Sri Lanka | March 2019 - British Council
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N E X T G E N E R A T I ON Sri Lanka | March 2019
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Research team British Council
Principal researcher: Gill Caldicott, Director Sri Lanka
Professor Prasanna Perera
Shazia Khawar,
Professor Navaratna Bandara Director Society, South Asia
Dr Danesh Karunanayake Sanjeevani Munasinghe,
Head of Programmes, Sri Lanka
Dr Malini Balamayuran
Christine Wilson,
Mufizal Abu Bakar
Portfolio Lead Research
Tania Alahendra and Director Next Generation
Srimal Bandara
Sarvodaya Institute
All senior members of the research
team are attached to the Departments
of Higher Learning
of Economics, Political Science, Dr Vinya Ariyaratne
Psychology and Philosophy in the Udesh Fernando
Faculty of Arts, University of
Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Navoda Bandara
Advisory group Disclaimer
Professor Sampath Amaratunga The views expressed are those
of the authors and contributors
Professor Navaratne Bandara and do not necessarily reflect
Dr Radhika Coomaraswamy those of the British Council.
Dr Vinya Ariyaratne
Neela Marikkar
Sachinda Dulanjana
Next Generation Sri Lanka > 1
CONTENTS
> Forewords2 > Chapter 5: Youth, politics and agency 30
Youth agency and activism
> Messages4
>
C hapter 6: Reconciliation and
> Executive summary 6 the future 36
Identity: who are the Sri Lankan youth? 9 Responses to the official peace
Education 9 and reconciliation process 36
Employment 9 Sense of safety after the end of the war 36
Experience of violence 10 Violence against women and children 38
Politics and agency 10 Changes in ethnic relations 38
Reconciliation and the future 10 Responding to post-war mechanisms 39
Recommendations 11 Areas of improvements after the war 39
Peace and reconciliation 11 Constitutional reform 42
>
I ntroduction: negative peace and Next steps for peace 42
ambivalent reconciliation 12 Future direction 42
Sri Lankan youth at a glance 12 > Conclusion44
Next Generation research contributors 13 Recommendations 45
Description of the report 13 Peace and reconciliation 45
> Chapter 1: Sri Lanka’s road to civil war 14 > References46
The country and its people 14
Conflict revisited 14 >
A ppendix 1: Next Generation
Reconciliation after the defeat of LTTE 16 Sri Lanka methodology 49
Economy after 2009 17
>
C hapter 2: Who are the
Sri Lankan youth? 18
Generational issues 21
>
C hapter 3: Sri Lankan youth: education
and employment challenges 22
Educational development 22
Unmet employment needs 24
>
C hapter 4: Youth and experience
of violence 28
2 > Next Generation Sri Lanka
FOREWORDS
The phrase ‘next generation’ is now were killed in this insurgency. I do not The report also expands upon how
heard much more often than it once wish for a time like it again, but it still many of the minorities of the society
was. Our focus has finally moved, as highlights the fact that while it was the are marginalised, such as the difficulties
it should, to the key sector of society – youth who faced the magnitude of the experienced by ex-LTTE fighters and
its youth. In an era where there is a wrath of the government, it was also the those living in Estates in seeking better
great deal of social change, magnified youth who had the power to question livelihoods. It was also interesting
by modern technology that provides a system that they believed was unjust. to see that not only the minority
various new platforms of expression, communities face hardship – the
Even to this day, I grieve at the waste the
this research is both apt and timely. difficulties undergone by youth from
insurgency caused. More than 10,000
the majority are also captured here.
Next Generation Sri Lanka, organised by young people were killed. They were
the British Council in partnership with the intelligent and purposeful, and could There is a central topic in this detailed
Sarvodaya Institute of Higher Learning have created a better tomorrow, if only research concerning the creation
of Lanka Jathika Sarvodaya Shramadana they had been given a better outlet to of a more inclusive environment for
Movement, uses data collected from express themselves, an environment the youth to engage and contribute.
2,636 young people aged 18–29. The that nurtured them. In short, if only I strongly endorse this. I encounter
research series has obtained data to they had been given something better. youth on a daily basis, and I have
address the question, ‘How is Sri Lanka’s These times are long gone, but it is experienced their innovation, creativity
next generation responding to changes still something we should remember and their thirst to develop. There is
brought about by the peace and to avoid such calamities recurring. always something to listen to, and, if we
reconciliation process?’ take time to listen to them, much can be
Therefore, I applaud the effort taken by
achieved. This report has done that too.
As the Vice Chancellor of the University the British Council and Sarvodaya to gain
We should remember that by listening to
of Sri Jayewardenepura, the topic of an insight into what the youth today feel.
our youth, we do not simply respond to
the ‘next generation’ has always been They are aware of the hardships that
their needs – their ideas can indeed give
my primary concern. It is my duty their respective communities have faced
us the solutions we seek as well.
towards all students of the university and will be keen to avoid prolonging
to see that everything within the those difficulties. I believe that the recommendations
university is geared towards their provided by this research have genuine
In terms of peace and reconciliation,
development and growth. practical value that will allow the youth to
I agree with the report when it says
flourish. It must always be remembered
As I was reading this report, I came that it remains at a standstill. I believe
that the successful development
across an interesting fact: ‘According to this is because the country itself has
of a country solely depends on the
the UN Security Council Report (2008) not recovered from the violence and
successful development of its youth.
on Children and Armed Conflict, since invasions it has suffered throughout its
1990, more than two million children history. Those who should be able to Professor Sampath Amaratunga
have been killed in armed conflicts, and guide the youth have not themselves Vice Chancellor, University
approximately six million children have had help, therefore they are unaware of of Sri Jayewardenepura
become permanently disabled. Yet in how to move forward. The young people
most countries, the ravages of war and who underwent the terror and torment
political violence have been triggered during the 30 years of civil conflict have
by the youth population’. This rings very not yet had the opportunity to reconcile
close to home. or address their fears.
As well as what it suffered during The Next Generation research expands
the three-decade-long civil struggle, on topics such as identity, education,
Sri Lanka has also been a victim of opportunity and job satisfaction. It shows
several insurgencies. That of 1971 that the youth who participated in the
was very close to my heart. At that time, study are proud to be recognised as
I was a student at the University of Sri Lankans, and that they are ready to
Sri Jayewardenepura. Many of my friends take up an active role in reconciliation.
Next Generation Sri Lanka > 3
For the last two decades, at both the part in any related project or activity.
international and national level, we have Though they acknowledged an
talked a great deal about the rights of improvement in personal freedom,
women and the rights of children. Two many women felt unsafe in the north
major international conventions exist and east due to criminal violence.
and there are United Nations agencies There was also disagreement on how
that have been set up to deal with these to deal with the past, and over the role
specific issues. Yet one could argue of justice and memory. The need for the
that the major question that still faces government to be more fully engaged
the world today is the future of its in these areas cannot be understated.
youth. It is a cross-cutting concern
Despite their opinions on reconciliation
with other mandates, but it needs
and identity, it appears that for most,
focused attention. The appointment
youth education and employment
of a Sri Lankan as the UN Secretary-
seem the key issues, as that most
General’s Special Representative on
affects their everyday life. Their tales
Youth signals an opportunity for Sri
of discrimination and frustration must
Lankans to look closely at their own
be a clarion call to any government to
needs and concerns.
prioritise this area as one of the most
Next Generation Sri Lanka looks at the important aspects of a future agenda.
situation of youth in the country, elicits
Through technology, today’s youth
their views and opinions on important
have access to a world that their
matters and focuses especially on the
parents have never known. With that
issue of reconciliation. The findings
access comes hope and frustration.
gives us reason for optimism – for
Sri Lanka has had two youth
example, that Sri Lankan youth identify
insurrections in the 1970s and the
as Sri Lankans first – but also point to
1980s. It is unlikely that youth will
areas of concern. Their views express
take to open violence again, but their
their sense of frustration with the way
anger may unfold in other ways, unless
things are in society, yet also a belief
their concerns are dealt with and met
that their generation can do things
by the authorities and society as a
for the better.
whole. It is important that Sri Lanka’s
The post-war era is a time for rebuilding institutions and best minds put their
our society at every level. Yet the vast ideas together to come up with an
majority of the youth interviewed were achievable action plan for meeting
unaware of any reconciliation the needs of today’s youth.
programme run by the government
Dr Radhika Coomaraswamy
or NGOs, and very few had taken
4 > Next Generation Sri Lanka
MESSAGES
It is with great pleasure that I write this our youth using an entrepreneurial ground realities. Educators can
message to all Sri Lankans, particularly model. This is one key highlight among re-design teaching methods to
our youth – this next generation and the many other youth-led initiatives comprehensively address matters
generations to come. While there have conducted by Sarvodaya and our of reconciliation and co-existence
been other youth-focused studies, the sister organisations. We believe that using more nuanced approaches.
Next Generation research is unique in youth are our future.
This report reflects that Sri Lanka’s
numerous ways. Among them is its
I believe we have genuinely heard the next generation are keen to see a
special focus on post-war youth
voices of our country’s youth through better future. We can and we should
attitudes and aspirations.
this comprehensive exercise. It is time listen to them with patience and care.
This landmark report will mark a for our policymakers to strategically Our approaches to hear them and to
historical milestone both in academia design and implement youth-focused co-create positive outcomes are
and praxis of this country’s youth- planning and engagements. Some vastly important in this venture.
focused affairs. Being Sri Lanka’s findings are highly positive and The complexity of challenges demand
pioneering non-government praiseworthy; some are negative that we use diverse problem-solving
development organisation, the Lanka and require our immediate attention. tools and mechanisms. It is also
Jathika Sarvodaya Shramadana To address this level of complexity will imperative that we engage our youth
Sangamaya is proud and humble to require different approaches. Therefore, at all levels of policymaking, advocacy
have collaborated with the British policymakers from different fields and and implementation.
Council through the Sarvodaya Institute walks of life should join hands to
Let us listen to them, think locally and
of Higher Learning, as both research address these issues holistically and
beyond. Let us co-create their future
partner and the advocate of the comprehensively. The government
and ours with the required empathy and
research outcomes. Sarvodaya believes can seek novel avenues to address
compassion. Let us work hand-in-hand
in a model and a way of life based government-level interventions. Civil
to make their future and ours a better
on holistic and integral development, society organisations can confidently
and a prosperous one. Let us awaken
and our youth is at the heart of our employ the key findings to enhance
our next generation together!
policymaking endeavours. Sarvodaya their existing work and to re-design
recently launched a novel project programmes and projects to address Dr Vinya S Ariyaratne
known as ‘Tharunodaya’ (Awakening the challenging needs. Grass-roots President – Lanka Jathika Sarvodaya
Youth), critically assessing the youth organisations can use the Shramadana Sangamaya
significance and the need to empower results to address provincial-level
Next Generation Sri Lanka > 5
The British Council in Sri Lanka is It is clear from Next Generation Sri Lanka are different from the ‘older generation’,
very pleased to have partnered with that, despite efforts made since the end whom they feel often hold cultural and
Sarvodaya on the production of this of the civil war, young people are still religious biases. Young Sri Lankans
significant piece of research, which affected by that conflict and its legacy. believe that the education system can
looks at the attitudes and aspirations We know that the country continues to and should play an important part in
of Sri Lanka’s young people aged 18 to suffer from intermittent violence between engendering social cohesion from the
29. Next Generation is a global research ethnic and religious groups, that the very youngest age. But we must not
series focusing on young people; it is political situation has remained unstable, underplay some of the significant
carried out in countries that have gone and that the economy has not yet offered challenges, which include increased
through a period of significant change, the growth and prosperity anticipated gender-based violence and the
including conflict. following the end of the war. In this perception of weak rule of law in
report, the young people of Sri Lanka the north; the economic hardships
We believe Next Generation is important
highlight their concerns about that means education is often not
because the voice of youth often goes
unemployment, and about the quality completed and the consequent effects
unheard and unheeded, particularly at
of the education system and its inability on employability; and the strong
times of significant change; as a result
to equip them with the skills needed perceptions of discrimination and
their concerns are not addressed,
to enter the workforce. They share corruption in the public systems.
which can lead to feelings of alienation
their views on politics, and their sense
and disconnection, and a sense of This report is a vehicle for the voices of
of their voice and agency within their
disempowerment in society. Yet their young Sri Lankans, their hopes and fears,
community. Importantly, they speak
views are important, partly because the their ambitions for themselves and for
about their experience of conflict, and
prosperity and security of the country their country. It is both relevant and
their experiences of and hopes for the
will – in the near future – be in the hands timely. We would all do well to listen,
reconciliation process.
of the young people of today, and to respond and to act.
because the country’s youth have so While it is easy to focus only on
Gill Caldicott
much to offer today, in terms of their the areas of criticism or concern, we
Director, British Council
energy, their creativity and their drive for should not ignore what is positive in
in Sri Lanka
change. Therefore, decision makers at all this research, and the sense of hope.
levels and in all sectors need to be aware Despite the ongoing tension, most young
of and to respond to the concerns of the people across all communities identify
rising next generation. themselves as Sri Lankan. They feel they
6 > Next Generation Sri Lanka
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Nearly ten years since the end of education than the previous
the protracted civil war that gripped generation. Many young Sri Lankans
Sri Lanka, young people across excel in sports, education and
the country are still grappling with innovation in the international arena.
a multitude of issues. They must They are also highly educated,
navigate a stagnating economy, a especially in comparison with the
complex peace and reconciliation South Asian region. Acknowledging
process, contentious transitional the immense potential young Sri
justice mechanisms and political Lankans hold in shaping the future
instability. The intermittent violence of their country, the British Council
between ethnic and religious groups, and Sarvodaya partnered to develop
mostly orchestrated by extremist Next Generation Sri Lanka. This
factions – such as were seen in March research series, which has also taken
2018 – demonstrate that Sri Lanka is place in countries including Pakistan,
not truly in a post-conflict state. Colombia, Turkey and the UK,
Politics in the country has continued explores how young people perceive
to be volatile since the end of war, their lives at times of change, and
and the peace and reconciliation provides them a platform for their
process has been highly contentious. voices to be heard.
These two are not unrelated. With
In Sri Lanka, the research explores
a history of violent insurgencies led
how young people have responded
by youth against the government,
to the changes brought about by the
understanding how youth have
peace and reconciliation process.
responded to the changing dynamics
The research is part of a broader
of the country with the reconciliation
approach that will enable the voices
process is important.
of Sri Lankan youth from all
Sri Lankan youth today have access communities to be heard within
to social media, use mobile phones the wider society; we hope this will
and are linked to the outside world. ultimately contribute to policies
They have more opportunities to that address their needs.
obtain foreign employment andNext Generation Sri Lanka > 7
8 > Next Generation Sri Lanka
Addressing their needs is vital, there is a need to undertake research in on two of the main challenges of that
particularly in the case of peace and order to understand the attitudes and age group: education and employment
reconciliation. One of the social groups aspirations of the young people towards (Amarasuriya et al., 2009; Hettige, 1992
most often ignored is youth, yet they the reconciliation process in Sri Lanka. and 2002; Mayer, 2002). A significant
can be both victims and perpetrators amount of literature has examined the
This research is organised by the
in intergroup conflicts (Jonas and relationship concerning youth
British Council in Sri Lanka, along
Morton, 2012). Significant research unemployment, youth unrest and
with the Sarvodaya Institute of Higher
has emerged concerning how the conflict (Uyangoda, 1992; Serasundara,
Learning of Lanka Jathika Sarvodaya
young population is victimised 1998; Selvarajah, 2003). The National
Shramadana Movement, to understand
during the situations of political Youth Survey (2000), the Poverty and
how youth have responded to the
violence concerning the state Youth survey (Ibarguen and Abdul
changes in Sri Lanka, and the process
organised repressions. According to Cader, 2004) along with reports
of reconciliation. The insights from the
the UN Security Council (2008) report produced by inter-governmental
research will ultimately contribute to
on children and armed conflict, since organisations (Gunatilaka et al., 2010;
the design of coherent interventions
1990, more than two million children UNDP, 2014), also provide useful
that address the needs and concerns
have been killed in armed conflicts, and insights on the issues faced by
of the next generation.
approximately six million children have Sri Lankan youth. The Report of the
become permanently disabled. Yet in Therefore the research is not a Presidential Commission on Youth
many countries, the ravages of war and standalone product, but, like all Next in 1990 that looked into the Sinhalese
political violence have been triggered Generation research, is intended to youth uprising in 1988–89 offers a
by the youth population (Punamäki, ensure young people’s voices are comprehensive picture of the struggles
2009; Jonas and Morton, 2012). This heard by decision makers who will faced by Sri Lankan youth. However,
implies that the institutionalised violent affect their futures. As part of this there is a notable dearth of literature
conflicts have been closely associated wider approach, the British Council that focus on youth and peacebuilding
with youth groups who, at times, choose and Sarvodaya will engage with young in Sri Lanka and the volume of literature
violence as their only option for erasing people on advocacy. The Sarvodaya that examines the relationship between
social inequalities and deprivation. Movement spans across the 25 youth and reconciliation appears to
administrative districts in Sri Lanka and be limited.
This phenomenon is prevalent across
holds immense potential to facilitate the
the world. Raija-Leena Punamäki (2009: The findings from the research offer
Next Generation research. The British
62) states that the notion ‘violence fresh insights on post-war youth in
Council in Sri Lanka, along with the
breeds violence seems intuitively Sri Lanka, a country in transition. Some
Sarvodaya Institute of Higher Learning
tempting to make’. In her view, children conclusions confirm outcomes from
of Lanka, will implement a social media
who experienced violence are most previous studies, while others are rather
campaign, establish knowledge centres,
likely to engage in aggression and surprising, highlighting the changes
produce policy papers and engage in a
antisocial activities. It is explained by of the next generation in post-war
robust advocacy initiative to promote
Jonas and Morton (2012: 79) that ‘the Sri Lanka. The report begins with
peace and reconciliation harnessing
children, including those born after the background to the country and the
youth agency.
end of war, may be socialized in a context, and the composition of
context of persistent intergroup threat The research framework consists of a Sri Lankan youth. The research looks
and grow up expressing animosity preliminary desk review, a questionnaire at key themes such as challenges
toward the other group’. For this reason survey and focus group discussions with education and employment, the
also, youth have a potentially powerful (FGDs). The desk review was carried experience of violence, young people’s
role in national reconciliation, as they out in May 2018; the survey and most of politics and agency, and finally
are one of the most significant social the FGDs were conducted from August reconciliation and youth aspirations.
groups that dealt with the past to October 2018. Much of the extant The report ends with conclusions
communal agitation. With this backdrop, literature on youth in Sri Lanka focuses and recommendations.Next Generation Sri Lanka > 9
Identity: who are the generation by the older generation, and benefits, as well as perceived
Sri Lankan youth? most young people also see themselves discrimination and corruption in
and their generation as different from the recruitment process. They prefer
The survey shows that young Sri
the older generation. However, an to work in the formal private sector,
Lankans are proud of their Sri Lankan
overwhelming number of youth still although some young people prefer
identity. Being identified as a ‘Sri
identify parents as the most influential to work in informal economic activities,
Lankan’ is a unifying term for youth
adults, with teachers and adult relatives with its high wages, flexibility of time
from all communities. This finding is
coming in next. and not needing to resort to political
unexpected and differs from previous
nepotism to secure a job. Those
studies. It suggests that youth appear
who dropped out of school often see
to be influenced by the promotion of Education
this route, as well as self-employment
‘Sri Lankan Identity’ by policymakers. The majority of respondents are and entrepreneurship, as possible
When asked whether all citizens of the currently enrolled at an educational career options.
country should identify themselves as institution. Financial issues, lack of
Sri Lankan, an overwhelming majority interest and unavailability of schools Minorities believe upward social
of youth gave a positive response. A few were cited as the main reasons for mobility is possible for Sinhalese, but
Sri Lankan Tamil youth expressed pride dropping out by the respondents who not for themselves. Even the graduates
about their Sri Lankan identity, but there had dropped out of school before from the north and east (Tamil majority)
was also visible discomfort, which hints completing their primary education suggested that getting a better job with
at the remaining tensions linked to (up to Grade 5). decent pay is much harder for them.
identity and conflict. In the case of
Participants noted that the curriculum While reporting some slight
Malayaha 1 Tamil youth, they seem not
does not prepare students for the job improvement in job opportunities,
to prefer their Indian Tamil identity, nor
market. This is despite the fact that the they noted that the economy is
being identified by their living in the
main reason that most participants seek stagnating at present, and also that
Estates. Rather, they prefer to identify
education is to gain the knowledge and blatant corruption meant that
as Sri Lankan Tamils and rural, rather
skills to get a good job, with the majority government jobs were effectively ‘sold’.
than Malayaha Tamil, Up Country
feeling that highly educated youth They felt that government support for
Tamil, Plantation Tamil or Estate Tamil.
easily secure better employment than small-scale enterprises for youth and
The majority of young people stated others. Young Sri Lankans believe the micro-finance schemes lack direction,
they have a close, trusted friend from education system should start with as they are given without proper
a different religion, ethnic group and/or the very youngest children to include training or market analysis.
from a different part of the country, education and learning on social Malayaha Tamils expressed their
there remain many who are not cohesion, in order to promote an dissatisfaction with regard to their
familiar with the cultures of different inclusive society in Sri Lanka, and wages, which is insufficient to pay
ethnic and religious groups, due to which values all cultures of the country. for food and daily living. In the most
language difference and segregated
badly war-affected areas in the north,
education systems.
Employment unemployment is highest among
Most Sri Lankan youth state they are The three most influential factors for job ex-LTTE 2 combatants, both male
religious. Irrespective of their faith, satisfaction were identified as wages, and female.
most feel that they have to treat equally working for a prestigious company and
people who do not belong to their own job security. Youth are steering away
religion. They feel cultural and religious from state sector employment due to
biases have been taught to the younger very low remuneration and other
1 > The majority of Malayaha Tamils are descendants of the workers brought to the estate plantations in Sri Lanka
in the 19th century by European planters. They have also been known as Up Country Tamils or Estate Tamils.
2 > The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, sometimes known as the Tamil Tigers.10 > Next Generation Sri Lanka
Experience of violence They would like to see more young the weak rule of law. Both male and
people in prominent positions in female participants felt that violence
The survey findings indicate that
political parties – indicating they are against women and children has
the vast majority of the participants
strongly likely to vote for a party with an increased in the north. This was partly
have not experienced violent events
attractive youth policy – and that blamed on drugs and on gang violence,
in their lives. Nevertheless, from the
more women should be in prominent and there were allusions to corruption
participants who had experienced
positions in political parties. here too.
violence, the survey shows that
Northern and Eastern provinces were The vast majority believe that peace Most feel that their families and friends
the most affected. However, data for work needs to continue and that it is have observed peace and reconciliation
those who reported being attacked for the duty of all Sri Lankans to work at following the end of the civil war.
ethnic or religious reasons indicate that it. Eighty-five per cent of young Sri However, the research showed up
this is not confined to the north and Lankans think their generation is ready differences in understanding the nature
east. Gang violence was also noted to play an active role in peace and of reconciliation. Most participants were
as an issue. reconciliation, but they don’t yet know not clear about whether it was good to
how to fit into the current process. discuss past atrocities, as some felt it
Politics and agency Around 30 per cent plan to help in prolonged the animosities and risked
resolving conflicts in future and most passing them on to the next generation.
A clear majority of youth identified
feel that their communities recognise War memorials were noted to be
democracy as the best political system
the role of youth in addressing conflict. particularly contentious.
for Sri Lanka. They believe it is capable
However, only a limited number have
of establishing a strong economy, Looking ahead, nearly three-quarters
attended programmes (government
providing basic welfare, protecting of young Sri Lankans, both male and
or otherwise) on reconciliation. This
human rights, valuing diversity, building female, do not believe the country is
highlights the outreach limitations of
alliances with other countries and even heading in the right direction. They
current programmes on promoting
ending corruption. However, only an identify a number of problems for
reconciliation, although lack of support
average of 15 per cent of the survey themselves: the inability to complete
or encouragement from their family and
participants were certain that education due to economic hardships,
community regarding such work was
democracy had been a benefit for unemployment, discrimination in the
also cited as an issue. The majority
them, their families, and to their ethnic government job sector, the high cost of
of young Sri Lankans had not heard
and religious communities. higher education, and corruption in
of the key government initiatives such
public institutions, as well as poor
The vast majority of young people feel as the LLRC, 3 ONUR 4 and OMP 5 or
governance and political instability.
they have a responsibility to vote as the National Policy on Reconciliation.
citizens; the main reasons for avoiding For the country’s constitutional
voting are dislike of the political direction, fewer than half of those
Reconciliation and the future
candidates and parties, and a general surveyed said that they believe in the
The majority feel there has been an ‘unitary state’ concept, which is the
lack of interest in politics. Corruption is
improvement in personal freedom since main theme of drafters engaged in
a critical issue for young Sri Lankans;
the end of the war. Yet, during FGDs, the constitution drafting process. Only
they believe being not corrupt is a
some noted the intermittent communal 14.5 per cent stated they believe in the
defining quality of a political leader, and
violence still contributes to feelings of ‘federal state’ – these tended to be from
identified ending corruption as the key
insecurity. Female participants noted areas dominated by the Tamil minority.
issue in deciding their vote.
that in the post-war period women feel
unsafe, especially in the north due to
3 > Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation Commission.
4 > Office for National Unity and Reconciliation.
5 > Office on Missing Persons.Next Generation Sri Lanka > 11
Recommendations • As part of that, the government Clearly, the research provided
and other stakeholders must ensure a wealth of data and the participants
Despite the negative outlook towards
that these mechanisms meaningfully provided the research team with
the future, young Sri Lankans have a
engage young people, particularly much to consider. Beyond the issues
strong sense of pride regarding their
those in remote or other hard-to- of conflict, peace and reconciliation –
country and are willing to come forward
reach areas. though we observe that these have
to serve as agents of change in the
• The government, partners and far-reaching impact – the research
process of reconciliation. It is important
stakeholders should ensure that examined many facets of the lives
to seize and direct that positive energy
existing programmes and institutions, of young people, including education,
of the next generation in order to
such as the LLRC, establish outreach employment and political engagement.
develop sustainable peace, promote
programmes to raise their profile From the many findings could be
reconciliation and establish harmony.
with Sri Lankan youth. crafted a number of recommendations
As the report shows, youth within
– too many for this report.
Sri Lanka have diverse concerns and • The government should establish
needs. Designing policies that address a national dialogue on conflict Following discussion with the Next
the needs of youth (youth-responsive memorialisation, allowing those Generation Taskforce, the remaining
policies) is key to ensure the next who lost their lives to be recommendation is for the formation
generation’s contribution to the remembered in a manner that of a National Action Plan for Youth.
country’s future. brings communities together, Taking the Next Generation research
rather than fostering division. as a springboard, the owners of the
The core question behind this
• Along with its reparation efforts, National Action Plan – we believe this
research was: How is Sri Lanka’s next
the government should develop should be the government – should
generation responding to changes
economic, social and psychological continue this consultative process,
brought about by the peace and
programmes to reconcile and particularly ensuring young people are
reconciliation process? We have
rehabilitate communities affected meaningfully engaged in the process.
therefore chosen to centre in on
by violent conflict, with a focus on It should look at the areas identified
the policy recommendations that
mental as well as physical health herein and assign and empower the
address this area.
of those affected, both directly relevant ministries and departments,
and indirectly. civil society organisations and other
Peace and reconciliation stakeholders to formulate its enactment.
• The government should train all
• Working together, the government, We believe this meets the aspirations
security forces on peaceful co-
civil society organisations, of Next Generation, which is to ‘enable
existence and genuinely establish
academics and expert practitioners the voices of Sri Lankan youth from
measures to increase sense of
should explore the design of justice all communities to be heard within
security for all citizens irrespective
mechanisms (such as truth the wider society… [and] ultimately
of gender, ethnicity, age, location
commissions and/or transitional contribute to policies that address
or any other factor.
justice mechanisms) that will enable their needs’.
the citizens of this country to move
forward to a just and equitable future
for all Sri Lankan citizens.12 > Next Generation Sri Lanka
INTRODUCTION:
N EG AT I V E PE AC E A N D
A M B I VA L E N T R ECO N C I L I AT I O N
Nearly a decade has passed since the inclusive environment. Furthermore, prevention and partnership were
end of the protracted civil war in 2009, the study uses the term ‘post-war’ emphasised as pillars for action to
when the government of Sri Lanka as opposed to ‘post-conflict’, to engage with youth in conflict contexts
militarily defeated the Liberation Tigers underpin the reality in which violent (United Nations, 2015).
of Tamil Eelam. However, successive confrontations based on differences
We should remember that existing
governments have been beset by of ethnicity, religion and other
research suggests that youth is not
extreme nationalist sentiments of factors continue.
a homogeneous category with similar
communal politics, rendering post-war
In the past, Sri Lanka had witnessed needs, but suggest broad variances
reconciliation at a standstill. Post-war
widespread mobilisation of youth, founded on class, gender, ethnicity,
government policies and investments
leading to violent protests, extremist religion and a variety of group
have prioritised economic development
factions and political insurgencies. affiliations (Alpaslan and Podder, 2015).
and rehabilitation, while conciliation and
However, there has been no systematic Furthermore, researchers identify three
building sustainable and positive peace
undertaking to understand the Sri dominant types of approaches to youth:
remain contentious. This has led to
Lankan youth experiences regarding age-defined perspective (the idea of
recurrent communal violence and
the process of peace and reconciliation. a single, gender-equal age of maturity),
mistrust within the multi-religious and
Certainly, Sri Lanka’s next generation’s social construct (socially situated
multi-ethnic society. Recent violence
perspectives on reconciliation will be and culturally constructed) and
between Sinhalese and Muslim
crucial in ushering in a cohesive future psychological perspective (representing
communities in the Central Province
from a divided past. With a rapidly a transitional stage in life between
highlighted the weaknesses of the
ageing population and declining fertility childhood and adulthood). However,
peace and reconciliation process in
rates, the country’s next generation across societies, cultures and times, the
Sri Lanka. The need to promote an
appears likely to inherit the bulk of understanding and interpretation of age
inclusive reconciliation process that
responsibility in steering the country categories largely varies from one to
helps to address the grievances of
beyond the ravages of a protracted another. In Sri Lanka, the National Youth
all communities is imperative.
civil war and communal tensions. Policy (Ministry of Youth Affairs and
In general, ‘peace’ and ‘reconciliation’ Skills Development, 2014) defines youth
have been examined at length in the as the population aged 15 to 29 years.
Sri Lankan youth at a glance
fields of social sciences and humanities. According to the United Nations,
Each culture and philosophy offers Across the world, youth appears the persons between the ages of 15
definitions of peace. Of the many as an active force in generating an and 24 years are classified as youth.
understandings, the notions of environment conducive to foster real The definition of youth is therefore
‘positive’ and ‘negative’ peace are most changes at the ground level. The United highly contestable.
applicable to the Sri Lankan context. Nations has already recognised young
people as the major energetic force for According to the 2012 census, the
Although the definitions have evolved
development, social change, economic Sri Lankan youth population has
over time, the basic premise of negative
growth and technological innovation. been estimated as approximately
peace is the absence of violence
A December 2015 UN Security Council 4.4 million and to be nearly one-quarter
and war, while positive peace is ‘the
mandate, along with the Sustainable (23 per cent) of the total population. 6
integration of society’ (Galtung, 1964:
2). According to this definition, post-war Development Goals, recognises the The National Youth Services (1969)
Sri Lanka has negative peace, as the important and positive role of young was the first institution established
structures and conditions that led to the women and men in the maintenance to provide opportunities for youth in
civil war and other uprisings have not and promotion of international peace ‘fulfilling their aspirations in the fields of
been transformed to establish an and security. In particular, participation, sports, recreation, artistic and creative
6 > The youth population by sex appears to be an almost equal distribution of 50.2 per cent male and 49.8 per cent female.Next Generation Sri Lanka > 13
work, leadership, social service, Next Generation rounds it off with two per cent.
education, personal development research contributors Finally, the sample was primarily single
and participation in decision making’ (83.4 per cent), with only 16 per cent
The research strived hard to represent
(Jungeling, 1989: 23). In the aftermath being married. Four (0.15 per cent)
the national averages on almost all
of the political insurgencies, the participants were divorced and six were
key indicators such as gender, ethnicity
Presidential Commission on Youth was widowed (0.23 per cent). Although Sri
and religion. There were slightly more
appointed by the government in 1989 Lankan youth tend to marry in their mid
females (51.7 per cent) than males
to investigate the causes of youth to late twenties, the 16 per cent number
(48.3 per cent). The sample was kept
agitation and unrest and to recommend seems to be an underrepresentation
to the age range of 18–29 years with
remedial actions to discourage such of the married category and thereby
three subdivisions of 18–19 (30.5 per
attitudes and behaviours. However, influencing an overrepresentation
cent), 20–24 (39 per cent) and 25–29
the recommendations presented of the single category.
(30.4 per cent).
by the Commission in 1990 were not
fully implemented. Later, the National Sri Lanka has a Sinhalese ethnic
Description of the report
Youth Corps under the Ministry of majority and the sample reflected
Youth Affairs came to exist with the that in having 65 per cent Sinhalese Chapter 1 of the report provides an
aim of developing competencies to participants. The second major ethnic outline of the country and context,
transform youth into a healthy, multi- group – Tamils – represented 20.2 per with particular attention to key events.
disciplinary, self-reliant generation cent of the sample. Due to ethno- Chapter 2 presents the complex
through providing guidance, skills and historical identity formation, this group identity issues confronted by Sri Lankan
opportunities for youth to excel and was subdivided to Sri Lankan Tamils youth. Chapter 3 explores the challenges
contribute to the national prosperity of (16.9 per cent) and Malayaha Tamils youth grapple with in the critical areas
Sri Lanka. Again, related actions were (3.3 per cent). Muslims, the third of education and employment. In
not correctly implemented and remain largest ethnic group in Sri Lanka, were Chapter 4, youth reveal their experiences
limited to reports. The Sri Lankan represented by 14 per cent of the of violence. In Chapter 5, young Sri
government set up the National Youth sample. There were a negligible number Lankans share how they view politics
Policy (NYP) with the aim of ensuring, of Burghers and Malays. Sri Lankans and their own role in society as change
empowering and enabling youth follow four major religions: Buddhism, agents. Chapter 6 discusses the
through education, skills development Hinduism, Christianity and Islam. The changes youth have observed with
and vocational training, employment, sample was 63 per cent Buddhist, the post-war peace and reconciliation
professionalisation, health and welfare, 16.2 per cent Hindu, 14.5 per cent process. Key findings of the research
peace, physical fitness and art and Muslim and 5.6 per cent Christian. This are summarised in Chapter 7.
leisure. This policy aims to instil ‘a sense is a slight overrepresentation of Muslims In conclusion, the report offers
of social responsibility and social and a slight underrepresentation of recommendations made by youth
cohesion among young people while Christians and Buddhists; however, the in supporting a viable future and
recognising and respecting diversities main religious representation of the promoting peace and reconciliation
of ethnicity, culture, religion, language country has been well captured. with their full participation.
and lifestyles in the country’ (Ministry Appendix 1 presents details
The sample comprised 63 per cent
of Youth Affairs and Skills Development, of the research methodology.
rural participants, representing the
2014: 10). In addition, the NYP
rural nature of the country. Urban
encourages youth to develop among
participation was 23 per cent, with
the youth community the potential to
semi-urban making up 12 per cent
challenge all forms of discrimination.
of the sample, and the estate sector14 > Next Generation Sri Lanka
C H A P T ER 1: S R I L A N K A’ S
ROAD TO CIVIL WAR
The country and its people Conflict revisited people and an effort to change the
demography of Eastern Province, which
The small island of Sri Lanka lies off the Sri Lanka was known as Ceylon until
had been identified as a Tamil-majority
southern coast of India in the Indian 1972. The country was colonised
area. In 1951, a new political party, Sri
Ocean and consists of a total area of successively by the Dutch, Portuguese
Lanka Freedom Party, was established.
65,610 square kilometres. The major and the British from 1505 to 1948. The
It came to power in 1956, forming a
ethnic groups in Sri Lanka are Sinhalese, arrival of these three Western powers
grand coalition with several political
Sri Lankan Tamils, Sri Lankan Moors and from the 16th century had far-reaching
groups that campaigned for the
Malayaha Tamils, who are also referred impact on the relationship between the
establishment of dominance of majority
to as Indian Tamils and Up-country communities in Ceylon. During British
Sinhalese in the governance process.
Tamils. The largest ethnic group, the rule, reforms were undertaken, and in
The new coalition brought in legislation
Sinhalese, make up about 75 per cent 1833 there was established an
to make Sinhalese the sole official
of the total population. Sri Lankan export-oriented plantation economy
language, creating an uproar among
Tamils make up 11.2 per cent of the based on a capitalist market model. The
the Sri Lankan Tamils, as it abandoned
population, 9.2 per cent are Muslim, British profoundly altered the political
the 1943 consensus to make both
and 4.2 per cent are Malayaha Tamils and administrative structure and
Sinhalese and Tamil official languages.
(Department of Census and Statistics, introduced a centralised governance
This effectively excluded the minority
2012). The Sinhalese believe they were system offering places to the political
Tamils, including many English-speaking
the first people to settle in Ceylon from elite that had emerged from the local
Sinhalese and Burgher communities,
northern India during the sixth century entrepreneurial class. This eventually
as well as the Tamil-speaking Muslims,
BCE. The Sinhalese largely speak led to clashes over power sharing
from access to state services and
Sinhalese, an Indo-Aryan linguistic among the elites belonging to different.
employment. This led to the exploitation
group, and inhabit the South, West, This struggle and subsequent religious
of ethnic identities in the name of ethnic
Central along with the North Central and ethnic violence hindered the
solidarity by political leaders and
parts of Sri Lanka. The Tamils, whose formation of Sri Lankan identity.
brought about a deep animosity
language belongs to the Dravidian
The United National Party (UNP), a between the Sinhalese and Tamil-
linguistic group, are the principal
coalition party formed by uniting the speaking communities.
minority community in the country,
right-wing political leaders of the main
and most of them are Hindus. They Since 1956 the successive
ethnic communities of the country, won
are subdivided into two groups, namely governments provided special
the election of 1947 and eventually
Sri Lankan Tamils and Malayaha Tamils. treatment for Buddhism and the
became the governing party that
The Sri Lankan Tamils have settled in Sinhalese culture by establishing a
accepted independence from the
the country for more than a millennium. separate ministry of cultural affairs,
British in 1948. The UNP government
The majority of Malayaha Tamils are ignoring the sensitivities of other
enacted parliamentary acts, such as
descendants of the workers brought ethnic and religious communities.
the Citizenship Act (1948), and Indian-
to the estate plantations in Sri Lanka in When the first Republican Constitution
Pakistani Citizenship Act (1949), to
the 19th century by European planters. was inaugurated in 1972, the
disenfranchise or curtail the voting
Like the Sri Lankan Tamils, the Moors discriminatory measures introduced
rights of Tamils of recent Indian origin.
(or Muslims), the second minority in 1948 became entrenched in the
community in Sri Lanka, have an In the 1950s, the UNP government basic law of the country.
ethnological history of more than a commenced schemes of colonisation
thousand years on the island. They were to settle the landless Sinhalese farmers
the descendants of Arab traders who in the North Central and Eastern
came to Sri Lanka for trade between the provinces. This prompted the leaders of
eighth and 15th centuries. The four main Sri Lankan Tamils to resist it by declaring
religions on the island are Buddhism, it as a systematic encroachment into the
Hinduism, Islam and Christianity. historical homeland of Tamil-speaking16 > Next Generation Sri Lanka
The 1972 constitution declared Reconciliation after the measures to address the peoples’
Sri Lanka a unitary state, rejecting defeat of LTTE grievances. In May 2010, then President
the demand for a federal state long Mahinda Rajapaksa appointed the LLRC
Contrary to the economic progress
promoted by the leaders of the Tamil with the aim of identifying mechanisms
and social harmony anticipated
community. Tamil political leaders to prevent the recurrence of any
post-war, this period in Sri Lanka
then formed the Tamil United Liberation conflicts and to promote national
has been dominated by the economic
Front and declared their desire to integration and reconciliation of
and political instability and rise of
establish an independent state in all communities in Sri Lanka.
communal tensions and sporadic
the Northern and Eastern provinces.
violence. Since the end of the armed Soon after the establishment of the
The Tamil youth formed clandestine
conflict, the greatest challenge facing LLRC 7, in June 2010 the UN appointed
groups to commence an armed
Sri Lanka has been in bringing a three-member expert committee
struggle to establish an independent
reconciliation and ensuring the to shed light on the issues of
state for Tamils. The relationship
peaceful coexistence of different accountability related to any alleged
between Sinhalese and Tamils
ethnic and religious communities. violations of international human rights
worsened with the culmination of ethnic
during the final stages of the armed
violence against Tamils that took place Even since the end of armed conflict,
conflict. The panel found credible
in 1981 and 1983, the latter attracting tensions between the communities
allegations of human rights abuses
international attention. Gradually, the have been easily aroused by political
by the LTTE and the government of
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE leaders. Since 2009, successive
Sri Lanka associated with the final
or Tamil Tigers) became the prominent governments have established
stages of the armed conflict. However,
separatist armed group. Thus began an mechanisms to lead reconciliation and
the government of Sri Lanka was
armed conflict that lasted for more than restore broken relationships. However,
of the opinion that the humanitarian
30 years, transforming into a full-scale there is a widespread feeling that each
rescue operation was pursued with
civil war in the 1990s. government has been engaged in the
zero civilian causalities.
process of enforcing its own brand of
reconciliation, ignoring the consensus After conducting 57 public sessions
among the different communities and and 12 field visits at over 40 locations
their leaders. in the north and west and in other
war-affected areas, the LLRC tabled
Soon after the end of war, on the
its report to the President on
invitation of the Sri Lankan government,
15 November 2011 and to the public
the visit of then UN Secretary-General
on 16 December 2011. The LLRC
Ban Ki-moon to the war-affected zones
recommended systemic changes in
facilitated the creation of a Joint
the state structures and laws to ensure
Statement, in which the government
peace and harmony among individuals
of Sri Lanka promised to ensure the
and groups of all communities. Yet
importance of the accountability
these recommendations were not
process and to take appropriate
implemented due to lack of political will.
7 > Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation Commission.Next Generation Sri Lanka > 17
In 2013, to investigate the complaints The OMP 9 was established in Post-war-era government policies
concerning the abductions and September 2017 to locate the have focused on rapid economic
disappearances, President Rajapaksa whereabouts of those who went missing development. During the post-war
appointed the Udalagama and across the country during the course period 2009–14, Sri Lanka achieved
Paranagama Commissions. The of the LTTE and the Janatha Vimukthi a 6.2 per cent of average annual
Paranagama Commission report of Peramuna (JVP) insurrections. Another economic growth. The driving force
October 2015 recommended the significant step towards the process of this growth was the demand-driven
creation of a Truth and Reconciliation of reconciliation is the bill passed by private sector, especially due to private
Commission and a War Crimes Division the parliament in October 2018 to consumption and investment and partly
of the High Court to advance the peace set up the Office for Reparations. due to agricultural development in the
and reconciliation process in Sri Lanka. This office, an independent entity, north and east.
aims to offer remedies to individuals
The changes in the government The new government from 2015 to
and communities, recognising their
composition in 2015 led to a policy 2018 stopped the mega infrastructure
grievances in post-war Sri Lanka.
shift to introduce mechanisms to development projects implemented by
undertake broader goals of the previous government and focused
reconciliation. The Sirisena– Economy after 2009 on foreign direct investments and
Wickramasinghe government Despite the civil war and insurgencies, supply-side factors. The sudden stop
established state institutions to Sri Lanka has maintained overall high to infrastructure projects and lack
undertake and promote the process social development standards, although of foreign direct investment halted
of national integration at ground level. the areas directly affected by violence, economic growth and brought it down
The ONUR 8 has been delegated with including border villages, the estate to 3.1 per cent in 2017. The average
implementation of the mandate of the sector and some rural areas, lag behind. economic growth for the period
Ministry of National Integration and Sri Lanka is categorised as a middle- 2015–18 October is 4.1 per cent.
Reconciliation, with the aim of building income country, and is positioned
a pluralist and inclusive society with 76 out of 189 countries on the 2018
equal opportunities to all in all spheres Human Development Index.
of social life.
The poverty line of Sri Lanka appears
In addition, the establishment of moderate according to South Asian
the Constitutional Assembly in March regional standards. Sri Lanka’s economy
2016 provided a crucial platform has traditionally been based on
for all 225 members of parliament agriculture; however, over the years
to initiate political reconciliation. The it has diversified into plantation
drafting of a new constitution was in crops and a variety of rapidly growing
this sense an attempt to reform the industries including textiles and tourism.
state and establish a mechanism Approximately 81.5 per cent of the
through which national reconciliation people living in rural areas engage
could be worked out. in agriculture.
8 > Office for National Unity and Reconciliation.
9 > Office for Missing Persons.You can also read
