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Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable
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The Challenges of Changing Dietary Behavior
Toward More Sustainable Consumption
a b
Tim O'Riordan & Susanne Stoll-Kleemann
a
University of East Anglia in Norwich, England
b
University of Greifswald, Germany
Published online: 31 Aug 2015.
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To cite this article: Tim O'Riordan & Susanne Stoll-Kleemann (2015) The Challenges of Changing Dietary Behavior
Toward More Sustainable Consumption, Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, 57:5, 4-13, DOI:
10.1080/00139157.2015.1069093
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00139157.2015.1069093
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by Tim O’Riordan and Susanne Stoll-Kleemann
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View of cattle being fed for
The Challenges of factory farming.
Changing Dietary Behavior
Toward More
Sustainable Consumption
S hifting socially accustomed and personally habitual behavior is a tough task,
and achieving dietary change away from livestock-based foods in developed, emerging, and
developing economies offers particular challenges. This article seeks to investigate the more
personal behavioral factors that inhibit dietary change, bearing in mind the reinforcing and
4 EnvironmEnt www.EnvironmEntmagazinE.org voLUmE 57 nUmBEr 5
offers ways to embark on fresh social On Diet, Lazy Thinking,
learning through new networks of col- and Habit
lective engagement, and a willingness
to embrace new ethical frameworks. Aspects of personal behavior change
Such an approach requires innovative are examined first to illustrate that shift-
approaches to knowledge brokering by ing individual behavior through vol-
governments and by business and com- untary encouragement does not work.1
munity organizations, as well as to more This is followed by a survey of the more
open discussion of ethical dilemmas. convoluted combinations of collective
Finally, this article examines the role behavior shifts in the context of policy,
of sustainability science in activating economics, social awareness, learning
these two forces for enabling consen- tactics, and global food systems.
sual dietary change. This form of science
combines established forms of scientific
Fast Thinking in a
evidence gathering and analysis, with
Personal Context
coordination and engagement from bus-
iness, government, civil society, and The distinguished Nobel Econom-
community organizations, to form new ics Laureate Daniel Kahneman is well
perspectives and transformational energy known for his distinction between
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across all involved. Sustainability science spontaneously automatic “system 1” or
is still fledgling and shadowy. It is by no “fast thinking” and more carefully de-
means either understood or embraced by liberative “system 2” or “slow thinking”
academia or its other sector bedfellows. (see Boxes 1 and 2).2 The two styles are
Seeking to alter dietary behavior could be very connected and can readily morph
one of the early test cases for the success- into each other. Nevertheless, there
ful introduction of sustainability science are distinctions between the two ways
onto the world stage. of reasoning that are relevant for our
Box 1: Fast Thinking and Habitual Behavior
iStock/David Hughes
The fast thinker generates impressions, feelings, and inclinations that shape
the more rational variants of beliefs, attitudes, and intentions.2 (pp. 21, 22, 105) Fast
thinking enables problems to be interpreted narrowly, often with immediacy,
and segmentally. Fast thinking also responds more strongly to losses than to
gains, favors low probabilities especially of risks, neglects ambiguity and sup-
presses doubts, seeks to confirm through readily accessible beliefs, responds to
available evidence so tends to ignore absent evidence, and generates patterns
of ideas from a historical “bank” of experiences and past judgments that seem
interacting systemic impediments in- intuitively “right.” Kahneman points out that fast thinking “links a sense of cog-
troduced in the first article in this se- nitive ease to illusions of truth, pleasant feelings, and reduced vigilance.”2 (p. 105)
ries, “The Sustainability Challenges of One barrier at the individual level to progressive diet switching is the influ-
Our Meat and Dairy Diets.” This article ence of habitual behavior. Here we discover the essence of fast thinking. Habits
examines the patterns of thinking that tend to be repetitive, routine, reliable, reinforcing, and rewarding. Habits are
discourage the search for relevant infor- often triggered by cues or stimuli (hunger or social routine in the dietary case)
mation and inhibit exposure to inner- and are characterized by intrinsic, intuitive actions that are comfortable because
most ethical norms, including “existing they are familiar and patterned. Habits are also efficient as they do not require
habituation” supported by processes of attention to detail or to new information (which often can safely be ignored).
dissonance avoidance, and “lazy” belief Indeed it is precisely because habitual behaviors “fit” into personality, to experi-
reinforcement. ence, to custom, to social networks, and to culture, that they are so unexamined.
This article also seeks to explore the As a consequence, habitual behavior does not require constant refreshment of
external collective aspects of behavior the weighing of gains and losses, nor does it make any demands on uncom-
change, especially the degree of pre- fortable, dissonance-exposing self-searching of possible losses against estab-
paredness to engage with credibly of- lished gains.
fered but challenging knowledge. This
SEPtEmBEr/oCtoBEr 2015 www.EnvironmEntmagazinE.org EnvironmEnt 5
Most people view eating
animals as a
cultural norm, rather
than a choice.
set of social and psychological defense
mechanisms hides the contradictions
iStock/adlifemarketing
between values and behaviors, allowing
exponents to make exceptions to what
would normally be considered unethi-
cal. This view is encapsulated by Lough-
Consumption of meat is a learned habit. nan et al.3 (p. 107):
Eating animals can also be viewed
appraisal of possible shifts in personal highlights the moral dilemma involved as an extended case study on hu-
dietary behavior. in eating animals, a dilemma that all man morality. By examining a
Fast thinking helps the portrayal of people eventually have to resolve if di- single moral behavior, we can il-
meat and dairy products for a major- etary change is to take place. Garnett luminate how emotions (pleasure,
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ity in developed countries as “healthy,” et al.1 find that meat eating is flattening disgust, guilt), cognitions (catego-
affordable, unconnected to negative out except in East Asia. The drivers for rization, attribution, justification),
distant (in time, space, and emotion) reducing meat consumption are rising and personality characteristics
(values, beliefs, identities) combine
outcomes, and enjoyable.2 (p. 82) Food bus- cost, health concerns, and animal wel-
when people face everyday moral
inesses encourage such thinking in the fare considerations. Environmental as-
problems. In doing so, researchers
ways in which they market, place prod- pects receive less attention because they
have shown how emotion regula-
ucts on shelves, advertise, and seduc- are afforded less exposure.2 tion, mind perception, and moral
tively manage prices. Most people view eating animals as a judgment are intimately connected.
Most people eat meat yet care about cultural norm, rather than a choice. In
animals. Research has begun to examine meat-eating cultures around the world, Fast thinking buttresses the systemic
the psychological processes that allow people typically don’t think about why forces that encourage the meat eater not
people to negotiate this “meat paradox.”3 they find eating dogs disgusting and to delve deeply into more inner beliefs
Many engage in a diet that requires eating cows appetizing or vice versa, and into other social cues over personal
animals to be killed and to suffer. This or why they eat any animals at all. A and collective morality. Such patterns
are strengthened by habit. Both are re-
flections of the policy circumstances in
which livestock products are translated,
Box 2: Slow Thinking in a Learning Social Context interpreted, and unexamined.
The significance of this combination
In the Kahneman perspective, slow thinking rests on conscious awareness,
of perspective lies in the activation of
acuity, criticality, and, above all, active learning engagement. It requires effort,
norms and the scope for examining per-
attention, analysis, and considered judgement.2 Kahneman summarizes the at-
sonal ethics. Cognitive dissonance pro-
tributes of the slow thinkers: “They are more alert, more intellectually active,
cesses may subdue the scope for deeply
less willing to be satisfied with superficially attractive answers, more scepti-
addressing ethical positioning, even if
cal about their intentions.”2 (p. 46) Overall, the slow thinkers are more likely to
such perspectives come from external
be both analytically reflective and rationally engaged. They search memory,
valued sources (such as science or the-
they deliberately compute seemingly contradictory argument, they compare
ology or role models). But such mod-
evidence along chosen lines of assessment, and they plan their behavior to suit
els have their limitations. Shove4 (p. 1278)
their intentions and ethical norms.
stresses that the embedding context also
A start to analyzing relevant cognitive patterns for any diet changing assess-
has to shift; it is almost impossible to alter
ment is some appropriate mix of fast and slow thinking. The intuitive elements
personal behavior if the external contra-
of fast thinking shape the search processes of the slower and more purposeful
dictory cues do not change, and indeed
evidence seeker and assessor characteristics. Changing habitual behavior re-
may be reinforced:
quires shifts in ingrained outlooks, a willingness to stand apart from self-judged
peer group acceptance, and being supported by coordinated incentives and rel- Relevant societal innovation is
evant information. that in which contemporary rules
of the game are eroded; in which
6 Environment www.environmentmagazine.org VOLUME 57 NUMBER 5
Susanne Stoll-Kleemann
the status quo is called into ques-
tion and in which more sustainable
regimes of technologies, routines,
forms of know-how, conventions,
markets and expectations take hold
across all domains of daily life.
By activating a mix of personal and
socially encouraged norms, it is possible
to begin to make a link between the ac-
tual and acquired knowledge basis of
any framing of action (awareness). This
in turn depends on the manner in which
critically alerting knowledge is offered,
repeated, clearly organized, credible in
both content and sourcing, and devoid
of confusion and contradiction. Equally
important are the personal cognitive
processes of organizing all of this infor-
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mation into a coherent package.
Adopting Non-Livestock Diets:
The German Example
In our companion article we sum-
marized the underlying motivations for
shifting to vegetarianism and veganism.
The most important driver is concern
over animal welfare, followed by per-
sonal health. Environmental, religious,
and social reasons are becoming more
important but do not match other influ-
ences such as cost, health, and animal
welfare.3 Social justice aspects are begin-
ning to carry more weight and may well
rise in influence as food availability and
food price leaps afflict the hungry and
impoverished.
Around a billion people worldwide
are vegetarians or vegans. Germany cur-
rently has among of the highest propor-
tions of vegetarians (10%, 7.8 million)
and vegans (1.1%, 900,000) in the West-
ern world.8 A recent survey (“Forsa”)
estimates that 42 million Germans are Sign from a vegan restaurant touting a healthy diet.
part-time vegetarians (flexitarians).
This means that the majority of Ger-
mans (52%) consciously avoid eating “It is healthful, nutritionally ade-
meat on three or more days per week.9 quate, and may provide health benefits
There is a steadily expanding range
Experts estimate that by in the prevention and treatment of cer-
of vegetarian and vegan products in the 2020 at least one-fifth tain diseases. Well-planned vegetarian
supermarkets and in the menus of res- of Germans will consume diets are appropriate for individuals
taurants, organizational cafeterias, and a predominantly during all stages of the life cycle, in-
college cafeterias. The American Di- vegetarian diet. cluding pregnancy, lactation, infancy,
etetic Association actively recommends childhood, and adolescence, and for
a permanent vegetarian or vegan diet. athletes.”10
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2015 www.environmentmagazine.org environment 7
This position is supported by the Establishing a fresh The food companies and the food
German Official Agencies and is more moral framing might service sector already provide nonmeat
understood and admitted by the whole or lower meat convenience meal alter-
medical health sector.
enable those switching natives. In response to persistent peti-
Experts estimate that by 2020 at least away from livestock- tioning by PETA (People for the Ethi-
one-fifth of Germans will consume a based diets to feel pride cal Treatment of Animals), IKEA sells
predominantly vegetarian diet. The de- and personal esteem in vegan meatballs to signal a significant
cisive influences here are the compelling “doing the sustainably reduction in carbon and methane emis-
arguments against meat while vegetar- right thing” even when sions. A marketing director of IKEA ex-
ian food is becoming increasingly avail- plains that this sends a strong signal to
able, more varied, and less expensive.
others around are not
large target groups.13
Many prominent role models are doing the same. In Israel, change agents in civil soci-
taking a lead. One is a popular 33-year- ety groups are bringing about a national
old vegan chef and cookbook bestseller shift toward veganism. Some 1 million
and fitness model (German with Turk- consumers, out of Israel’s population of
ish roots) Attila Hildmann.11 Actors, The particular reasons why there 8 million, no longer eat meat, and 40%
singers, presenters, and sportsmen are so many more vegetarians in Ger- claim that they have friends or relatives
are also making their views publicly many compared with other developed who have shifted to nonmeat diets over
known. The German Vegetarian Asso- countries are not well researched. The the past year. Overall, this wave of di-
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ciation (VEBU) has launched a service whole issue is attractively promoted in etary change has increased in demand
portal for community gastronomy. The the media (TV, print press, social media, for vegan dishes in restaurants by more
aim is to improve and expand the veg- and movies) as a very modern and re- than one-third. Segal suggests that this
etarian offerings in restaurants, cafete- sponsible lifestyle. In adventurous Ber- pattern has been encouraged by me-
rias, hospitals, and schools, and above lin it is really “in” to be “veggie,” with dia celebrities, by exposés of animal
all to make it more appreciated as being a vast food infrastructure responding suffering and by scandals in the food
“sustainable.” In-house cookery train- to this life choice.12 There is also a cul- industry.14
ing programs are adopting vegetarian tural mood of high social responsibility.
recipes adapted for use in large-scale A lot of younger Germans have learned
kitchens. Together with the Compass in schools and through civil society that
Group, the biggest catering company they have the power in their own ac- A New Moral Framework
worldwide, VEBU has a specific policy tions to change not only their individual
Establishing a fresh moral fram-
of advocating meat-free and sustainable moral norms, but also those of society
ing might enable those switching away
food in the workplace. as a whole.
from livestock-based diets to feel pride
and personal esteem in “doing the sus-
tainably right thing” even when others
Preparing vegetarian healthy food is fun and simple. around are not doing the same. The
strength of this moral framework may
lead to individuals encouraging others
to adopt the same moral perspective. It
is likely that a deep sense of moral com-
mitment may form a key component in
shifting and retaining new forms of di-
etary behavior.
All of this is very much easier to pro-
claim than to deliver. To be credible, evi-
dence of the links between biodiversity
losses and ecosystem disruptions needs
to be set in the consequences for future
generations: likely price hikes, possible
socially unjust and perverse outcomes
for the already poor and hungry, and
such outcomes for “identifiable” biodi-
iStock/skynesher
versity (beloved animal and invertebrate
species and plant life). Then there is the
moral case for intervention. This will
8 Environment www.environmentmagazine.org VOLUME 57 NUMBER 5
require much thoughtful discussion, ambiguities that arise between sourc- This exercise will also require conso-
including theologians, philosophers, ing meat consumption and shifting at- nant mainstream and social media en-
politicians, and ethical investment and titudes and values. To be effective, a gagement, which also needs to be exam-
trading enterprises. There is also a fas- social marketing strategy also needs to ined in preparatory research. Research
cinating conversation to be instigated target the key stakeholders in the entire projects connected to sustainability sci-
around “people’s social values”: the role “governance” system, such as regulatory ence offered in this article could provide
of mentors, drawn from familiar com- bodies, retailers, producers, service pro- backing for this set of approaches.
munities, acting as ambassadors, refer- viders, media, and others.
ents, and enablers helping to meet the We offer four avenues to achieve this Progressive and
requirements of “keeping at it” and pro- framework. Continuous Campaigns
viding encouragement and support.
Culture shifts away from meat eating Business leaders and influential role
create a growing sense of “dissonance Interactive Learning models could proclaim the advantages
discomfort” and alert contradictory or of lower livestock linked diets in the
incomplete beliefs influenced in turn An interactive learning process light of these various “collective con-
by personal histories and social con- should be conducted in schools, versations.” In response to the “nega-
texts. Social marketing strategies can churches, social and mainstream me- tive” points made in the preceding,
be developed to alleviate cognitive dis- dia, and where people gather to con- there should be “positive” messages
sonance and reduce the consumption verse and to learn. These dialogues about dietary flexibility, animal health,
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of factory-farmed meat in favor of or- should make use of organized informa- environmentally and socially friendly
ganically produced and more environ- tion to show that the many outcomes production and marketing, choice of lo-
mentally friendly livestock foods. Social associated with livestock-product-rich cal and cultural foods, personal health
marketing research places greater em- diets will lead to more costly and wasted guarantees, and freedom of self-identity
phasis on exploring motivations for be- food, to more socially unwanted dis- set in terms of longer life (health ben-
havioral change, in particular the values tress, to a weakened planet for offspring, efits), gender (choice benefits), and
and attitudes that bring about and/or and to poorer personal health—in es- youth (ecological and generational be-
increase the behavioral and structural sence, to socially unwanted outcomes. quest benefits). To make these positive
Box 3: Collective Behavior Change and New Habituation
We are entering a world of norms and intent. This world is also infused with social relations, and the many interconnec-
tions between personal acts and external drives and biases such as economic incentives and regulations, policy domains, and
shifting cultural values. Andrew Darnton provides a full survey of the relevant social psychological approaches.5 He points
to the connections between automacity or fast thinking habits: intent or expectation arising from any act, and conformity to
emerging social referents. Ultimately, sustainability eating should become just another element of personal convention and
household routine: day-to-day conformity in a “new habituation.” To get there will require some form of shakeup of preex-
isting behavioral stabilities and systemic biases. This may result through emotional reaction to new information or biasing
conditions, especially if such information is offered in unusual ways (such as falling into personal ill health, being exposed
to scenarios of environmental castrophes over many generations, and/or impacts that go against norms of social justice).
This may also be triggered by the activities of consumer and environmental organizations working to alter cultural norms.
Kurt Lewin sees habit as being both resistant to change and the engine of change. If social norms shift, so do relevant
external cues. If it is the “norm” to link meatless foods with regard to personal health, to community-based relations, and to
next generation decency, then readjusted habits could form in the wake of the “new conformity.” Lewin showed that loyalty
and conformity to social reference groups help to determine beliefs, interpretations and personal norms. If the beliefs of the
reference group shifts and their behavior is opened up to refreshing reinterpretation, then “new habituations” can form and
progress.6
A step in this direction is the work by Fisher et al. around the joins between information, motivation, and behavior.7 This
has been applied to health-related actions such as avoidance of HIV exposure and of liver failure through excessive alcohol
consumption. The critical feature here is attentiveness to learning propensity. This means targeting information to the inter-
ests and existing knowledges of the participant, triggering the sense of efficacy and self-motivation, and introducing social
norms in the context of the learner’s referent group values. In the context of dietary change, the school or the church or the
youth center could form a valued basis for such learning dynamics. Information should be offered as loops of innovative
discovery.
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2015 www.environmentmagazine.org environment 9
Why not put exciting research area is to identify the willing in food production more generally. Gar-
vegetarian foods in school first movers in livestock-based food nett et al. stress the patchy understand-
businesses who are ready to change the ing of dietary behavior in developing
cafeterias and again ask rules of the game. countries, the lack of consistency in the
pupils or their parents to messages and the policy outcomes of
argue for a meat-based Promotion of “Healthy Food” focusing on health-related prods and
alternative? Towns and Streets environment-sustainability gains, the
failure to move far beyond voluntarism
Participants and residents can gain in regulation, and the paucity of case
pride in their new “conforming” behav- work in experimental approaches to the
messages stick, there will need to be ior and begin to acquire “sustainable di- “knowledge–action gap.” Above all, they
supportive arrangements for business etary habits.” We address this in our new bemoan the absence of integrated ap-
backing, for the breakup of the global habituation section (Box 3): There is a proaches to research, experimentation,
and national lobbies, and for the cham- lot of supportive literature over com- and learning.1 (pp. 75–85)
pioning of new social cultures of lower munity-based engagement and social An unexamined moral dilemma
livestock diets. In addition, there should learning, which we cover in our review takes up the invisible baton conducting
be research, supported by business and of community-based behavior change much of this from this article. This is to
by consumer organizations, to explore in Germany and elsewhere. apply the same processes of “sustain-
how fresh approaches to “nudging” able diet habituation” to those releasing
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might be pursued. For example, why not themselves from poverty and underem-
offer vegetarian (and vegan) foods in all ployment in emerging economies; those
catering and on planes, in all hospitals,
The Policy Dilemmas
who are beginning to occupy burgeon-
and at conferences, and ask customers There are still many intractable policy ing cities; those who are less connected
to sign in to asking for meat-based al- measures that need to be redesigned in to the natural world; and those who
ternatives as an expression of “dietary order to support the direction of travel
requirements”? And why not put excit- in lowering animal product consump-
ing vegetarian foods in school cafeterias tion. These include measures to alter Nearly four-fifths of pigs
and again ask pupils or their parents to perverse subsidies toward favoring meat reared in China are
argue for a meat-based alternative? If production and supportive subsidies for
nothing else, the exercise of suggesting
housed in very intensive
soybean farmers in the United States
such nudging would cause the kinds of such that these soybeans are mainly used
units, full of antibiotics
learning processes that lie at the heart of for feeding animals but also exported to and hormones, and
the new habituation. China, and incorporating relevant and creating huge problems
linked social and environmental costs of waste effluent.
Mentoring
Mentoring fits in perfectly with the
practices of shifting social and cultural
referents and for assisting the socially
and economically disadvantaged to
address diet changes with a degree of
calm and progressive purpose. Success-
ful mentoring is undertaken by those
trusted by those who are mentored, with
whom they can engage with a high de-
gree of comfort. Here surely is a place
for social enterprise to flourish, as men-
toring is a creative job market, attracting
self-starting social entrepreneurs. Such
a creative program of learning and men-
toring fits in well with the social and
iStock/vladacanon
moral aspects of behavior change. And
it should be paid for through the many
health and environmental benefits that
diet change can create. So another key Typical view of pigs representative of factory farming.
10 Environment www.environmentmagazine.org VOLUME 57 NUMBER 5
iStock/smithcjb
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A great variety of organic vegetables appetizingly displayed in a shop.
want to make a statement about their beginnings of a policy interest in more that we are not being advocates here—
newfound prosperity. Here is a real dif- efficient livestock production systems, just pointing out the policy dilemmas in
ficulty. For these consumers, the kinds a move away from fat-enhancing veg- prospect.
of processes outlined in this analysis are etable oils, greater concern over animal
not as likely to prove effective. welfare, and, with growing urban afflu-
Take the case of the expanding pig ence, a shift to more quality foods, in- Implications for
production and consumption of pros- cluding a move away from meat.16 Their Sustainability Science
pering China.15 The average Chinese analysis also points out that the public
eats 35 kg of pork per year, five times health and environmental aspects of We conclude by providing a sustain-
what their predecessors consumed in Chinese livestock production are by no ability science perspective of the genu-
1979. Nearly four-fifths of pigs reared means a matter of public concern or po- ine challenges that face campaigners
in China are housed in very intensive litical attention.16 The authors are also and motivated people when addressing
units, full of antibiotics and hormones, convinced that these matters are bound this theme. One critical blockage here
and creating huge problems of waste to become more critical in the light of is the need to work with regulators and
effluent. For every kilogram of pork, the Chinese commitment to greenhouse food corporations, whose ethos does
6 kg of soya or corn feed is required. gas emission reduction, land use deg- not normally extend to moving diets
Even though China produces much radation, pollution more generally, and away from livestock-based products,
home-grown feed, more than half of the public health in particular. yet whose cooperation will be required
global soya production and well over To establish a diet-changing recipe by researchers working in sustainabil-
one-third of corn trade is destined for will require prior commitment by the ity partnerships if voluntary dietary
Chinese hogs.15 China has not signed big livestock-consuming countries and change is to be attempted. We also note
up for sustainable roundtables of either polities to face up to the kinds of chal- the research evidence summarized by
soya or corn, and is currently pursu- lenges we offer here. Here surely is where Garnett et al. showing that consumers
ing agricultural land purchases in the the learning and behavior-shifting pro- will not be sufficiently moved to switch
United States and Africa to assure its cesses will require a global campaign of their livestock diet preferences in a
porcine trade flows. Garnett and Wilkes awareness raising, of corporate buy-in, hurry, nor by any whiff of compulsion
point to a possible 50% increase of meat of much-improved redistribution of or moral hassle. Here is a test case for
consumption in China over the decade consumer affordability, and of commu- the emerging success of sustainability
2010 to 2020 with a 70% take of world nity-encouraged moral transformation, science. Like it or not, the world has to
soya trade (from 63% in 2010) by the which are the hallmarks of social trans- confront the necessity of engaging with
end of the decade.16 They also note the formation for sustainability. We stress the wider (moral, societal, equitable,
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2015 www.environmentmagazine.org environment 11
iStock/SolStock
Before retiring in July 2005, Tim O’Riordan was a pro-
fessor of environmental sciences at the University of East
Anglia in Norwich, England.
Susanne Stoll-Kleemann is Professor and Chair of Sus-
tainability Science and Applied Geography at the Univer-
sity of Greifswald, Germany, with previous positions at
Humboldt University of Berlin, at the Potsdam Institute
for Climate Impact Research, and at the Swiss Federal In-
stitute of Technology (ETH) in Zurich with research on
biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation.
Notes
1. T. Garnett, S. Mathewson, P. Angelides, and F.
Borthwick, Policies and Actions To Shift Eating Patterns:
What Works? A Review of the Evidence of the Effectiveness
of Interventions Aimed at Shifting Diets in More Sustain-
able and Healthy Directions (Oxford, UK: Food Climate
Research Network (FCRN) and Chatham House, 2015).
2. D. Kahneman, Thinking, Fast and Slow (London,
UK: Penguin, 2011).
3. S. Loughnan, B. Bastian, and N. Haslam, “The Psy-
School children should get accustomed to eating healthy vegetables as early as possible. chology of Eating Animals,” Current Directions in Psycho-
logical Science 23 (2014): 104–8.
4. E. Shove, “Beyond the ABC: climate change policy
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12 Environment www.environmentmagazine.org VOLUME 57 NUMBER 5The MIT Press
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