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A PUBLICATION OF THE AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION • JUNE 2022
psychology
monitor on GST# R127612802
P S Y C H
SOCIAL MEDIA DISINFORMATION AND MANIPULATION
O L O G I
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@APA
The Hot List
RESOURCES, OPPORTUNITIES, AND NEWS FOR PSYCHOLOGISTS FROM APA
Read, Watch, & Listen
1
LGBTQ Family Building:
TAKE ACTION
A Guide for Prospective Parents
Promote Equity in Your
This new APA book provides LGBTQ
parents and prospective parents with
detailed, evidence-based guidance on
Work and Beyond overcoming barriers and stereotypes and
on navigating the transition to parenthood.
A
Go to www.apa.org/pubs/books/lgbtq-family-building.
PA has launched a new series of monthly actions to encourage psycholo-
gists and students to advance equity, diversity, and inclusion throughout the
science and practice of psychology. APA is announcing a new action each 2
month paired with resources, further reading materials, and other tools for effecting Retraining the Brain:
change. The first action encourages psychologists to “Build Safe Spaces With Inclu- Applied Neuroscience in Exposure
sive Language” using APA’s new Inclusive Language Guidelines that are rooted in Therapy for PTSD
psychological science and developed to raise awareness of culturally sensitive terms This hourlong webinar on June 3 will
bridge the gap between the newest
and phrases that center the voices and perspectives of people who are marginalized
neuroscience research on post-traumatic
or stereotyped. Read the guidelines at www.apa.org/about/apa/equity-diversity- stress disorder (PTSD) and the treatment
inclusion/language-guidelines. Other actions encourage learning more about the of patients with PTSD. Register at http://
pervasiveness of White privilege, embracing cultural humility, and more. at.apa.org/applied-neuroscience.
Find them all at www.apa.org/about/apa/addressing-racism/monthly-actions.
ELECTION
3
Is technology killing empathy?
Meet the Candidates for APA President Sherry Turkle, PhD, of the Massachusetts
A PA members have nominated four psychologists to run for the association’s
presidency. The winning candidate will serve as the 2023 president-elect and
Institute of Technology, joins APA’s
Speaking of Psychology podcast to talk
about how people’s conversations have
TOP LEFT: CHARDAY PENN/GETTY IMAGES
the 2024 president. The candidates in order of their number of nominations are:
changed in the digital age, and how
Cynthia de las Fuentes, PhD computers and artificial intelligence are
Diana L. Prescott, PhD affecting how we think about what it
Beth N. Rom-Rymer, PhD means to be human. Listen wherever you
Kirk J. Schneider, PhD get your podcasts.
The candidates will be answering questions about their experience and priorities at www.apa.org/about/gover-
nance/elections/president-elect-candidates. Voting opens Sept. 15.
2 M O N I TO R O N P S YC H O LO G Y ● JUNE 2022
monitor on
i psychology
A publication of the American Psychological Association
How to Reach Us VOLUME 53 | NUMBER 4
Answers to many of your questions may be found on
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Come to APA 2022 in Minneapolis to reconnect in person with colleagues and
expand your knowledge on some of the most compelling topics in the field. With
more than 900 sessions to choose from and numerous social and networking The Monitor on Psychology (ISSN-1529-4978) is the magazine of the American
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M O N I TO R O N P S YC H O LO G Y ● JUNE 2022 3
CON V EN TION .A PA.ORG
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M O N I TO R O N P S YC H O LO G Y ● O C TO B E R 2 0 2 1
Features JUNE 2022
COVER STORY
PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE IN
THE 21ST CENTURY
Social media disinformation and manipulation are causing confusion,
fueling hostilities, and amplifying the atrocities in Ukraine and
around the world. Psychologists—along with experts in political
science, computer science, and national security—are fighting back.
See page 18
46 IMPROVING TRAFFIC
SAFETY
U.S. traffic fatalities started
rising 2 years ago after
several years of declines.
Psychologists around the world
are looking for ways to make
driving safer for everyone.
56 STANDING TALL:
A NEW LOOK AT
COMPETENCY CASES
A growing number of people
with serious mental illness are
getting entangled in the legal
system, often for minor crimes.
Psychologists are figuring out
how to get them essential
mental health care instead.
O N T H E C O V E R : I L L U S T R AT I O N B Y YO S H I S O D E O K A
M O N I TO R O N P S YC H O LO G Y ● JUNE 2022 5
Departments JUNE 2022
Lose sleep, crave sweets.
Page 16
2 @APA: THE HOT LIST
8 PRESIDENT’S COLUMN
10 UPDATE FROM THE CEO
RESEARCH
11 IN BRIEF
88 BY THE NUMBERS
NEWS
22 THE ANATOMY OF A
MISINFORMATION ATTACK
28 PANDEMIC STRESS AND
DECISION-MAKING
32 EMBRACING LEARNERS OF ALL AGES
39 JUDICIAL NOTEBOOK
PEOPLE
37 4 QUESTIONS FOR GENEVIEVE
DUNTON
74 PSYCHOLOGISTS IN THE NEWS
CE CORNER
FEATURE
40 HOW TO ASSESS AND INTERVENE
WITH PATIENTS AT RISK OF SUICIDE TREATING PATIENTS WITH LYME DISEASE
CAREER Research shows the tick-borne disease can lead to serious mental health
75 THE MAKINGS OF A MEMORABLE problems, especially if left untreated. Many patients report ongoing or
RESEARCH TALK
80 PSYCHOLOGIST HOTLINE: PHONE intermittent symptoms at least a year after completing antibiotic treatment.
CONSULTATIONS FOR PEDIATRICIANS Psychologists are among those working to improve the outlook. See page 66
EMPLOYMENTS ADS
85 THE BEST JOBS IN PSYCHOLOGY
Decisions during COVID. Page 28 Attacked by misinformation. Page 22 Great research talks. Page 75
6 M O N I TO R O N P S YC H O LO G Y ● JUNE 2022
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From the President
MOVING US BEYOND ‘FIRSTS’
Expanding our views on cultural identities makes our society more equitable
BY FRANK C. WORRELL, PHD
Who am I? What groups do I belong to? What does my This July 4 will be the 246th anniver-
group membership say about me in this society? These are sary of the Declaration of Independence
fundamental questions about our identities and the contexts and our country is still celebrating a lot of
firsts—with many more to come. Earlier
in which we live. Am I extroverted or introverted? How com-
this year, Madeleine Albright, the first
petent do I feel in various domains? Do I believe that I will woman to serve as U.S. Secretary of State,
be successful in my academic and vocational endeavors? If I passed away. The Senate confirmed the
encounter barriers, do I have the wherewithal to find alter- first African American woman to serve as
natives to achieve my goals? Personality, competence, hope, a Supreme Court Justice, Ketanji Brown
and self-efficacy are just a few of the psychosocial characteristics that shape our Jackson. We can add other firsts to this
list: Kamala Harris, Barack Obama, Pete
personal identities and affect how we interpret and interact with the world.
Buttigieg, Deb Haaland, Mazie Hirono,
Sonia Sotomayor, and more. Let us con-
But as developmental psychologist in the domain. Indeed, the greater the tinue to work to get past the firsts to the
Erik Erikson noted decades ago, our diversity in a society, the more import- seconds and the thirds, so that individuals
personal identities are shaped not only ant the issue of representation becomes, from all backgrounds see themselves—and
by internal forces, but also by the groups especially for children and adolescents their identities—represented at all levels
that we belong to and the responses to who have not yet had their dreams of society to give meaning to the phrase, I
us and to our groups in the contexts in delimited. see you: Sawubona, Sanibonani. n
which we all live. Is my ethnic group
a numerical majority or minority? Is
my primary language the one that is
spoken by most members of the society
in which I live? Are there limitations
on what I can do based on my religion,
sexual orientation, gender, social class,
ethnicity, or disability? Many individ-
uals’ views of their capacity to succeed
in some domain is tied to the extent to
which they see individuals like them
ANDREW HARNIK/AP PHOTO
● Frank C. Worrell, PhD, is the 2022
APA president and director of the School
Psychology Program in the Graduate
School of Education at the University of President Joe Biden and Vice President Kamala Harris applaud Judge Ketanji Brown
California, Berkeley. Follow him on Twitter: Jackson at an April 8 White House event celebrating Jackson’s confirmation as the first
@FrankCWorrell. Black woman to become a Supreme Court Justice.
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N I TO RInc.O N P S YC H O LO G Y ● JUNE 2022 9From the CEO
MEETING MENTAL HEALTH
NEEDS REQUIRES LEADERSHIP
As the world pays more attention to mental health, APA is positioning itself to evolve
BY ARTHUR C. EVANS JR., PhD
APA’s recent Stress in America survey reflects what challenges against which to defend—and
many of us are seeing ourselves—a nation struggling to position ourselves accordingly? Reimag-
ining the future of mental health requires
deal with the exacerbation of mental health problems
our field to have the leadership to adapt
over the last two years. With this issue in the national to an ever-changing world.
spotlight, the field of psychology and broader society
have an unprecedented opportunity to shape the future Forge new partnerships. Stakeholders
in such areas as technology, law, philan-
of mental health—including strengthening our infrastructure, increasing the
thropy, public health, and business are
coordination of care, ensuring equitable access to resources, and more actively increasingly engaging with mental health
promoting people’s mental wellness. issues. As a hub science, psychology has
unique opportunities to forge partner-
How do we rise to this moment and psychology’s role in advancing this ships addressing the social determinants
and envision a better future for mental perspective. of mental health and to create new policy
health? Each of us can play a role with initiatives, interventions, and programs.
three actions below that we, as an asso- Embrace the momentum. Shaping We must position psychology as a
ciation and a field, should take to ensure the future of mental health will require resource, engage a broad cross-section
this progress. evolving the way we think about several of individuals, and use these important
issues: Where are broad shifts and trends partnerships to enhance our efforts.
Reconceptualize our approach. Recov- in areas like health care financing and The state of our nation’s mental
ering from the pandemic means both technology going in the next decade? health begs for dramatic change in our
managing the physical virus and address- Can psychology see these changes as approach. Now is the time for bold
ing the accompanying psychological opportunities to embrace—rather than action to move us forward. n
impacts. We cannot rely on treatment
alone to fix these challenges. We must
re-envision what it means to improve
people’s mental health along a contin-
uum and expand our strategies to include
more early intervention and prevention.
APA’s Council of Representatives, for
instance, recently adopted a policy to
MALTE MUELLER/GETTY IMAGES
guide our advocacy for population health
● Arthur C. Evans Jr., PhD, is the chief
executive officer of APA. Follow him on
Twitter: @ArthurCEvans.
10 M O N I TO R O N P S YC H O LO G Y ● JUNE 2022In Brief
Research COMPILED BY CHRIS PALMER
THE LATEST PEER-REVIEWED STUDIES WITHIN PSYCHOLOGY AND RELATED FIELDS
The overall number of DEMENTIA RATE
dementia cases is expected
to triple globally by 2050 DECREASING,
with population growth.
POPULATION
INCREASING
W
hile the rate of dementia
is decreasing, the overall
number of individuals with
dementia is expected to triple glob-
ally by 2050 with population growth,
according to research in The Lancet Public
Health. Researchers used information
on projected trends in three important
dementia risk factors (high body mass
index, high fasting plasma glucose,
smoking) with education as an additional
predictor, as well as projected trends
in education, population growth, and
population aging to estimate changes in
dementia prevalence between 2019 and
2050. They estimated that the number
of people with dementia would increase
from 57.4 million cases globally in 2019
to 152.8 million cases in 2050. In 2019,
the female-to-male ratio of demen-
tia cases was 1.69, and the researchers
predicted that will remain roughly the
same in 2050. Projected increases varied
across regions, with the smallest increases
in high-income Asia Pacific (53%) and
western Europe (74%) regions and the
KATE_SEPT2004/GETTY IMAGES
largest increases in North Africa and
the Middle East (367%) and eastern
sub-Saharan Africa (357%).
DOI: 10.1016/S2468-2667(21)00249-8
M O N I TO R O N P S YC H O LO G Y ● JUNE 2022 11In Brief
BOREDOM AND SADISTIC
TENDENCIES
According to research in the
Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, boredom may moti-
vate people to harm others to
experience pleasure. In the first
of nine studies with partici-
pants from Canada, Germany,
Denmark, and the United
States, researchers surveying
1,780 participants found that
people who experienced chronic
boredom in their daily lives
showed more sadistic tendencies
than those who were less bored.
Five additional studies with the United States ranging in New mothers who who see themselves as higher
1,740 participants indicated age from 18 to 78 to take a daily feel low in social in social status. Researchers
status have worse
that the link between boredom survey related to nostalgia for health outcomes 1 surveyed 1,168 new mothers in
and sadism held across differ- 2 weeks. Participants indicated year after giving birth the United States 6 months after
ent societal contexts, including whether they experienced nos- than new mothers the birth of their children about
who see themselves
online trolling, sadism in the talgia during the day and how as higher in social their subjective social status,
military, and sadistic behav- positive or negative it made them status. household income, and years of
ior among parents. Across feel. Younger participants expe- education. About 6 months later,
three final studies with 4,097 rienced nostalgia 60% less often the researchers assessed general
participants, the researchers than middle-age participants, health using 10 biomarkers, such
manipulated boredom exper- while older participants reported as blood pressure and choles-
imentally and found that nostalgia 3 times more often than terol levels. They found that the
inducing boredom increased middle-age participants. Gender biomarkers of participants with
sadistic behavior. However, did not influence the frequency higher subjective social status
when behavioral alternatives of nostalgia. As to affect, 72% reflected less “wear and tear”
were available, boredom only of participants reported better related to stress. Perceived social
motivated sadistic behavior mood in response to nostalgia, status was a stronger indica-
among participants highly pre- while 51% reported negative tor of health outcomes than
disposed to sadism. Conversely, feelings. Older participants income. However, the association
when there was no alternative, were more likely to experience between social status and health
boredom increased sadistic negative mood resulting from varied depending on partici-
behavior even among those with nostalgia than both younger and pants’ income and education;
low sadistic tendencies. middle-age participants. it was strongest for wealthier
DOI: 10.1037/pspi0000335 DOI: 10.1037/emo0000980 participants and those whose
completed education level was
NOSTALGIA, NO THANKS NEW MOMS WITH MORE high school or above.
Older people are more likely SOCIAL STATUS THRIVE DOI: 10.1037/hea0001148
to experience nostalgia (and According to research in Health
JACOBLUND/GETTY IMAGES
have it trigger negative feelings) Psychology, new mothers who feel LONELINESS BOOM
than younger people, suggests low in social status have worse Loneliness has steadily increased
research in Emotion. Research- health outcomes 1 year after over the past 4 decades, sug-
ers asked 108 participants in giving birth than new mothers gests research in Psychological
12 M O N I TO R O N P S YC H O LO G Y ● JUNE 2022Bulletin. Researchers performed a vaccine was waiting for the did not have dementia nor a pre-
a meta-analysis of 437 indepen- patient. The worst-performing vious cataract surgery when the
dent assessments of loneliness nudges asked participants to study began. They also evaluated
in 345 studies involving 124,855 think about catching the flu at participants’ cognitive abilities
participants between the ages a specific location. Overall, the every 2 years over an average of
of 18 and 29 from around the researchers found that all text 7.8 years. About 45% of partici-
world between 1976 and 2019. reminders boosted vaccination pants underwent cataract surgery
All studies used the same mea- rates compared with the control, during the study. These partici-
sure of loneliness: the UCLA and repeated reminders outper- pants were about 30% less likely
Loneliness Scale. The researchers formed one-time nudges. to develop any form of dementia
found a linear rise in loneliness DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2115126119 for at least 10 years p
ost-surgery.
over those 43 years. Changes in No association was found
loneliness over time were similar CATARACT SURGERY between dementia and glaucoma
among Asian, European, and ASSOCIATED WITH LOWER surgery, which, unlike cataract
American participants. In addi- DEMENTIA RISK surgery, does not improve vision.
tion, the researchers found no A study in JAMA Internal DOI: 10.1001/jamainternmed.2021.6990
differences in loneliness between Medicine indicates that under-
student and nonstudent partic- going cataract surgery may ECO-ANXIETY
ipants and no acceleration of be associated with a lower A study in The Lancet Planetary
loneliness related to the market risk of developing dementia Undergoing cataract Health indicates that climate
saturation of smartphones circa among people age 65 and older. surgery may be change is causing distress, anger,
associated with
2012. However, they found that Researchers tracked 3,038 par- a lower risk of and other negative emotions
year-to-year increases in loneli- ticipants in the United States developing dementia in young people worldwide.
ness were notably greater after who had been diagnosed with among people age 65 Researchers surveyed 10,000
and older.
the year 2000, possibly due to cataract or glaucoma but who people ages 16 to 25 across 10
widespread access to the internet.
DOI: 10.1037/bul0000332
NAGGING NUDGES
NEEDED
Among various “nudges” encour-
aging people to receive a flu
vaccine, the most effective was
a set of texts sent on multiple
days reminding patients that a
flu shot was waiting for them,
according to research in the Pro-
ceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences. Researchers randomly
delivered one of 22 different
types of text messages (or no
message) to 689,693 Walmart
pharmacy patients in the United
States. The top-performing
FG TRADE/GETTY IMAGES
intervention, yielding a 9.9%
increase in vaccinations over
the control, included two texts
sent 3 days apart stating that
M O N I TO R O N P S YC H O LO G Y ● JUNE 2022 13In Brief
countries (Australia, Brazil, countries that are already expe- a near-instant solution. Partic-
France, Finland, India, Nige- riencing direct physical impacts ipants completed two blocks of
ria, the Philippines, Portugal, of climate change as well as in trials, rested for 20 minutes, then
the United Kingdom, and the countries that are less directly completed nine more blocks.
United States) about their feel- impacted. During the break period, 24
ings regarding climate change DOI: 10.1016/S2542-5196(21)00278-3 participants spent at least 15
and their government’s response seconds in hypnagogia (or non-
to it. They found that more than CREATIVE SWEET SPOT IN REM sleep stage 1, a sleep stage
50% reported each of the follow- SLEEP/WAKE ZONE characterized by vivid dreams).
ing emotions: sad, anxious, angry, The brain activity common to Of these 24, 83% discovered
powerless, helpless, and guilty. the twilight zone between sleep the hidden rule after the break.
In addition, 75% reported that and wakefulness sparks cre- Only 30% of participants who
they find the future frightening, ativity, according to research in remained awake discovered the
45% had concerns about the cli- Science Advances. Researchers rule. The effect disappeared if
mate negatively impacting their outfitted 103 participants in More than 50% subjects reached deeper sleep
daily lives, and 40% said climate France with polysomnography of young people during the rest period.
surveyed reported
concerns make them hesitant to devices to assess the partici- feeling sad, anxious, DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abj5866
have children. More than half pants’ state of wakefulness. They angry, powerless,
said governments have betrayed then exposed the participants to helpless, and guilty DEPRESSION STIGMA
regarding climate
current and future generations, math problems without reveal- change and their PLUMMETS
while 64% said their government ing that a “hidden” rule allowed government’s According to research in
was failing to avert a climate response to it. JAMA Network Open, stigma
disaster. Climate distress toward people with depres-
was evident in sion has dropped significantly,
though stigma toward people
with other mental illnesses has
remained stagnant or, in some
cases, increased. Research-
ers analyzed data on attitudes
toward mental illness from a
total of 4,129 adults living in
non-institutionalized settings
in the United States taken at
three points: 1996, 2006, and
2018. They found that from 1996
to 2006, there was an increase
in the belief that genetics or
disrupted brain function, rather
than moral failings, cause mental
health problems. During that
time, those beliefs were not
accompanied by a decreased
stigma toward those with mental
illness. However, the 2018 sur-
YURI_ARCURS/GETTY IMAGES
vey data revealed a significant
drop in social rejection of those
with major depression. Other
disorders did not see a similar
14 M O N I TO R O N P S YC H O LO G Y ● JUNE 2022psychiatric services shuttered in
England over a 60-year period.
Researchers used a time lag
method to analyze associations
between the number of psychi-
atric beds allotted for mentally
ill and intellectually disabled
individuals in England and the
country’s prison population. They
found that from 1960 to 2019,
the number of psychiatric beds
decreased by 93%, from 201,275
to 19,389. Over that time, the
prison population increased by
208%, from 26,048 to 80,203.
Cuts in psychiatric beds were
associated with increased prison
population at a roughly 10-year
lag: Across the study period, for
every 100 psychiatric beds that
were closed, there were 36 more
prisoners (3 female and 33 male)
decrease in stigma in the 2018 young adults, ages 19 to 25. They Prison populations 10 years later.
survey. In fact, the percentage of found that benzodiazepines were spiked as psychiatric
DOI: 10.1192/bjp.2021.138
services shuttered in
people who believed people with prescribed at least once to 1.8% England over a 60-
schizophrenia are dangerous and of adolescents and 4% of young year period. DEPRESSION’S CAUSAL
that alcohol dependence results adults, with diazepam being the ROLE IN ALZHEIMER’S
from a lack of morality increased most common choice for adoles- Depression may have a causal
over time. cents and alprazolam for young role in Alzheimer’s disease (AD),
DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.40202 adults. Clinicians simultaneously but the reverse may not be true,
prescribed opioids and benzodi- suggests research in Biological
OVERPRESCRIBED azepines to 26% of adolescents Psychiatry. Researchers performed
ADOLESCENTS AND and 24% of young adults. Benzo- a genome-wide association
YOUNG ADULTS diazepine prescriptions peaked in study (GWAS), a technique
A study in JAMA Pediatrics 2015 for adolescents and in 2013 that scans the entire genome for
indicates that while clinicians are for young adults and have since areas of commonality associ-
prescribing fewer benzodiaze- decreased steadily. Only 25% and ated with specific conditions.
pines to adolescents and young 34% of claims for adolescents They looked at a 2019 analysis
adults, 66% to 75% of patients and young adults, respectively, of depression among 807,553
in this age group who received involved an approved indication individuals and a 2019 study of
a prescription did not have a for benzodiazepine use. AD among 455,258 individ-
diagnosis corresponding with DOI: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.5122 uals, all of European ancestry.
UNDEFINED UNDEFINED/GETTY IMAGES
approved indications for the The GWAS identified 28 brain
medications. Researchers ana- PSYCH BED TO PRISON proteins and 75 transcripts—the
lyzed health care claims in the In an affirmation of the Penrose genetic messages that encode
United States between 2008 and hypothesis, a study in The British proteins—associated with
2019 for 4 million adolescents, Journal of Psychiatry indicates depression. Among those, seven
ages 13 to 18, and 6 million that prison populations spiked as proteins and 46 transcripts were
M O N I TO R O N P S YC H O LO G Y ● JUNE 2022 15In Brief
waves who were most concerned
about contracting COVID-19
exhibited the greatest increases
in disgust sensitivity.
DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2021.111348
BIRTH ORDER AND
HOMOSEXUALITY
The first population-level study
of birth order and homosexual-
ity, published in The Journal of
Sex Research, indicates that hav-
also associated with AD. The data consumption of calories, fats, and Sleep-deprived ing a greater number of older
suggest the two diseases share a carbohydrates peaked after 9 p.m. adolescents crave brothers increases the proba-
more sweets and
genetic origin, which could spur DOI: 10.1093/sleep/zsab269 other carbohydrates, bility of both men and women
an increased risk for AD associ- especially late at entering a same-sex marriage.
ated with depression. Assessing MORE DISGUSTED DURING night. Researchers analyzed a sam-
the effect of 115 single-nucleo- COVID ple of 9,073,496 people in the
tide polymorphisms (SNPs) from Disgust sensitivity—the intensity Netherlands born between 1940
the depression GWAS uncovered with which people are repulsed and 1990. They compared the
evidence that the SNPs cause by ideas or situations consid- sibling relationship characteris-
depression, which in turn causes ered gross or unpleasant—has tics of 26,542 men and 33,534
AD. The researchers conducted increased during the COVID- women who registered for a
the same analysis on 61 SNPs 19 pandemic, especially among same-sex marriage with those
from the AD GWAS but found those most afraid of contracting who did not. They found evi-
no evidence that AD causes the coronavirus, suggests research dence of a fraternal birth-order
depression. in Personality and Individual effect on homosexuality: Both
DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.11.025 Differences. In nine data-collec- men and women with one older
tion waves between December brother were about 12% more
LOSE SLEEP, CRAVE 2018 and June 2020, researchers likely to enter a same-sex union
SWEETS assessed the disgust sensitivity of than men and women with one
Sleep-deprived adolescents 3,300 adults in the United States. older sister and 21% more likely
crave more sweets and other During the final two waves in than men and women with just
carbohydrates, especially late at spring 2020, participants also one younger sibling. Birth order
night, suggests research in Sleep. indicated their pandemic-re- and total sibling number mat-
Researchers assigned 93 adoles- lated opinions and behaviors. tered, too. The youngest male
cents in the United States to 5 The average p re-pandemic dis- siblings were more likely to
nights of good sleep (9.5 hours) gust sensitivity, which included enter a same-sex marriage than
and 5 nights of poor sleep (6.5 responses to disease-related the oldest male siblings, and
hours). They also asked the par- scenarios and non-disease sce- the differences grew as the total
ticipants to record what, when, narios, was 2.82 out of 4, a figure number of siblings increased.
and how much food they ate that increased to 3.26 during the Women were also more likely
during each 5-day stretch. When pandemic. Similar within-subject to enter a same-sex marriage if
FCAFOTODIGITAL/GETTY IMAGES
sleep-deprived, the adolescents increases in disgust sensitiv- they had older brothers.
consumed more carbohy- ity were observed in one set of DOI: 10.1080/00224499.2021.1974330
drates, added sugars, and sweet respondents surveyed in Novem- ● For direct links to the research
drinks, and they ate fewer fruits ber 2019 and May 2020. Finally, cited in this section, visit our online
edition at www.apa.org/monitor.
and vegetables. Differences in participants in the final two
16 M O N I TO R O N P S YC H O LO G Y ● JUNE 2022Thanks to support received for the EnVISION Racial
Equity Campaign, the American Psychological
Foundation was able to support the following
Visionary Grants:
DR. ABIGAIL M. FOLBERG
The University of Nebraska at Omaha
Examining How Prejudice Confrontation
Diffuses Through Social Networks
DR. ALEXANDER P. BURGOYNE
Georgia Institute of Technology
Reducing Adverse Impact and
Improving Personnel Selection MS. SARAH GILLESPIE
Using Tests of Attention Control University of Minnesota
Ending Racism and Promoting
Student Thriving in Diverse
DR. MEGAN MILLER Schools: Exploring the Causal
Indiana University Effect of Ethnic Studies Education
Investigating How Institutional through a Natural Experiment
and Provider Racism Contribute
to Pain Treatment Disparities in
Adults with Sickle Cell Disease
DR. TERESA P. NGUYEN
Sonoma State University
Socioeconomic Status, Racial
DR. KATE M. TURETSKY Discrimination, and the Well-being
Barnard College, Columbia University of Low-Income, Latinx Families
Understanding and Ending Racial Bias
in Early Education Assessment
MR. ROBERT J. VARGAS
DR. FANITA A. TYRELL Carnegie Mellon University
The University of Maryland Using fMRI-measured
at College Park Attitudes and Actions to
Ethical Representation in Predict Biased Decisions to
Biosocial Research: Laying the Punish among White and Chinese Americans
Groundwork for the Representation
And Research Ethics (RARE) Registry at UMD
The Visionary Grants are APF’s flagship program, providing funding to psychology graduate students and early career
psychologists to seed innovation through supporting research, education, and intervention projects and programs that
use psychology to solve social problems. In 2020, in recognition of the urgency of the matter, APF added special
Visionary grants dedicated to racial equity. This campaign is called EnVISION Racial Equity and all funds raised are
dedicated to new racial equity Visionary grants. Your support is critical to fund these programs. To find out more, go to
www.apa.org/apf/news/envision or make your gift at www.apa.org/apf/giving.
If you have additional questions, contact Miriam Isserow at misserow@apa.org.News Feature
PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE
IN THE 21ST CENTURY
Social media disinformation and manipulation are causing confusion, fueling
hostilities, and amplifying the atrocities in Ukraine and around the world
BY ZARA ABRAMS
I
n the 21st century, war is not puter science, national security, other human rights violations,
just physical—it’s also psycho- and more—are fighting back. including those against the
logical, and much of it takes This starts with an understand- Uyghur population in China,
place online. ing of how misinformation (and the Rohingya in Myanmar, and
Political entities in at least 70 disinformation, a subset of mis- Muslim populations in India.
countries have engaged in coor- information intended to mislead) To describe the growing role
dinated online disinformation functions, as well as what works of online media in political
campaigns in recent years, with to correct it. That science is now conflicts, Singer helped coin the FURTHER
Russia alone launching more informing strategic resistance in term “LikeWar.” READING
than 30 attacks on elections Russia, Ukraine, and beyond. “If you think of cyberwar as
LikeWar: The
around the world since 2016 “The Ukrainians are fighting the hacking of networks, Like-
weaponization of
(2019 Global Inventory of Organ- a 21st-century war, which is half War is its evil twin: the hacking social media
ised Social Media Manipulation, on the internet,” said Stephan of people on those networks, Singer, P. W., &
University of Oxford; Hacking Lewandowsky, PhD, a professor through our likes, shares, and Brooking, E. T., 2018
Democracies, Australian Strategic of psychology at the University sometimes lies,” said Singer,
Controlling
Policy Institute, 2019). of Bristol who studies misin- who is also a strategist and
the spread of
“We’ve seen the very real formation at the societal level. senior fellow at the nonparti- misinformation
effects of information operations “That new approach has worked san public policy institute New APA, 2021
on everything from the rise of extremely well because it has America.
extremist groups like ISIS to preempted Russian attempts to For years, Russia has been Putin, Zelenskyy, and
Biden all have unique
far-right groups in America that rewrite history.” waging—and winning—a
leadership styles
culminated in January 6,” said LikeWar against much of the Hunter, S., & Scott
Peter W. Singer, PhD, a profes- GETTING TO THE TRUTH world. The Kremlin has deployed Ligon, G., The
sor of practice at the School of Disinformation in war is nothing tried-and-true psychological Conversation, 2022
Politics and Global Studies at new—in fact, it’s a key part of manipulation strategies via social
Misinformation,
Arizona State University. “It’s the playbook. Leaders commonly and online media, including
disinformation, and
behind the so-called ‘infodemic’ inflate or fabricate information disparaging outgroups and violent conflict: From
that has made the COVID-19 about everything from military rapid-fire lying, according to Iraq and the “War
pandemic far more deadly than it might to supposed atrocities research by Jon Roozenbeek, on Terror” to future
should have been,” he said. to confuse opponents or boost PhD, a postdoctoral fellow in threats to peace
Lewandowsky, S.,
Online disinformation has morale at home. Even Ukraine psychology at the University of
et al., American
also been linked to mass killings has appeared to push some war- Cambridge who studies mis- Psychologist, 2013
around the world, from Myan- time narratives that may be false. and disinformation and media
mar to India. But with the rise of social discourse in Ukraine.
But propagandists aren’t media, propaganda can now Roozenbeek documented
just pushing against an open be deployed on a much larger how the Kremlin stoked
door. Psychologists—along with scale—and it has been used to outgroup animosity toward
experts in political science, com- garner support for genocide and Ukrainians and the Ukrainian
18 M O N I TO R O N P S YC H O LO G Y ● JUNE 2022as evil and immoral and framing
messages in terms of power
dynamics. If Russia is merely a
victim that other world powers
are exploiting, the country has a
justification for revenge.
Such claims may be easily
dismissed by Westerners, but
many Russian citizens lack access
to reliable c ounter-information
due to the restrictions on inde-
pendent and social media in the
country, Nguyen said. They’ve
also faced repeated exposure to
these falsehoods for years, which
psychologists have shown can
increase the persuasiveness of
disinformation (Pennycook, G.,
et al., Journal of Experimental
Psychology: General, Vol. 147, No.
12, 2018).
“It’s not just what’s being
communicated now that
government during the takeover “It’s a firehose of falsehoods matters—it’s what’s been com-
of the Donetsk and Luhansk that don’t even hang together,” municated for the last decade or
regions in eastern Ukraine, a tac- Lewandowsky said. “They’re Russian Minister of so that’s really influencing the
tic linked with high social media just saying anything, literally Education Sergey way that [the Russian] people
Kravtsov held a
engagement (Media and Identity anything, to reinforce people’s press conference to are thinking about this war,”
in Wartime Donbas, 2014-2017, belief that you can never get to denounce Ukrainian Nguyen said.
University of Cambridge, 2019; the truth.” school textbooks
as instruments of
Rathje, S., et al., PNAS, Vol. 118, Putin also uses specific lead- propaganda. The PREEMPTING
No. 26, 2021). ership and aggressive tactics to books mention PROPOGANDA
Another ploy Russian Pres- help justify violence, said Tin Ukraine’s declaration By design, misinformation and
of independence
ident Vladimir Putin has used Nguyen, a research associate at from Russia. disinformation are more infec-
to great success is conspiracy the National Counterterror- tious and incendiary than factual
“gish gallop,” or rapid-fire lying, ism, Innovation, Technology, information, which makes them
said Roozenbeek, for instance and Education Center who is particularly useful in wartime.
around the Malaysian Airlines completing his doctoral degree Research has shown that after
disaster of 2014. The Kremlin’s in industrial-organizational undergoing fact-checking, infor-
constant stream of lies—that it psychology at Penn State Uni- mation deemed false spreads
was a Ukrainian attack, that all versity (Lovelace, J. B., et al., The faster on social media than
the passengers were dead before Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 30, information deemed true—a
takeoff, that the pilot intention- No. 1, 2019; James, L. R., et al., trend fueled by people, not bots
ally crashed the plane—was used Organizational Research Methods, (Vosoughi, S., et al., Science, Vol.
SIPAPRE/AP IMAGES
to sow confusion and disillusion- Vol. 8, No. 1, 2005). For example, 359, No. 6380, 2018). Misin-
ment (Paul, C., & Matthews, M., Putin’s strategies include paint- formation tends to draw on
RAND Corporation, 2016). ing Ukraine and Western nations moral-emotional language, mak-
M O N I TO R O N P S YC H O LO G Y ● JUNE 2022 19Psychological Warfare
photos. They also helped reveal
that Putin’s so-called “emer-
gency meetings” were actually
prerecorded when one official’s
wristwatch did not match the
Kremlin’s story. The United
States also released intelligence
about Russian movements ahead
of time to prevent Putin from
controlling the narrative about
the war.
Preempting Russian pro-
paganda affords a strategic
advantage as well as a psycholog-
ical one, Singer said—it puts the
Kremlin on its back foot, forcing
it to react instead of making the
first move and controlling the
storyline.
Social media platforms are
also limiting the flow of Russian
disinformation more aggres-
sively than they have in the past,
Nguyen said. Twitter is adding
labels to Russian state-sponsored
ing it more likely to be shared, Ukrainian Andriy Vol. 114, No. 28, 2017). media, while Meta is demoting
especially within ideological Stasyshyn cohosts Once it takes hold, misin- such posts. Reddit is making
a radio show that
groups (Ecker, U. K. H., et al., counters Russian formation is tough to correct. it harder to find the subreddit
Nature Reviews Psychology, Vol. 1, propaganda. Psychologists have shown that r/Russia, and TikTok is limiting
2022; Brady, W. J., et al., PNAS, pre-bunking, or preemptively livestreams and uploads from
warning people about incorrect Russia.
or misleading information, is At the individual level, the
ONLINE SKILLS
more effective than debunk- same strategies that work for
CYBER CITIZENSHIP ing falsehoods after the fact avoiding misinformation on other
(Lewandowsky, S., et al., The topics can help protect against
C yber citizenship describes the skills needed to
protect against misinformation and psycholog-
ical manipulation online. These include:
Debunking Handbook 2020).
Personal and emotional appeals,
psychological warfare, too. Singer
and his colleagues call this “cyber
rather than merely providing a citizenship”—a combination of
n Digital literacy: Understand how the online world
fact-check, can also be helpful. digital literacy, responsible behav-
works, how to recognize fact versus opinion, and
Though Russia has long ior, and awareness of the threat of
how algorithms drive information your way.
outmaneuvered its opponents in online manipulation.
BENEDICTINE VAN DER MAAR/HANS LUCAS/REDUX
n Civics and citizenship: Behave responsibly
the information space, foreign “Whether it’s Russian dis-
toward others in your online networks.
leaders are starting to push back. information, an anti-vaxxer
n Cybersecurity: Recognize and rebuff techniques
Ukrainian officials systematically conspiracy theory, or just some-
used by both hackers and online manipulators.
pre-bunked Russian attempts one trying to tell your kids that
Learn more about New America’s Cyber Citizenship to spread disinformation in the aliens built the pyramids, having
Initiative at www.newamerica.org/education-policy/ lead-up to February’s invasion all three of those skills is an
cyber-citizenship-initiative. by documenting Russia’s buildup incredibly effective way to resist
of military forces with satellite manipulation,” he said. n
20 M O N I TO R O N P S YC H O LO G Y ● JUNE 2022“Whether it’s Russian disinformation, an anti-vaxxer conspiracy theory,
or just someone trying to tell your kids that aliens built the pyramids, having all three
[cyber citizenship] skills is an incredibly effective way to resist manipulation.”
PETER W. SINGER, PHD, ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
PERSONAL CONNECTIONS
PSYCHOLOGISTS FIGHT RUSSIAN DISINFORMATION
F
or years, the Kremlin has churned out propaganda suggested the following: “Sometimes, the Russian govern-
about Ukrainians, depicting them as neo-Nazis ment has been known to lie to the Russian people. What
conspiring with Western powers to take Russia do you think is going on? I’d like to hear your perspective.”
down. Little data exists on public opinion in Russia today, In line with her findings, the rewritten emails now
but there’s plenty of evidence that fear emphasize points of agreement (“I’m
and manipulation still control much of sure that both of us are concerned for
how information flows in the country. the safety of our planet”) and acknowl-
“In closed societies like Russia, it’s edge what the recipients might be going
extremely difficult to know what people through (“I understand that things are
think,” said Stephan Lewandowsky, PhD, hard right now in Russia under the sanc-
a professor of psychology at the Univer- tions”). They’re also much shorter and
sity of Bristol. easier to skim, drawing on research by
Psychologists are part of several organizational psychologist Todd Rog-
efforts to assist Russians in access- ers, PhD, also of the Harvard Kennedy
ing factual information about the war in The Call Russia Logo School, on what he calls “corresponding
Ukraine. They’re using research findings with busy people.”
to shape outreach efforts and guide conversations with A similar initiative, Call Russia, uses phone calls
Russian citizens. instead of emails to open up information channels.
The Mail2RU initiative, for example, has sent more Cofounder Paulius Senuta, who works in advertising,
than 60 million emails to Russians with credible informa- enlisted a team of four Lithuanian psychologists to build
tion about the war. But social psychologist Julia Minson, scripts that emphasize emotions and personal connec-
PhD, an associate professor of public policy at the Har- tions rather than merely correcting facts.
vard Kennedy School, noticed that the campaign’s initial “We can’t change minds by arguing who’s right or
messages, composed by the Norwegian technology wrong,” Senuta said. “The way we’re trying to make a
expert who launched the effort, weren’t strategically difference is by asking questions and provoking basic
worded to reach people with a different point of view. human sympathy for the people who are dying.”
Minson quickly joined forces with the Mail2RU team At the University of Cambridge, psychologists Jon
and is now applying her research on “conversational Roozenbeek, PhD, and Sander van der Linden, PhD, are
receptiveness” to improve the content of the messages. working with the United Kingdom’s Foreign, Common-
The adjustments are meant to reduce pushback and wealth and Development Office to translate tools they’ve
open up productive dialogue with the Russian email developed to inoculate individuals against online disin-
CHESSMANZ, ISTOCK/GETTY; CALL RUSSIA
recipients (Organizational Behavior and Human Decision formation into Russian and Ukrainian.
Processes, Vol. 160, 2020). “The individual examples are different, but the under-
For example, Minson’s research shows the power lying tropes are the same,” Roozenbeek said. “We’re
of hedging claims in the face of anticipated resistance. exploring how these tools can be used to counteract
Instead of saying “Putin is lying to the Russian people,” she strategies commonly used in Russian disinformation.”
M O N I TO R O N P S YC H O LO G Y ● JUNE 2022 21News Feature
THE ANATOMY OF A
MISINFORMATION ATTACK
Scientists who discuss hot-button topics on social media may find themselves in
the middle of a firestorm. How can they stay safe while communicating the facts,
and what can institutions do to support them?
BY ZARA ABRAMS
I
n January, psychologist Jay million followers—followed suit. ally prompting him to make
Van Bavel, PhD, was the A 2017 study estimated his Twitter account private and
target of a coordinated mis- that more than 45,000 scien- remove his personal information
information attack. He received tists are active on Twitter, with from other sites.
thousands of angry tweets, many more weighing in since Van Bavel and other scien-
messages, and emails from con- the pandemic began (Ke, Q., tists shared their thoughts about
spiracy theorists who believed he et al., PLOS ONE, Vol. 12, No. the nature of online harassment,
was part of a massive cover-up 4, 2017). Presenting science how scientists can stay safe while
of the so-called truth about through social platforms and communicating the facts, and
COVID-19. mass media offers an oppor- what institutions can do to sup-
Van Bavel, an associate pro- tunity to engage the public port them. “When a
fessor of psychology and neural with the scientific process, but scientist
sciences at New York University scholars who do so may also face WHEN LOGIC like Jay
(NYU) who studies group iden- trolling and harassment. DOESN’T MATTER speaks out,
tity, had merely helped fact-check “For researchers, we’re now Misinformation and extreme
a false claim—that millions of having to walk a very fine line ideas tend to spread faster
he’s viewed
Americans have been “hypno- in terms of how much we can online, and conversations can not just as
tized” into accepting mainstream communicate independently,” quickly become more hostile wrong but as
messages about COVID-19, said Aleks Krotoski, PhD, a than in face-to-face interactions sacrilegious
including the importance of vac- New York–based podcaster and (Vosoughi, S., et al., Science, and even
cination, creating “mass formation social psychologist who studies Vol. 359, No. 6380, 2018; Bor, evil.”
psychosis.” The psychological how information spreads online. A., & Petersen, M. B., Ameri-
phenomenon was described by “Communicating our science is can Political Science Review, Vol. PETER DITTO, PHD
UNIVERSITY OF
Robert Malone, MD, on The Joe still really, really important, but it 116, No. 1, 2022). In a Nature CALIFORNIA, IRVINE
Rogan Experience podcast on Dec. carries with it a perilous situation survey, nearly 60% of scientists
31, 2021. in which you could then become who had commented publicly
The only problem: mass the center of a firestorm.” about COVID-19 online or in
formation psychosis is a bogus In addition to a flood of the media said they faced attacks
theory that lacks evidence—or insulting tweets and memes to their credibility, and 15%
even recognition by scientists. attacking his character and said they received death threats
After Van Bavel joined a group scientific credibility, Van Bavel (Nogrady, B., Nature, Vol. 598,
of psychologists who debunked received hateful emails and 2021). And when trolls team up
the theory via the Associated messages on other platforms, for a coordinated barrage, “it is
Press, Malone’s followers began including Facebook, Instagram, truly overwhelming,” Van Bavel
harassing him on Twitter. Soon, and LinkedIn. Some trolls even said.
another conspiracy theorist, Jack tracked down and contacted his At the heart of the problem
Posobiec—and many of his 1.5 partner and employer, eventu- is our hyper-moralized political
22 M O N I TO R O N P S YC H O LO G Y ● JUNE 2022You can also read
