Learning and learners in early childhood curricula: Australia, Japan and China - Dr Karen ...
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Curric Perspect
DOI 10.1007/s41297-017-0007-9
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Learning and learners in early childhood curricula: Australia,
Japan and China
Karen Guo 1 & Kiyomi Kuramochi 2 & WanYing Huang 3
Received: 22 September 2016 / Revised: 9 December 2016 / Accepted: 17 January 2017
# Australian Curriculum Studies Association 2017
Abstract Conceptions of learning and learners underpin Keywords Learning, learners . Early childhood curriculum .
and lend legitimacy to curriculum decisions. This study Cross-national comparison . Australia . Japan . China
engages with the national early childhood curriculum doc-
uments of three countries, Australia, Japan and China in
order to understand their conceptions of learning and
learners. The lens through which we explore learning Introduction
and learners is one that privileges curriculum as an im-
portant document in which the concepts of learning and Decades of research support the notion that early childhood
learners are understood. The purpose of this cross-national education is a critical instrument of a successful social and
comparison is twofold: it analyses learning and learners in global development. The Association for Childhood
each curriculum document to consider ways in which the Education International named 2012–2022 the Decade for
concepts are constituted; and it compares the three curric- Childhood (Sutterby 2012). This has provided inspiration for
ula with regard to their expressions of the concepts in many efforts and commitments to improving young children’s
order to identify how national and global contexts influ- learning and development.
ence early childhood curricula. Concept analysis provides Over the last decade, the number of countries forming their
an approach with which to explore learning and learners, own national early childhood curricula has increased substan-
and consequently a useful way of understanding them tially (Nyland and Ng 2016). This interest in national curricula
across the three documents. While findings highlight may be a result of government authorities focusing on educa-
some similar articulations of the concepts, significant dif- tional improvement and extending their role as regulators of
ferences are detected. It is argued that the documents pro- basic standards to embrace a broader responsibility for quality
duce distinctive national and global versions of learning through influencing curriculum decision-making. An impor-
and learners. The study is expected to become a catalyst tant purpose for many is to develop a national regulation or
for national and international discussions of key curricu- guideline for early childhood practice (Millei 2011; Nyland
lum terms. and Ng 2016).
Central to many early childhood curricula is a distinctive
image they create of young learners and the desirable out-
comes that children achieve in learning (McLachlan et al.
2012). It has been argued that views of learning and learners
* Karen Guo
karen.guo@deakin.edu.au form the basis of curriculum orientation and shape how cur-
riculum is framed (McLachlan et al. 2012; Nyland and Ng
2016). According to Carr and Lee (2012), significant efforts
1
Faculty of Arts and Education, Deakin University, have been directed towards conceptualizing learning and
Burwood, Australia
learners in early childhood curriculum. The image of learners
2
Faculty of Education, Tokyo Gakugei University, Koganei, Japan and outcomes of learning are embedded in the early childhood
3
Bangde Vocational College, Shanghai, China curriculum documents of Australia, Japan and China.Curric Perspect
This paper positions itself within the ongoing discussion on childhood educators in their curriculum decision making and
learning and learners in early childhood education, contribut- supported by a range of legislative innovations, the EYLF
ing in particular to discussions within curriculum studies. aimed to Bextend and enrich children’s learning from birth to
There are two considerations which lead us to believe that 5 years and through [to] the transition to school^ (p.5).
we are justified in using curriculum in studying learning and The growth of interest in early childhood education in
learners, the first being that learning and learners are essential Australia is related not only to the many changes and develop-
concepts in early childhood curriculum documents, and the ments in the country, but also to a new globalized need for
second is that pedagogical practices and children’s learning producing world citizens and for means of developing such
are influenced by how the concepts are expressed in the doc- citizens under the circumstances of economic, educational and
uments (Waite-Stupiansky and Cohen 2013). The aim of the technological competition (Millei and Jones 2014). From this
paper is to use the national curriculum of Australia, Japan and perspective, children are perceived as global citizens. Learning
China as a site to consider ways in which learning and learners to use appropriate means to relate to people, places and things
are constituted. Our interest in exploring learning and learners around the world is important for their learning and develop-
in the three documents is also underpinned by an acknow- ment. The most fundamental premise of early childhood edu-
ledgement of the increasing globalisation of educational think- cation is thus to shape Bparticular relationships, responsibilities,
ing, as well as an appreciation that meanings of curriculum are and expectations of children in a global society^ (Millei and
negotiated differently in different contexts (Nyland and Ng Jones 2014, p.67). For this reason, the EYLF is designed to be
2016). In doing so, the research calls into question issues an outcome-based model within a play-based approach to learn-
related to the specific context of each country and the effects ing (Petriwskyj 2014). At the centre of all this, it is the conside-
of globalization on its early childhood curriculum (Gupta ration of skills, capabilities, dispositions and competencies that
2014). By providing a comparative analysis of learning and new generations of Australians need, to tackle the social, eco-
learners in the three documents, the aim is to establish a shared nomic and environmental challenges facing them in a rapidly
and joint interaction, to explore differences and mutual com- changing and complex world (Davis and Elliott 2009).
plementarity between the concepts and to make visible the
effects of national and global influences on early childhood Japan
curricula. The study also fills a gap in the research literature
on learning and learners. While much has already been learned, Early childhood education in Japan caters for children from
little work has been done through the analysis of curriculum 6 months to 6 years of age. Kindergartens and day nurseries
documents. The study is thus expected to become a catalyst for are two types of institutions for young children that used to exist
national and international discussions of key curriculum terms. under two different systems: education sector and welfare sector
(Hegde et al. 2014). In 2003, attempts were made by the central
government, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science
Early childhood curriculum in the three countries and Technology and Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare
to collaborate the two systems in response to the changing social
Australia dynamics of the Japanese society, such as an increasing partici-
pation of mothers in the labour force which resulted in more
Early childhood education in Australia covers both preschool children attending early childhood education and care services.
and early years of school across birth to 8 years (Raban 2011). A significant reform in Japanese early childhood education
Ever since the commencement of the United Nations was made in 2008, when the ‘Course of Study for
Convention on the Rights of the Child (2005), educational Kindergartens’ was introduced as the early childhood curri-
goals for young Australians were put on the reform agenda culum standards. The document was taking a position that all
in Australian education. In 2009, Bthe Council of Australian preschool children aged from three to five should enjoy the
Governments signed the National Partnership Agreement on same quality of education in order to make good foundation
the National Quality Agenda for Early Childhood Education for lifelong learning (National Institute for Educational Policy
and Care, and since this time early childhood education and Research 2016).
care has gained considerable attention after unanimous accep- Government policy and support to early childhood educa-
tance of the significance of the early years of life^ (Raban tion closely followed the launch of the Course of Study for
2011, p.10). One of the most remarkable early childhood de- Kindergartens. A comprehensive support system for children
velopments was the introduction of a national curriculum and childcare was introduced and this system aimed to provide
framework, entitled ‘Belong, Being and Becoming: The high quality early childhood education programs for all young
Early Years Learning Framework for Australia/EYLF’ children and families, to enable children to be raised with little
(Department of Education, Employment and Workplace burden to their families, and to facilitate the growth of all chil-
Relations/DEEWR 2009). Serving as a guide to early dren (National Institute for Educational Policy Research 2016).Curric Perspect
China children play a huge role in the process and they are
autonomous and active learners. In addition, because of the
In China, there are mainly two types of institutions responsible complexity of environments, the role of young learners is
for childcare and early education: kindergartens and nurseries. recognized to be increasingly complex. Chen et al. (2011) note
Children aged from three to 6 years old are normally catered that young children are expected to learn towards a broad and
for in kindergartens. Those younger than three are cared and complex range of goals because of the dynamic nature of their
educated in nurseries or at home. learning and learning environments.
Since the early 1980s when China introduced the open The relationship between young learners and their complex
door policy to the outside world, there have been dramatic learning environments becomes especially acute in the case of
changes in its social, economic and educational arenas. The an increasing inclusion of modern technologies or digital
development of early childhood education was no exception forms of learning in early childhood education. In an attempt
to this trend. Years of opening up have made foreign preschool to examine young children’s play, learning and development,
theories and practices popularized among Chinese kindergar- Edwards (2014) noted the prominent role of digital technolo-
ten practitioners, contributing to a rethinking of kindergarten gies in children’s lives, stating that Bcontemporary play poten-
curricular practices in China, and subsequently to reforms in tially represents a process of direct participation in the digital
Chinese early childhood education (Liu and Feng 2005). In consumerist context^ (p.230). For her and the others (Kervin
1989, the Chinese government issued trial Regulations and 2016; Paliologou 2016), digital technologies constitute an im-
subsequently Guidelines for kindergarten education. These portant conceptual and practical basis on which to understand
two published policy documents epitomize these official ef- children’s learning in contemporary learning environments.
forts to shift the principle from a teacher-directed, subject- Among many attempts to explain the concepts of learning
based and skill-focused teaching mode towards a more and learners, the four kinds of learning goals presented by
child-centered, integrated-day and play-oriented curriculum Katz (2008) is a helpful framework. These goals make it clear
(Zhu and Zhang 2008). what young children should be learning and how they play the
The efforts made by the Chinese government to modernize role of learners. According to Katz, learning in early child-
early childhood education are related not only to the aspiration hood years is manifested in terms of 1) obtaining knowledge,
for catching up with international educational developments, 2) acquiring skills, 3) developing dispositions and 4)
but also to an urgent need for producing competitive citizens experiencing feelings. How children act as learners depends
for the 21st century (Tobin et al. 2009, 2011). Children’s learn- on these goals and how important each goal is in their lives.
ing has been conceptualized in ways that they acquire the For example, if obtaining knowledge is given the most impor-
necessary skills, knowledge and abilities in order to function tance, the learner is that of a taught child. This identity can
as active and responsible citizens both in China and the wider then be shaped by systematic practice and teacher instructions.
world (Law 2013). Drawing on ideas taken from abroad in- Among all the learning goals, the concept of disposition,
cluding those of the United States and Italy, the Chinese gov- and more specifically Bhabits of mind or tendencies to respond
ernment has advanced a new kindergarten curriculum docu- to certain kinds of situations^ is evidently a cornerstone of
ment that supports the development of competitive citizens Katz’s conceptualization^ (Katz 2008, p.54). Katz essential-
(Tobin et al. 2009, 2011). Clearly, the most fundamental pre- izes desirable learning dispositions, such as persistence and
mise of Chinese early childhood education is Bpreparing curiosity, as being important to young learners and conse-
young children to participate in a new, much more open quently inform understandings of the learner roles that chil-
society^ (Hsueh et al. 2004, p.458). dren are best suited to play (Katz 2008).
There is also a growing body of literature on children’s
working theories to depict complex possibilities of learning.
Theorizing learning and learners in early childhood Based on both sociocultural and cognitive approaches,
education working theories is a holistic learning construct. It does so,
Hargraves (2014) argues, by suggesting Ba more complex and
Theorizing about young children’s learning and their learner multi-faceted knowledge structure^, and emphasizing Bchild-
image has traditionally been dominated by developmental ren’s remarkable capacity for creating theories^ (p.320).
ideology suggesting that learning is an incremental pro- The linkage between working theories and capable learners
cess in which learners have little control because Bthey are also means that young children are conceived as agentic
innocent and in need of protection^ (Smith 2015, p.2). More learners who shape and lead their own learning process.
recently, the focus has shifted to a consideration of the rela- As definitions and expectations of learning and learners are
tionship between learning environments and children’s own also culturally and contextually influenced, differences are
abilities and competencies. The use of learning environments likely when they are presented in different national curriculum
to achieve important goals rests on the recognition that frameworks. Therefore, in seeking to consider the meanings ofCurric Perspect
the concepts, it is important to locate an understanding within Specifically, the work in each step commenced with our
specific social and cultural contexts in which they are framed. mapping the national curriculum documents with the features
While there is strong research relating to learning and learners of learning and learners noted. Our work was supported by a
in early childhood education, very little is known about how content analysis technique to explore related text phrases. We
these concepts are considered in different countries. The cur- undertook frequency counts for content words of salience for
rent study takes some preliminary steps in this direction. our analysis following themes emerging from the literature
Emphasized in the study is the importance of situating learning review (e.g. knowledge, skill, disposition, feeling, identity,
and learners within particular contexts, acknowledging the working theory). We also looked for frequent collocates,
influence of individual cultures, and recognizing their position words which appeared together with the key words learning
within the global dynamic. and learner.
We used the word cloud tool, Worldle in each analysis to
further identify the frequencies of occurrence of words asso-
The study design: tri-analysing the concepts ciated with learning and learners in each document, in order to
gain a better impression of where and how these words were
The aim of this study is to analyse the concepts of learning and positioned (Fig. 1).
learners in the national early childhood documents of We then undertook a close study of the sentences and par-
Australia, Japan and China. The questions the study aims to agraphs of the text corpus identified. In particular, we checked
answer are: how the concepts of learning and learners appeared in the
identified texts and how the parts fit together and their under-
& What constitutes learning in each national curriculum lying beliefs. Questions such as ‘what is this saying’, ‘what
document? does this mean?’ and ‘how does this express a belief?’ helped
& What are expected of children as learners in each national us with the process. Essential to the process of analysis has
curriculum document? also been the interpretation of national contexts in the three
& What are the similarities and differences of the three coun- countries, taking into consideration of their history, social and
try curriculum documents in terms of their expressions of cultural characteristics.
learning and learners and what may be the reasons for the
similarities and differences?
Looking into the EYLF: identifying learning
Because the concepts of learning and learners are at the and learners in the Australian curriculum document
very centre of our deliberations, the study is conducted
through Walker and Avant’s (2005) concept analysis that clar- The central message about learning in EYLF (DEEWR 2009,
ifies concepts, their characteristics and their relations to other p.9):
concepts in the documents. The lens through which we ex-
plore learning and learners is one that privileges a close focus Children’s learning is dynamic, complex and holistic.
on the expression of the concepts and their surrounding Physical, social, emotional, personal, spiritual, creative,
phrases and statements. cognitive and linguistic aspects of learning are all intri-
According to Walker and Avant (2005), it is very important cately interwoven and interrelated.
that concept analysis is undertaken by people who are inter-
ested in the concepts, and have associated with them in their This message draws on a range of theoretical perspectives
own work. For our research, the three researchers came from which suggest that understandings of learning and learners
the three countries of the study. We have all taught and represent the construction of many learning aspects through
researched in early childhood education, and our work has a process-oriented and integrated lens, including the develop-
engaged us with the national curriculum documents. The im- ment of identity, connection and contribution to the world,
petus for the study was provided from our collective desire to wellbeing, confidence, involvement and effective communi-
advance our understanding of early childhood curricula, espe- cation. As stated, the EYLF is underpinned by a range of
cially the curriculum terms of learning and learners. perspectives, including Bdevelopmental theories, socio-
Our concept analysis was a lengthy experience involving cultural theories, socio-behaviourist theories, critical theories
three major steps, characterized as internal, external and cross- and post structuralist theories^ (DEEWR 2009, p.11). These
analysis, which we called the process of tri-analysing. The positions have been appropriated within the document as a
process involved three of us 1) analysing our own national justification for a multifaceted approach to perceiving learning
curriculum document; 2) analysing the other two documents; and learners.
3) sharing initial findings, reviewing them, and then making A specific emphasis on children as involved and confident
decisions on the final findings. learners has been strongly contemplated in the EYLF. WhileCurric Perspect
Fig. 1 Example of Wordle analysis
there are five learning outcomes detailed in the document, this ideas about knowledge and learning that suit the ideology of
emphasis is obviously located in the fourth learning outcome children’s rights are prevalent. It states, for example, Bthe im-
and its associated sub-outcomes: portance of children’s right to be a child and experience the
joy of childhood^ (p.20). ‘Right’, in this way, includes the
& Children are active and involved learners extent of existence exercised by children themselves, includ-
ing being acknowledged as who they are, Bhaving a right to
– Children develop dispositions for learning such as curi- belong to many communities^ (p.22), and B[having] their
osity, cooperation… rights to participate in decisions that affect them including
– Children develop a range of skills and processes such as their learning^ (p.9). As described in the document, it is the
problem solving. concept of being that focuses on Bchildren in the here and
– Children transfer and adapt what they have learned from now^ which offers a foundation for the emphasis on children’s
one context to another right in the document.
– Children resource their own learning through connecting Aspirations for children’s future are also identified as an
with people, places, technologies and natural and proc- important factor in guiding the EYLF’s articulation of learning
essed materials (p.34). and learners. What is essential in children’s learning is that
they Bhave the best start in life to create a better future for
We can see from the above points that the framework posits themselves and for the nation^ (p. 5). A significant aspect of
an optimal balance between the development of dispositions the document’s engagement with children’s future is its em-
and skills. It stresses learning processes, children’s ability to phasis on ‘becoming’. It is explained that ‘becoming’ empha-
transfer learning across contexts and the importance of chil- sises that children should learn Bto participate fully and active-
dren’s agency to resource learning. ly in society^ (p.7). This point again highlights the importance
In addition, the framework underlines that play is crucially of active and involved learning of young children.
important in children’s learning, illustrated by points such as, The importance of the relationship between children’s
Ba specific emphasis on play-based learning^ (p.5). The word learning and their learning contexts, particularly people in
‘play’ appears 59 times in the document, and it is the most their lives is well developed in the EYLF. Many parts of the
frequently used term. The Framework describes play as an documents show that children’s families, cultures, teachers
important contributor to children’s participation, engagement, and peers are closely linked in a way that orientates children’s
extended thinking and the development of positive disposi- learning towards their relationship with others in the social
tions towards learning. and cultural environment. Terms such as family, culture, com-
The notion of children’s rights can be easily located in the munity, people and relationship are frequently used in the
document as closely related to children’s learning. Particular document in a way as follows:Curric Perspect
Children learn about themselves and construct their own Study for Kindergartens. ‘Play’ is used 22 times and described
identity within the context of their families and commu- as a form of learning to, for example, Bmaintain emotional
nities. This includes their relationships with people, stability, to acquire physical agility^ (p.17), Bplay outdoors
places and things and the actions and responses of others willingly^ (p.5), or enhance Bchildren’s interest, curiosity
(p.20). and abilities^ (p.6).
The entire document consists of three parts, including ideas
both for learning and teaching. The second part of the docu-
ment spells out the subject areas for young children: health,
Looking into the course of study for kindergartens: human relationships, environment, language and expression.
identifying learning and learners in the Japan The intention and hope for young Japanese learners are:
curriculum document
& Developing a healthy physical and mental [state], and fos-
Explicit in the recognition of learning in early childhood edu- tering children’s abilities to independently maintain a
cation as embedded in the Course of Study for Kindergartens healthy and safe life.
is an acknowledgement that Beducation during early child- & Developing self-reliance and fostering the ability to com-
hood is extremely important in cultivating a foundation for municate with others in order to associate with and sup-
lifelong character building, and the fundamental aim of kin- port each other.
dergarten education is to educate young children through their & Fostering children’s abilities to relate to the environment
environment, taking into consideration their specific needs at with curiosity and inquisition, and to incorporate this into
this age^ (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and their daily life.
Technology 2008, p.1). & Developing the will and attitude to verbally express expe-
This statement provides a first basis for consideration of riences and thoughts in one’s own words, as well as to
what might constitute learning and learners in Japanese early listen to others’ spoken words, and fostering an under-
childhood education. There is very little on the articulation of standing of language and skills of expression.
the concept of learning in the document. There is no mention & Developing rich feelings and the ability to express oneself,
of the learner at all. The word learning appears seven times, and enhancing creativity by expressing experiences and
four of which are used in conjunction with environment as thoughts in their own words.
‘learning environment’. It occurs at another time in relation
to voluntary activity: Ba child’s voluntary activity is an impor- According to Katz (2008) and Hargraves (2014), learning
tant aspect of learning which cultivates a foundation for the is a multidimensional process, encompassing knowledge,
balanced development of physical and mental^ (p.1). The skill, disposition, feeling and working theories. The document
word also emerges in considerations of children’s growing makes very little direct reference to these learning forms but
sense of morality: Bchildren gradually develop trust and com- gives much emphasis on ability, as seen from the above list.
passion toward others by experiencing, then learning how to As such, the image adopted by the Japanese curriculum doc-
overcome altercations and setbacks^ (p.8). A further occur- ument is that of the able child. Children are expected to de-
rence of learning is related to teachers’ work with children: velop the abilities of independence, self-reliance, curiosity,
Bteachers should place importance on processes enabling chil- inquisitiveness, and expressiveness.
dren to learn to think for themselves, by maintaining a rela-
tionship with their surrounding environment during play, and
then developing curiosity about their surrounding^ (p.10). Looking into guidelines for kindergarten education:
In the first chapter, the document specifies the three key identifying learning and learners in the Chinese
principles of learning and teaching, characterized by curriculum document
Bvoluntary activities, play-centred [teacher] instruction and
individual characteristics of each child^ (p.1). It is possible In the Chinese Guidelines for Kindergarten Education, learn-
to infer that the Course of Study for Kindergartens places an ing is conceptualized as an holistic construct (Ministry of
emphasis on voluntary activity, play, children’s individual Education in China 2001). BCurriculum areas consist of five
characteristics, moral development, and independent thinking. domains including health, languages, social studies, sciences
There is a strong emphasis on children’s voluntary activity as and the arts^ (p.2). In order for children to have a well-
the document states it is Bessential to their [young children’s] rounded education, it is important that Bteachers organize the
development through fully demonstrating their abilities in an learning of these domains into a cohesive whole and into the
emotionally stable manner^ (p.1). daily routines of kindergarten^ (p. 27). To maximize chil-
The attempt to construct a play-oriented childhood for dren’s learning potential across domains, teachers also need
young children is also explicitly embedded in the Course of to Bmake good use of surrounding learning contexts^ (p. 27).Curric Perspect
These include Binvolving peers, teachers, parents, communi- Looking across the early childhood curricula:
ties and wider social and cultural environments to extend chil- discussing learning and learners
dren’s learning and experiences^ (p. 10). Emphasis on this
integrated learning is prevalent in the document. As stated, In early childhood studies, the discourses of child-centred
the construction of the Guidelines drew on a range of perspec- learning, with the emphasis on play, children’s rights,
tives, and particularly those imported from abroad, such as the identity and agency, the significance of human relationships
Project Approach, Reggio Emilia, Multiple Intelligence and and the importance of holistic development appear to have
Montessori which suggest understandings of learning is also become the global discourse of learning and learners, much
an holistic concept. Behind this, it is the belief in children’s in the way suggested by Woodhead (2006) as Bthe most influ-
agency in resource learning and the role of significant others ential perspectives informing early childhood theory, research
in enhancing their learning. and policy in a global context^ (p.33). Alongside Katz’s
A specific emphasis on the active and involved learning of (2008) four goals of learning and Hargraves’ (2014) working
young children within the scaffolding of teachers has been theories, these discourses form the orienting framework for
strongly contemplated in the Guidelines. Suggestions for this understanding learning and learners in the three country cur-
collective construction are obliquely expressed in instructions riculum documents. Using this framework as the basis and
to teachers. It stated, for example, that Bteachers should be drawing on the data above, the current study provides a great
supports, collaborators and facilitators of children’s activities^ deal to consider. Figure 2 illustrates the intersections of the
(p.10). words associated with learning and learners in the documents.
As we can see from the above point, the role teachers play There is a clear perception among all the curriculum docu-
in children’s learning is different from the traditional dominant ments that learning means a play-based process and experi-
one. This change reflects the impact of paradigm shift in ence. All the countries emphasize the importance of play in
China which calls for the introduction of the educational ide- children’s learning.
ology: children as active learners. While children are con- In the play-based documents, there is a clear emphasis on
ceived as active constructors of their own learning, it is evi- children as happy, active, holistic and thoughtful learners. The
dent in the document that teacher authority is not abandoned EYLF states that Bchildren’s immersion in their play illustrates
completely. Teachers maintain overall responsibility in how play enables them to simply enjoy being^ (DEEWR
supporting children’s participation and also in encouraging 2009, p.15). In the Chinese document, play is a way to pro-
children to take leadership roles in determining the direction mote children’s holistic being. In the Japanese document,
of their learning. Clearly, there is a belief in the co- Bchildren learn to think for themselves, by maintaining a rela-
construction of knowledge on an equal basis that underlies tionship with their surrounding environment during play^
children’s learning. (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and
In line with this promotion of co-constructing learning, the Technology 2008, p.10). These texts mean that play has been
Guidelines have underlined children as distinctive individuals. used to construct how countries think about learning and
It is stated that: young learners. The focus on play in children’s learning pre-
sents an alternative mode of thought to the traditional devel-
Early childhood education should respect children’s opmental ideology which suggests little control of learners to
rights and self-esteem; taking into account children’s their learning (Smith 2015).
developmental features, learning characteristics, and in- A further aspect of the documents’ common emphasis on
dividual differences; combining care and education so children’s learning and their learner image is that building
as to promote children’s individuality’ (p.1). relationships with their learning environments, developing in-
dependence and learning to communicate are important. The
This emphasis on teaching for individual learning is tied notions of human relationship, communication, and play
explicitly to the belief that only when the individual children’s popularised in current early childhood scholarship are per-
differences are discerned and respected, they can be expected ceived as underpinning approaches and goals of early years
to achieve a sense of satisfaction. BOnly when these diverse learning in all the three countries (Wandschneider and Crosbie
developmental needs are met, could individual children gain 2013). It is evident that there are strong influences from the
meaningful experiences and enjoy the joy of childhood^ (p.1). current early childhood discourses in the way that the policy
As we can see from the point, it is the aspiration for meeting makers and early childhood professionals see young chil-
children’s needs that forms the foundation for their learning. dren’s learning across the three different contexts.
In addition, play as an effective means of organizing chil- In view of the influence of global discourses on early child-
dren’s learning has also been specified in the document: BPlay hood education, it is not surprising that the three country doc-
is an crucial instrument for promoting all-round development uments articulate similar ideas of learning and learners.
of the children^ (p.27). Scholarship in early childhood education has been widelyCurric Perspect
Fig. 2 Words associated with
learning and learners in the three
curricula Rights
Needs Being
China
Australia Integrated Agency
Belonging
learning
Technology
Identy
Play
Relaonship
Communicaon
Independence
Acve learner Subject
areas
Voluntary acvies
Able child
Moral development
Japan
disseminated across the world (Beckley 2012; Waite- Chinese document, technologies are considered as a way of
Stupiansky and Cohen 2013), so that a point has now been cultivating children’s interest in science. Technology or digital
reached where there is the possibility of substantial conver- technologies, however, are not stated in the Japanese document.
gence between the different perspectives. Most countries in Both the Chinese and Japanese documents are oriented to
this global context are facing the task of developing Bparticu- children’s subject areas. In the Chinese document, this orien-
lar relationships, responsibilities, and expectations for child- tation is about health, languages, social studies, sciences and
ren in a global society^ (Millei and Jones 2014, p.67). A the arts. In the Japanese Course of Study for Kindergartens,
central core of early childhood education in the global context children’s learning is expected to happen in the areas of health,
is sharing some languages with people in different parts of the human relationships, environment, language and expression.
world that allow them to communicate and shape ideas and The Australian document, however, does not emphasize sub-
perspectives. The focus on developing global children thus ject areas. Instead, the focus is on children’s learning out-
exercises an important influence on some aspects of the coun- comes such as developing a strong sense of identity. A careful
tries’ beliefs in young children’s learning and their perceptions study of the document, however, reveals that learning subjects
of children’s learner identity (Sutterby 2012). such as numeracy and science are incorporated in the EYLF as
Apart from play, relationship and communication, other part of the learning outcomes. For example, under Learning
tenets of learning and learners in the Australian curriculum Outcome 5, it is stated that children Btake on roles of literacy
document are indicated by the terms of belonging, identity, and numeracy users in their play^ (DEEWR 2009, p.41).
being, rights, needs, integrated learning and children’s agency. The above difference in the way that learning subjects are
The Chinese curriculum document also provides a model in presented in the three documents raises a question of the dis-
which children’s agency, needs, being, rights and integrated tinction between learning as an experience and learning as spe-
learning are important considerations. The approach to re- cific subjects. Included among the many reasons that countries
specting children and observing children’s rights in the support their youngest citizens are the Bdesires, aspirations and
Chinese curriculum is close to that of Australia. The differ- ambitions for each child as future contributor to the society
ence, however, is that belonging and identity are not part of from the viewpoint of powerful adults^ (Duhn 2012, p.84).
the curricula content in the Chinese document. For the countries such as China and Japan that Bshare
It is also found that technology or digital technology is men- Chinese characteristics and Confucianism^ (Zhou et al. 2007,
tioned in the EYLF and the Chinese document. The terms are p.142) and value learning Bas a particular process of obtaining a
underpinned by a belief that Bdigital technologies can enable certain knowledge^ (Hung 2016, p. 85), there is a valid reason
children to access global connections and resources, and en- for using subjects as a form of learning and teaching of young
courage new ways of thinking^ (DEEWR 2009, p.16). In the children. In a society such as Australia which is frequentlyCurric Perspect
described as believing in Bthe importance of process and free The remarkable similarities and differences in the forms of
play^ (Nyland and Ng 2016, p.472), it is not surprising that learning of young children in the three country curricula is a
learning is explained by reference to an holistic form. reflection of the extent to which the countries align their tradi-
An interesting aspect in the curriculum document of Japan tions with the global ideas, a point that is unsurprising, given
is that learning has a somewhat unclear position. Quite apart the diversity of values and goals of the countries. The docu-
from Chinese and Australian children who are expected to be ments’ expressions of what might constitute learning are inter-
holistic learners, participating in voluntary activities and esting, providing an enlightening alignment and comparison to
developing their moral abilities seem to be a major force the existing discussions about learning in the early childhood
impelling Japanese young children towards learning. In their years. The Australian document mirrors the four learning goals
study on the day care curriculum guidelines in Japan, Mori (knowledge, skills, dispositions, feelings) presented by Katz
et al. (2008) also noted that Bthe process of learning is not (2008). In the Chinese context, learning has a relatively
expressed directly^ (p.121). It is difficult to provide a defini- narrower definition, constituting Babilities, experiences and
tive explanation to such a phenomenon as we could not find learning styles^ (Ministry of Education in China 2001, p.10).
any sources that gave us the background knowledge about The Japanese Course of Study for Kindergartens describes
how policy makers made decisions on the content of learning as involving abilities and children’s willingness to
Japanese early childhood curriculum document. Perhaps what communicate and relate to their environments.
needs to be addressed here is the specific sociocultural dynam- One noted feature in all the documents is the absence of
ic of the country and the role of learning and learners in young working theories. This brings us to a question. If, as Hargraves
children’s lives in the Japanese society. (2014) has argued, the central to the idea of working theories
One noted feature of education in Japan is its Bimmobile represents the notion of holistic learning, then the curriculum
system^ (Scahill 2013, p.94) so it is possible to infer that the documents, particularly those from Australia and China ap-
global discourses of early childhood education, such as chil- pear to sketch a quite basic framework for expressing holistic
dren’s dispositions and holistic learning, have not exerted as learning. This leads us to question the discursive positioning
much influence in Japan as they have in other countries. Tobin of the curriculum documents in relation to the wider discourse
et al. (2009) conducted their two comparative studies across of children’s learning, for example the concept of holistic de-
20 years with the same preschools in Japan, China and velopment. Such a question leaves room for the development
America, and found that Japanese preschool did not change of research into children’s holistic development in the coun-
as much as those in China and America after two decades of tries which emphasize children’s such development in their
globalization. Burke (2008) reported too that Japanese pre- curriculum documents. The study thus suggests that some of
schools serve Ba conservative cultural function-both preserv- the foundation concepts of early childhood curriculum should
ing and transmitting Japanese social values to the younger be subjected to close scrutiny so their role in guiding early
generation^ (p.137). childhood practice can be better understood.
The variation in the expression of learning and learners in Another key concept that is common to all the documents is
the three documents is particularly interesting and merits some the notion of future. This notion serves to emphasize the foun-
discussion. For example, the tendency of the Chinese and dational stage of early childhood education within which chil-
Australian documents to promote learning as an holistic expe- dren build their lifelong characters (Japan), prepare for later
rience has been observed. However, whatever similarities lives (China) and Bhave the best start in life to create a better
there may be between the Australian tradition of play-based future for themselves and for the nation^ (DEEWR 2009, p.5).
learning, and Ba hybrid [Chinese] curriculum that combines Such evidence suggests that learning and learners as both
both Chinese and Western pedagogical notions^ (Tobin et al. global and cultural constructs, as well as constructs that focus
2009, p.157), there would be support for the view that holistic on the present and children’s future. By privileging certain
learning may have different meanings in different countries perspectives on what and how children learn, the countries
due to the diverse social and cultural contexts. articulate their values relevant to their contexts and at the same
Again, there is no doubt that even when two countries time they also express a commitment to preparing Byoung
define the same purposes for children’s learning, such as in children to participate in a new, much more open society^
the case between Japan and China where children’s health is (Hsueh et al. 2004, p.458).
an important learning subject, the expectation and requirement
for children’s learning in this subject look quite different. For
example, in the Japanese document, children develop a Conclusion and recommendations
healthy physical and mental state and the abilities to maintain
independently a healthy and safe life, while in the Chinese Comparison of the concepts of learning and learners in the
document, children are expected to enjoy physical activities Australian, Japanese and Chinese early childhood curriculum
and develop proper body coordination. documents has revealed shared expressions of how and whatCurric Perspect
young children learn, just as researchers have found in the past Duhn, I. (2012). Globalizing childhood: assembling the bicultural child in
the New Zealand early childhood curriculum, Te Whariki.
(Raban 2011; Waite-Stupiansky and Cohen 2013). The data
International Critical Childhood Policy Studies, 1(1), 82–104.
indicate a uniformity of concepts in relation to play, building Edwards, S. (2014). Towards contemporary play: sociocultural theory
relationships and communication, and thus suggests an in- and the digital-consumerist context. Journal of Early Childhood
creasingly global view of thinking and knowing in early child- Research, 12(3), 219–233.
hood education. Gupta, A. (2014). Diverse early childhood education policies and prac-
tices: Voices and images from five countries in Asia. New York, NY:
It is also evident that the documents’ conceptions of learn- Routledge.
ing and learners coincide with culturally constructed bodies of Hargraves, V. (2014). Complex possibilities: working theories as an out-
knowledge in each country. The study has considered these come for the early childhood curriculum. Contemporary Issues in
conceptions as a cultural product that is embedded in and Early Childhood, 15(4), 319–328.
Hegde, A. V., Sugita, C., Crane-Mitchell, L., & Averett, P. (2014).
embodies cultural values and beliefs and we used this consid- Japanese nursery and kindergarten teachers’ beliefs and practices
eration to explain the differences in the expressions of the regarding developmentally appropriate practices. International
concepts in the documents. Journal of Early Years Education, 22(3), 301–314.
While the understanding of learning and learners in early Hsueh, Y., Tobin, J., & Karasawa, M. (2004). The Chinese kindergarten
in its adolescence. Prospects, 34(4), 457–469.
childhood education is not a novel idea, the comparison of the
Hung, R. (2016). A critique of Confucian learning: on learners and
concepts in three different curricula represents a significant knowledge. Educational Philosophy & Theory, 48(1), 85–96.
departure from any single ways of knowing which have shied Katz, L. (2008). Another look at what young children should be learning.
away from purposeful inclusion of the global framework that Exchange, 180, 53–56.
informs contemporary early childhood education. In the Kervin, L. (2016). Powerful and playful literacy learning with digital
technologies. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 39(1),
course of our efforts to start a forum for an international ex- 64–73.
change of the concepts of learning and learners, the study adds Law, W. (2013). Globalization, national identity and citizenship educa-
an important dimension to educational discussions, particular- tion: China’s search for modernization and a modern Chinese citi-
ly within the curriculum research. zenry. Frontiers of Education in China, 8(4), 596–627.
Liu, Y., & Feng, X. (2005). Kindergarten educational reform during the
In closing, although the study provides useful insights into
past two decades in mainland China: achievement and problems.
early childhood curriculum documents, the findings are limit- International Journal of Early Years Education, 13(2), 93–99.
ed to the method of concept analysis. Field studies with McLachlan, C., Fleer, M., & Edwards, S. (2012). Early childhood cur-
teachers, children and parents are recommended for better riculum: Planning, assessment and implementation. New York:
understanding about how learning and learners are perceived Cambridge University Press.
Millei, Z. (2011). Governing through early childhood curriculum, ‘the
in practical situations and the extent to which their perceptions child’ and ‘community’. European Education, 43(1), 33–55.
of the concepts are aligned with the curriculum documents. Millei, Z., & Jones, A. (2014). The Australian early childhood curriculum
Research that helps to delineate the factors that shape how and a cosmopolitan imaginary. International Journal of Early
curriculum meanings are articulated in cross-country docu- Childhood, 46(1), 63–79.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (2008).
ments can also contribute to ensuring that global dialogues
Course of study for kindergarten. Kisaburo Tokai.
are meaningful to educational professionals. Ministry of Education in China. (2001). Guidelines for kindergarten
education. Beijing: Beijing Normal University Press.
Mori, M., Nezu, A., Samizo, C., Naito, T., & Ishizuka, M. (2008).
The meaning of play and learning for 0–3 year old children in
Japan. In P. Samuelsson & M. Fleer (Eds.), Play and learning
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