65 (9.07) .823 Self Management 41.65 (11.75) 51.07 (9.10) .168 _________________________________________________________________________________ Posttest Control Experimental ANOVA T-Scores T-Scores p-values _________________________________________________________________________________ Social Competence COMP 41.45 (10.71) 47.85 (10.41) .020* Personal Responsibility 42.72 (8.60) 48.34 (8.87) .009** Optimistic Thinking 43.59 (10.50) 47.14 (11.30) .317 Goal-Directed Behavior 37.89 (8.38) 43.39 (8.15) .005** Social Awareness 44.28 (11.70) 48.30 (10.31) .227 Decision Making 43.93 (10.70) 49.38 (10.01) .039* Relationship Skills 43.84 (10.39) 48.99 (9.90) .041* Self Awareness 42.13 (11.04) 50.98 (8.87) .001** Self Management 42.33 (11.56) 51.35 (8.84) .000*** __________________________________________________________________________________ Note.*p< .05. **p
EFFECTS OF EQUINE FACILIATED LEARNING Table 4 Lagged Dependent Variable Model Predicting Posttest Social Competence _______________________________________________________________________________________ Variable Unstandardized B SE Beta p-value _______________________________________________________________________________________ Model 1 (Original Data) Constant 25.39 12.85 .054 Whether Experimental 4.84 .220 2.015 .021* Social Competence Time 1 .686 .108 .666 .000*** Child Gender -.111 2.15 -.041 .673 Child Age -1.00 .959 -1.00 .301 Whether Referred -2.22 3.00 -.073 .463 _______________________________________________________________________________________ Model 2 (Imputed Data/Pooled Estimates) Constant 27.594 12.55 .030 Whether Experimental 4.97 2.15 2.31 .026* Social Competence Time 1 .662 .103 6.43 .000*** Child Gender -1.38 2.07 -.666 .507 Child Age -1.08 .933 -1.16 .249 Whether Referred -2.36 2.63 -.898 .370 ________________________________________________________________________________________ Note.*p< .05. **p
EFFECTS OF EQUINE FACILIATED LEARNING Discussion equine facilitated learning may thus have produced multiple benefits that pertain to The current study employed a randomized youths’ personal, social, and academic lives. controlled experimental trial to examine the Second, these results represent a novel causal effects of participation in an 11-week contribution to the literature on equine assisted equine facilitated learning program on child intervention, as there is no prior work that has social competence of 5th-8th grade children. This employed an experimental design to examine study responds to a call in the literature of causal effects of equine facilitated learning human animal interaction to move the field of programs on child social competence. Third, animal assisted intervention out of its ‘fringe’ results echo findings from prior correlational, status and establishing credibility by means of anecdotal, and case study evidence, which carefully controlled trials and valid efficacy suggest significant positive associations between studies (Kruger & Serpell, 2010). Results participation in equine facilitated programs and indicated support for our first hypothesis various aspects of adjustment and wellbeing suggesting a moderate, positive effect (d = .61; p (Bowers & MacDonald, 2001; Brown & = .020) on the social competence of 5th-8th grade Alexander, 1991; Chandler, 2005; Gatty, 2001; children in response to program participation. Kaiser et al., 2004; Katcher & Wilkins, 1994; Positive effects were observed on various Klontz, Bivens & Klontz, 2007; Macauley & aspects of social competence, including Gutierrez, 2004: MacDonald, 2004; MacDonald improvements in children’s self-awareness, self- & Cappo, 2003; Mann & Williams, 2002; management, personal responsibility, decision Schultz, Remick-Barlow, & Robbins, 2007; making, goal directed behavior, and relationship Trotter, 2005; Trotter et al., 2008; Vidrine, skills. In addition, children who were originally Owen-Smith, & Faulkner, 2002). Fourth, the in the waitlisted control group showed similar results give greater credence to the claim of gains in social competence after they completed therapeutic horsemanship professionals, the program, suggesting support for the second participants, and parents who have reported and hypothesis, which predicted significant within- experienced significant positive effects of equine subject improvements for waitlisted children. facilitated activities firsthand. Faced with Support for the third hypothesis demonstrated skepticism about the efficacy of equine that treatment effects were independent of facilitated programs by potential funders and children’s pretest social competence levels, third party payers, therapeutic professionals and referral status, gender, and age. clients can now point to causal evidence. This The results are important for the following may not only increase the public’s confidence in reasons. First, the fact that participation in an equine programs’ ability to positively affect equine facilitated program conducted as an after- child development, but also translate into school program effectively enhanced children’s increased structural support to increase social competence is exciting, since research accessibility to such programs. Equine indicates that promotion of personal and social facilitated learning programs may serve as skills in after-school settings are also known to viable alternatives to after-school programs improve youths’ feelings of self-confidence and focusing on athletic or academic achievement, to self-esteem, school bonding (positive feelings provide after - school opportunities to children and attitudes toward school), positive social with different interests and needs. Last, the behaviors, school grades, and achievement test results directly inform research questions for scores (Durlak & Weissberg, 2007). As such, future research, particularly research focused on 13 | H A I B
EFFECTS OF EQUINE FACILIATED LEARNING understanding of the mechanisms that may internal distress. In addition to affecting peer underlie these positive effects. relations, these tendencies lead children to be more susceptible to developing some form of Interpretation of Results psychopathology. Thus, social cognitions, Although this study did not examine the especially regarding self-efficacy, personal pathways referred to in the introduction, we agency, self-control, and cognitive distortion, as discuss several processes we think are important well as tools to help children regulate their to consider in obtaining positive program physiological arousal and emotions, may have effects. First, while we believe that equines enhanced social competence through stress possess key characteristics (e.g., prey animal, reduction. Examples of program activities that herd animal) that influence the behavior of targeted stress reduction included silent humans interacting with them, we do not believe grooming, rhythmic stroking of the horse, that equines’ innate characteristics alone encouraging slow breathing, muscle relaxation fostered gains in social competence. Program and rhythmicity during mounted activity, as well facilitators helped children recognize analogies as encouraging optimistic thinking, reflecting on between horse - human interactions to those emotions experienced during the lesson, and between humans in various social contexts (e.g., utilizing cognitive, behavioral, and physiological school, family). For example, during one of the coping strategies towards adaptive self- horse activities, children were taught to use management. gradually increasing amount of finger pressure Third, apart from equine facilitation, on the horse - hair, skin, muscle, bone - as a way children may have benefitted from experiencing of ‘asking’ the horse to move its front or hind an optimal social niche that enabled them to quarters. When the child started the activity improve on social skills important to success in using ‘muscle’ instead of ‘hair’, facilitators other, more complex social settings. For asked the child to reflect on whether he or she example, large, unstructured peer group settings would use the analogous behavior - shove or (e.g., recess) can be particularly difficult push - to ‘ask’ another person to move out of situations for children with poorer social the way, or if he or she may have used a competencies, who may have difficulty initiating different communication tool to express the and maintaining normative peer interactions. request. By engaging children in practice and The smaller, more structured peer interaction reflection within the context of a horsemanship setting may have provided an appropriate and activity, children may have been more open to positive learning environment as equine team reflect on their behavior during interactions with members (horse specialists and facilitators) non-equine partners. provided support to guide positive peer Second, embedded in lessons targeting interactions, friendship development, and children’s goal-directed behavior and social modeling of social competence. In addition, skills were several activities designed to reduce given that the sample was not exclusively ‘stress.’ The rationale for including such targeting referred children, program participants activities was that children who experience experienced normative peers as pro-social stress - through exposure to stressful life events models. Participation in the program may have or by perceiving common events as stressful - provided less competent children with tend to have distorted perceptions of the degree opportunities to interact with more competent of threat present in social situations. They also social partners, leading to positive social lack effective coping skills to manage their interactions with peers. These serve as models 14 | H A I B
EFFECTS OF EQUINE FACILIATED LEARNING for subsequent interactions outside the context been less willing to interact with horses, or of the intervention. This small, structured format whose parents were less supportive of their may have also counteracted the alienation child’s program participation. While we experienced by children who are receiving informally observed individual differences in the special education services or targeted extent to which children - and parents - interventions that may make them vulnerable to expressed enthusiasm about the efficacy of labeling and the influence of less competent equine assisted activities, we did not measure or peers. In sum, we suggest that engaging in model these differences. Hence, this limitation equine facilitated activities enhance social needs to be considered when determining competence when conducted in an appropriate whether equine facilitated growth and learning learning environment that provides optimal programs can be used as universal prevention opportunities for promoting self-efficacy, programs. Similarly, because of the relatively performance accomplishment, and personal short-term nature of the intervention and lack of agency (Kruger & Serpell, 2010). longitudinal data at this time, researchers could not ascertain whether the program was of Strengths and Limitations sufficient duration or intensity to potentially There are several strengths and limitations to alter developmental pathways of children at consider when interpreting results of this study. significant risk for developing mental health The main limitation of the study is that the problems. Last, equine-facilitated activities results are based on parents’ perception of child involve a great deal of human-human social competence. While parents tend to be interaction, which the participants in the control appropriate reporters of children’s social group did not receive. The design of the study competencies as they intimately know the child, would have benefitted from an additional control they are, by definition, not blind to their child’s group to compare effects on social competence treatment status. As such, it is possible that the from the equine facilitated activities to the results reflect parents’ positive expectations effects on social competence from interventions about the efficacy of the program. This that do not involve interactions with equines. limitation would have been of less concern if One of the main strengths of this study and teacher reports on child social competence had its findings is that the results are based on an been included, assuming that researchers would experimental design, which allows researchers have been more successful in keeping the child’s to make causal inferences. This constitutes a treatment status blind to teachers. Teacher novel contribution to research on human-animal reports were not collected as several teachers interaction and child development generally, and expressed concern about the fact that measures equine facilitated interventions specifically. were collected at the beginning of the school Second, results yielded a moderate effect size year, when teachers had not yet interacted much that was statistically significant despite the small with the children. sample size and being based on a calculation Second, although participation in the method using pooled variances. In addition, intervention was offered to all 5th-8th grade results were robust when children’s pretest students in the geographical area, students and levels of social competence were controlled, parents had a choice to enroll their child in the along with other potential confounding program. As such, the study cannot address variables. Last, although the sample was whether this equine facilitated intervention relatively small, participants were drawn from would be effective for children who may have ten public and private schools across two 15 | H A I B
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