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INTERNATIONAL
JOURNAL FOR LEGAL
RESEARCH & ANALYSIS
(ISSN 2582 – 6433)
VOLUME 2 ISSUE 2
(June 2021)
Email –
editor@ijlra.com
Website – www.ijlra.com
5656565656
5651
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Volume 2 Issue 2 | June 2021 ISSN: 2582-6433
DISCLAIMER
No part of this publication may be reproduced or copied in any form by any means
without prior written permission of Managing Editor of IJLRA. The views
expressed in this publication are purely personal opinions of the authors and do not
reflect the views of the Editorial Team of IJLRA.
Though every effort has been made to ensure that the information in Volume I
Issue X is accurate and appropriately cited/referenced, neither the Editorial Board
nor IJLRA shall be held liable or responsible in any manner whatsever for any
consequences for any action taken by anyone on the basis of information in the
Journal.
Copyright © International Journal for Legal Research & Analysis
1
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Volume 2 Issue 2 | June 2021 ISSN: 2582-6433
EDITORIAL TEAM
EDITORS
Ms. Ezhiloviya S.P.
Nalsar Passout
Ms. Priya Singh
West Bengal National University of Juridical Science
Mr. Ritesh Kumar
Nalsar Passout
Mrs. Pooja Kothari
Practicing Advocate
Dr. Shweta Dhand
Assistant Professor
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ABOUT US
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR LEGAL RESEARCH & ANLAYSIS
ISSN
2582-6433 is an Online Journal is Quarterly, Peer Review, Academic Journal,
Published online, that seeks to provide an interactive platform for the
publication of Short Articles, Long Articles, Book Review, Case Comments,
Research Papers, Essay in the field of Law & Multidisciplinary issue. Our aim
is to upgrade the level of interaction and discourse about contemporary issues
of law. We are eager to become a highly cited academic publication, through
quality contributions from students, academics, professionals from the
industry, the bar and the bench. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR
LEGAL RESEARCH & ANALYSIS ISSN
2582-6433 welcomes contributions from all legal branches, as long as the
work is original, unpublished and is in consonance with the submission
guidelines.
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Volume 2 Issue 2 | June 2021 ISSN: 2582-6433
An Article on:
Women Rights Violations in the Name of Religious
Freedom
By : Mahima Sakhlecha,
NMIMS, Kirit P
Mehta School of Law
Table of Contents
Abstract .................................................................................................................................. 6
1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 6
2. Research Objectives ......................................................................................................... 9
3. Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 10
4. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 20
5. References ..................................................................................................................... 22
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Abstract
Right to Equality and Right to Freedom of Religion are both categorized as Fundamental
Rights by the Constitution of India. However, these rights often have differing tangents when
it comes to the rights of women being suppressed in certain practices directed by religion. There
are “fundamentalists” within every religion who actively resist change and believe that they
should continue to follow what they already have known for years. There is often a kind of
dualism within a religion that exalts women on the one hand, while demanding more rigorous
displays of dedication on the other. Almost every religion has certain discrepancies toward
women in some way or the other which is often explained as these religions possessing the
freedom of religious practices under Articles 25 and 26. However, there have predominantly
been discriminate behavior and practices which violate the right to equality, one of the
Fundamental Rights under Articles 14 and 15. Religion, in India, has always been somewhat a
touchy topic and riots have resulted from attempts to regulate religious practices. 1 Thus, various
social evils have been practiced with little to no opposition from the law enforcers. In recent
times, there has been an understanding of such evils and this is seen in landmark judgments by
the Supreme Court which abolish such religious practices. There still remains a long process for
differentiating misogynistic practices which are still carried on under the garb of religion. 2
Key Words: Right to Equality, Right to Freedom of Religion, Fundamental Rights, Constitution
of India, Article 25, Article 26, Article 14, Article 15
1. Introduction
In 2018, a nine-judge bench passed a landmark judgment on the Sabarimala case. Some petitions
filed against the judgment caused the bench to review the issues brought up by the petitions. The
Sabarimala review bench had proposed a seven-judge Constitutional bench to discuss the aspects
of the verdict. The Chief Justice of India, instead, set up a nine-judge bench.
The question before the bench was:
In a scenario where two fundamental rights clashes, which should take precedence over the
1
Sharma, Arvind (1994). Religion and women. State University of New York Press.
2
Woodhead, Linda (2002). Religions in the Modern World: Traditions and Transformations
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other?
Articles 14 and 15 “guarantee an individual the right to equality in all matters including
access to public places. Article 14 declares that the state shall not deny any person equality
before the law or equal protection of laws in India. This right is available to everyone
including the foreigners and even a corporation or a company.”
Article 15 says “there cannot be any discrimination among citizens (not foreigners) on the
grounds of religion, caste, sex, or their place of birth.”
Articles 25 and 26 ensure “freedom of religion to everyone in India. Article 25 guarantees
every person the freedom of conscience and gives her the right to freely profess, practice
and propagate any religion. This is the fundamental right that allows even a foreigner to
carry on religious missionary activities in India.”
Article 26 gives the “freedom to manage religious affairs, guaranteeing individual as well as
collective freedom of religion. The only restrictions to the right to religious freedom are
public order, morality, and health. There is no mention of this right being subject to
provisions relating to other fundamental rights.”
Basically, Articles 14 and 15 which guarantee the Right to Equality clashed with Articles 25
and 26, especially 26, which guarantees Right to Freedom of Religion. 3
According to Atul Kumar,4 a Supreme Court lawyer,
“If you go by pure jurisprudence, then the right to religious freedom should take precedence over
the right to equality, However, no rights as guaranteed in Part III of the Constitution is absolute.
They are rather subject to reasonable restrictions and they are inter-dependent also, and
therefore we need interpretations of these Articles in the given context."
"In plain reading of the Articles may look like competing with and conflicting to each other, but
in reality, in its deeper understanding and interpretation, they supplement each other. Right to
religious freedom is more fundamental and emanates from right to equality too-equal protection
of law. Religion gave birth to the ethics which further developed as rules and with passage of
time found their way into the constitution of respective countries. Religious freedom is most basic
3
https://indiankanoon.org/doc/631708/
4
https://www.indiatoday.in/news-analysis/story/key-question-before-sabarimala-review-hearing-right-to-equality-
versus-religious-freedom-1636498-2020-01-13
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in historical context than the principle of equality."
But does it also mean that if genital mutilation is found to be part of religious belief system
of Bohra Muslims, the practice would be granted protection under the law?
Among the issues - besides entry of women of all groups into the Sabarimala temple; the
issue of female genital mutilation of women from Bohra Muslim communities, restricted
access to the mosques by Muslim women, similarly, no entry for Parsi women into
‘agyaries’ or fire temples5 have been pending before the SC.
The Supreme Court has historically, provided religious freedom to individuals to practice their
distinct religious rituals thus syncing with the word “Secular” present in the Preamble.
In the case of a verdict of 1955, the SC opined that women should be allowed to become a
“pujari”- a Hindu priest- however, the right did not extend toward practice of sacred rituals by
the female pujari.6
Some years later, in another well-known case, a Parsi woman, Goolrukh Gupta, who married
outside her caste lost her status as a Parsi, when the Parsi Trust asserted that a Parsi woman loses
her Parsi status if she marries a non-Parsi man. This judgment passed in 2013 was met with
criticism by the public as the same rules are not applied to Parsi men by the Trust, which violates
right to equality.
However, some progress has been made in recent times. 7 For example, in 2016, SC opened the
sanctum sanctorum area of the Haji Ali Dargah to women which was until then prohibited for
women on grounds of religious freedom under Article 26. Similarly, the abolition of triple talaq
in 2017 set new bars for equality in religious practices. And the Sabarimala case8, which
5
Liljeström, Marianne; Paasonen, Susanna (2010-03-08). Working with Affect in Feminist Readings: Disturbing
Differences. Routledge.
6
https://www.nationalheraldindia.com/opinion/violence-against-women-and-religious-fundamentalism
7
Woodhead, Linda (2002). Religions in the Modern World: Traditions and Transformations. Psychology Press
8
https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/open-page/denying-women-their-freedoms/article29477036.ece
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gained nationwide interest, was a landmark point in the struggle for women’s rights when the
temple was opened up for women of all ages as opposed to when women between 10-50 years
the phase where a woman menstruates, were not allowed entry into the temple.
The case has been out up for 50 review petitions which opposes the judgment of the court and
insists that Articles 25 and 26 should take precedence over 14 and 15. 9
This raises a fundamental question:
Should right to equality be allowed to be quashed under the guise of right to religious freedom?
2. Research Objectives
To identify the fine line between the right to freedom of religion and the right to equality.
To understand violation of right to gender equality in certain religious practices.
To analyze landmark judgments and case laws of the same.
9
https://blog.ipleaders.in/freedom-of-religion-under-the-indian-constitution-2/
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Analysis
2.1 Relevant Articles
Article 25
In Ratilal Panachand Gandhi v. State of Bombay, the Supreme Court stated that Article 25
“guarantees every person (not only citizens) the freedom of conscience and right to freely
profess, practice and propagate religion imposed with certain restrictions by the State.
These restrictions are:
1) Public order, morality and health and other provisions of the Constitution (Clause 1 of
Article 25).
2) Laws relating to or restricting any economic, financial, political, or other secular
activities associated with religious practices. (Clause 2(a) of Article 25).
3) Social welfare and reform that might interfere with religious practices.
Article 26
Article 26 guarantees the following rights to a religious denomination with subject to public
order, morality, and health:
1) To establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable purposes.
2) To manage its own affairs in matters of religion.
3) To own, acquire and administer both movable and immovable property in accordance
with law.
Article 14
Article 14 guarantees the Fundamental Right to Equality before Law that is, equal protection of
laws in India.
Article 15
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Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. However,
Article 15(3) empowers state to make any special provision for women and children.”
2.2 Landmark Judgments
Landmark Judicial Pronouncements on The Freedom to Practice Religion:
Bijoe Emmanuel and Ors v. State of Kerala 10
In this particular case, three students who belonged to Jehovah’s Witness Sect refused to sing
the national anthem of India explaining that it violates the basic tenets of their religion. They
were threatened with expulsion from the school. The matter was brought into court where the
Court adjudged against expulsion of said students claiming that it was violative of their
fundamental right to freedom of religion.
Jagdishwaranand v. Commissioner of Police, Calcutta11
This case considered whether performing Tandav on streets was an essential practice of Anand
Marga Religion. It concluded that Ananda Marga was not a standalone religion but a religious
domination. Subsequently, it was held that performing Tandava on streets is not an essential
practice of the religion.
M. Ismail Fariqui v. Union of India12
In this, the Supreme Court held that a Muslim need not pray only in the mosque; namaz could
be offered anywhere they want.
Raja Birakishore v. State of Orissa 13
The validity of the Jagganath Temple Act, 1955 was challenged on account of being violative of
Article 26 as it enabled the managing of the affairs of the temple. It was held that the same did
not violate Article 26 as this Act allowed the inspection of the secular aspect of the seva puja
which was not deemed unconstitutional.
10
1987 AIR 748, 1986 SCR (3) 518
11
1984 AIR 512, 1984 SCR (1) 447
12
AIR 1995 SC 605 A
13
1964 AIR 1501, 1964 SCR (7) 32
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The Dargah Committee, Ajmer v. Syed Hussain Ali and Ors 14
It was contended that the Dargah Khwaja Saheb Act, 1955 violated Articles 25 and 26 by
providing the Hanafi Muslims the opportunity to become members of the Committee and not
the Chisti sect of Muslims. The court opined that although the Chisti sect was a religious
denomination, it cannot be said to violate Articles 25, 26 as the Chisti sect never possessed the
right to manage a Dargah endowment.
2.2.1 Sabarimala Judgment
In 2017, a PIL was filed under Article 32 by petitioners challenging the lack of entry for women
between the ages of 10 and 50 in the Sabarimala temple. A constitutional bench was set up in
2018 which declared the practice to be unconstitutional and discriminatory toward women. They
held that followers of Lord Ayyappa were to be categorized as Hindus only and this was not an
essential practice of the religion.
Since the inception of Articles 25 and 26, the power to decide whether a practice was essential to
the religion or not rests with the courts only. The Sabarimala judgment showed the court taking a
stand against practices which are misogynistic, demeaning, and arbitrary. These practices were
formulated in earlier times but have no place in these times for their regressive and outdated
mentality which does not keep up with modern times. For example: The court in The Sabarimala
case found the practice of women in their menstruating phase being considered impure as
having no ground of reasonability.
Though the Sabarimala judgment, the court opened a pandora’s box for deciding on cases in
which certain religious practices are misogynistic and have no actual significance for the
particular religion.
14
1961 AIR 1402, 1962 SCR (1) 383
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2.3 Concept of Constitutional Morality
Earlier, the concept of morality was restricted to the behavior of society or in other words
‘societal morality’. In recent times, the concept of morality has been taken up by the courts and
judgments are passed by applying said morality. This practice is termed as ‘Constitutional
Morality’. It is a newly formed term which indicates that the judiciary has or assumes too much
power when deciding on cases of a sensitive nature. The notion is the courts have excessive
powers when deciding on a case. However, when it comes to cases of this nature, the judiciary is
obliged to decide them with a sense of morality. Religions cannot be allowed to carry on
regressive and outdated practices in the name of tradition which date back hundreds of years. 15 It
remains upon the court, therefore, to decide the practices which are considered as religious but in
reality, view females as inferior and have practices which exemplify this psyche. The
Sabarimala verdict, the striking down of Section 377, abolition of triple talaq are cases
where court has taken upon itself to rectify discrimination practices and pass judgments that keep
up with the times.16
In such cases, Constitutional Morality is not an option but a necessity.
15
Sharma, Arvind (1994-01-01). Today's Woman in World Religions. SUNY Press.
16
Sharma, Arvind, ed. (2002). Women in Indian religions. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
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2.4 Practices Essential to a Religion
The Courts have an obligation to not interfere in practices which, in its opinion are an essential
part of a religion. This has been applied by courts in various cases where the question of the
validity of a religious practice has come up before the court. Article 25 only protect those
practices which are integral parts of a religion. It is the duty of the court to decide whether a
practice is an essential practice or not depending on the evidence formulated by the conscience of
the community and the tenets of the religion.
Some of the religious practices which were held essential by the Court:
1) In Mohd. Hanif Qureshi v. State of Bihar: In Hinduism, worshipping or idolizing of an
image or idol was held to be an essential practice.
2) In Sarwar Husain v. Addl. Judge: Muslims offering namaaz at a public mosque were
deemed essential.
Some of the religious practices which were held not essential by the Court:
1) In Qureshi: The sacrificing of a cow in Islam.
2) In Sarup Singh Sardar v. State of Punjab: The right to appoint members and form a
committee for the proper administration of a Gurudwara property among Sikhs.
3) In Lily Thomas v. Union of India: A Hindu male marrying again after conversion to
another religion while the first spouse is alive.
4) In Nirmal Kumar Sikdar v. Chief Electoral Officer: Prohibition in taking photographs of a
female for electoral reasons in Islam.
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2.5 The Problem of ‘Love Jihad’
Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister Shri Yogi Adityanath recently proposed legislation that those
engaging in “love jihad” should die. The idea made by the term ‘love jihad’ is that “innocent”,
“gullible” Hindu women are deceived into marriage with Muslim men and forced to convert to
Islam. Shri Adityanath’s statement suggests that the state believes that it has the right to step in
to shield the woman and respect the Indian tradition of marrying within one’s own community.
These ways deny women their constitutionally guaranteed right to social justice, freedom of
thought, expression, trust, faith and worship, and equality of status. India is a signatory to
the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (Office of the High Commissioner,
United Nations Human Rights Commission, 1989) that stands for “free and full choice” in
decisions on when and whom to marry, and these legislations also show that we do not honor this
commitment.
Persisting patriarchal gender customs underlie both honor killings and “love jihad”. Girls and
young women continue to be perceived as powerless of making decisions and in need of
relentless policing. Marriage continues to be perceived as an alliance between families and not an
affiliation between two individuals.
A large part of residents in these homes were girls and young women whose parents had used
legal mechanisms to break a consensual marriage, both among under-age and adult girls.
An under-age resident reported:
“I used to talk to a boy on a regular basis. I told my brother that this is the boy I wish to marry.
My brother told me that it is not possible, because it is a Hindu-Muslim issue…. One day, I saw
that they were planning my marriage. So, I told my father about my affair; he was furious. I then
told this to the boy, and he asked me what I wanted. I asked him to take me with him, anywhere.
He agreed, and the next day we left. Later we received a phone call from my sister-in-law saying
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that a case had been filed against my husband…. She told us, ‘Your father-in-law has been
arrested by the police, so come back here please.’ We went back and surrendered, and I was sent
to the short stay home. My husband is in prison.”
2.6 Major Religions’ Attitude toward Women
Christianity
A more patriarchal system of Christianity sets a mould for women to adhere to and limits their
liberty in the church.17 According to such interpretations of the Christian Bible, wives are
expected to be compliant in many ways. They are asked not only to be submissive to their
husbands but to the church, their community, and God. "At the head of every household is a
man; at the head of a man is Christ, and the head of every woman is a man, and the head of
Christ is God." Wives are seen as second in the family home, only to that of their husbands.
Although many voices within Christianity acknowledge equality for all and says women and
men were created equally, as shown throughout history women have been subject to the
patriarchy that is entrenched in the religion in some places and expressions. “In the midst of the
Greek, Roman, and Jewish cultures, which viewed women almost on the level of possessions,
Jesus showed love and respect for women.” As expressed in the preceding quote, Jesus Christ
professed equality and Christianity does express and celebrate equality. It is the patriarchy of
society that has prejudiced Christianity and put men in positions of power. Though women have
played a dynamic role in the church, as expressed by the Acts and many others, none have ever
been permitted a position of leadership. 18
Judaism
The role of women in Judaism is based on the interpretations of the Hebrew Bible, by tradition
17
"What Does the Bible Say About Virtuous Woman?". www.openbible.info.
18
"The Role of Women". www.gracechurch.org.
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and by cultural practices carried out through ages of history. Whereas in ancient literature and
texts, God was supposed to be a mixture of male and female 19, modern culture conveniently
started to represent God as He/Him.
However, women have been regarded as strong figures in Judaism. They are considered to be
influential, powerful, and dynamic. Although women were limited to the household in earlier
stages, more and more Jewish women are seen taking up positions of power.20 In 1972, Sally
Priesand became the first woman ordained as a rabbi in the Reform domination. Women in the
Reform, Conservative, Reconstructionist and Renewal dominations are now enabled to
head them, read from the Torah, and give drashes(sermons) to people. 21
Islam
Islam is a monotheistic religion founded by the Prophet Muhammad in the early seventh
century. The teaching of Islam is embodied in the sacred text ‘Quran’ and ‘Hadith’.
Islam gave recognition to rights of women which were not present in those times according to
the wishes of Allah and the Prophet Muhammad. The three things of importance which Islam
gave to women were rights to marriage, inheritance, and divorce.
However, misled interpretations of the holy text led to discriminatory practices against women
19
Genesis. The Hebrew Bible. London: Cassell.
20
Wenger, Beth (1989). "Jewish Women and Voluntarism: Beyond the Myth of Enablers". American Jewish History
21
Zucker, David. "Women Rabbis: A Novel Idea"
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such as polygamy, restrictions on praying in public, the restriction of praying during
menstruation wherein they are considered ‘impure’.
The Muslim community or the ummah along with sharia law and Islamic scriptures-controlled
aspects of the lives of women including education, right to inheritance, dress, public
appearance, domestic ‘duties’22, age of marriage, freedom to consent to marriage, mahr,
acceptability of birth control, sex before marriage, property rights aside from her husband and
when salat (prayers) are obligatory for her. 23
Hinduism
Hinduism is known for its female goddesses which demonstrate powers even greater than men
such as powers of creation, preservation and destruction which is possessed by Kali Ma24(Dark
Mother). Like Islam, it has been noted that the notion of inferiority of women was invented by
man as was the practices which discriminate against women 25. The notion of menstruation
making a woman impure is present in Hinduism as well.
Hindu Women are characteristically expected to be dutiful, obedient, and submissive toward
men. 26Also expected to sacrifice their goals and take care of the household and tend to their
family’s requirements. The rituals in a Hindu marriage are highly susceptible to criticism. For
22
"Women." In the Islamic World: Past and Present. Ed. John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online.
23
Dunn, S. & Kellison, R. B. "At the Intersection of Scripture and Law: Qur'an 4:34 and Violence against Women."
Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion
24
"Kali Ma | Hindu Goddess". The Mystica.
25
Patnaik, Devdutt. "Here is what they don't tell you about feminism and sexuality in Hindu mythology". Quartz
India.
26
Basharat, Tahira (July–December 2009). "The Contemporary Hindu Women of India: An Overview" (PDF). A
Research Journal of South Asian Studies.
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example: the ritual of ‘kanyadaan’ encapsulates women as objects being transferred to the
husband by their father. Also seen are only male priests performing the ceremony since ages.
These practices seem to be developing wherein these rituals are discarded in favor of more
progressive ways.
According to Sikhism, women and men are two sides of the same coin. The founder of
Sikhism, Guru Nanak reportedly stated in 1499 that “It is a woman who keeps the race going”
and we should not consider women “cursed and condemned as they are born leaders and
rulers.”27 However, in reality gender equality among the Sikhs has been prevalent.
At the time of the Guru, women were considered lowly in society, a mere property for
entertainment and child rearing, seducers who enraptured and distracted men on their path of
spirituality, meant for serving at the pleasure of man. Men were allowed polygamy, women
were prevented from marrying including widows; instead, encouraged to burn themselves at the
funeral pyre of their husbands, child marriages and female infanticide were prevalent as was the
practice of purdah(veils). Many Hindu women were captured as slaves and sold in foreign
countries.
27
"Sri Guru Granth Sahib – A brief history | Islam Ahmadiyya". www.alislam.org.
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3. Conclusion
The study of women and religion typically examines the role of women and their roles within
particular religious faiths, and religious doctrines relating to gender, gender roles, and particular
women in religious history.
There needs to be a distinction between essential practices of a religion and outdated practices
which put a restriction on the basic human right to equal treatment. The Sabarimala Judgment
was a shining example of scrapping of religious practices which promote unreasonable and
illogical practices under years of tradition which do not age well with the current times.
The new Uttar Pradesh Prohibition of Unlawful Conversion of Religion Ordinance 2020
violates the constitutional guarantee of equality because making religious conversions the sole
ground for terming the marriage as void or for imposing the onerous requirements that parties in
an inter-faith marriage have to obey with such as giving prior notice of conversion and a post-
conversion notice of declaration is discriminating on the ground of religion. Equality guaranteed
in the Constitution demand that all persons have equal protection of the law under Article 14.
This goes together with the guarantee of non-discrimination under Article 15 which mandates
that the state shall not discriminate against any citizen on the basis only of religion, race, caste,
sex, place of birth or any of them. Imposing such restrictions on marriage only on the ground of
religion is discriminatory and a violation of the right to equality for all.
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“Triple talaq” was another practice which was abundantly irrational and discriminatory toward
women wherein saying the word talaq thrice by the husband was enough for the termination of a
marriage. The judgments passed by SC in recent cases shows how far Indian Judiciary has come
in recognizing and distinguishing between ‘religion’ and ‘equality.’ Unfortunately, some
practices denigrating women rights continue to happen in the country where social convention is
the norm.
Change in the mindset of orthodox people is key to changing the scenario currently present in
India. On one hand, certain religions worship women as goddesses and ironically expect them to
be submissive, meek, and subservient which casts a doubt at the way Indian society is
supposedly progressing today.
To close the gender gap, strengthen economies and empower women, it is imperative that
religious freedom become a factor that is taken seriously and acted upon.
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4. References
Books:
Women and Religious Freedom: Synergies and Opportunities
Author/(s): Nazila Ghanea-Hercock
Publisher: Government Printing Office, 2017
Religion and Personal Law in Secular India: A Call to Judgment
Author/(s): Gerald James Larson
Publisher: Indiana University Press, 2001
Religion and Women
Author/(s): Arvind Sharma, Birks Professor of Comparative Religion
Publisher: SUNY Press, 1994
Websites:
http://www.womenlawsindia.com/legal-awareness/women-rights-in-india/
https://www.indiatoday.in/news-analysis/story/key-question-before-sabarimala-review-hearing-
right-to-equality-versus-religious-freedom-1636498-2020-01-13
https://www.nationalheraldindia.com/opinion/violence-against-women-and-religious-
fundamentalism
https://blog.ipleaders.in/freedom-of-religion-under-the-indian-constitution-2/
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-45652182
https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/apr/27/india-abuse-women-human-rights-
rape-girls
https://scroll.in/article/978724/to-fight-the-love-jihad-bogey-india-must-educated-its-girls-about-
their-rights
https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/open-page/denying-women-their-
freedoms/article29477036.ece
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