RACELIGHTING in the Normal Realities of Black, Indigenous, and People of Color - A SCHOLARLY BRIEF - Black Minds Matter Coalition
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RACELIGHTING
in the Normal
Realities of Black,
Indigenous, and
People of Color
A SCHOLARLY BRIEF
WOOD & HARRIS III
RACELIGHTING IN THE NORMAL REALITIES OF BLACK, INDIGENOUS AND PEOPLE OF COLOR (BIPOC)
An understanding of contemporary
challenges facing Black, Indigenous and
People of Color involves an understanding
of systemic oppression as well as how
racism manifests at the interpersonal
level. In this brief, we offer racelighting
as a framework for understanding the
process by which interpersonal racism
leads BIPOC to question their own
re al i t ie s an d s ani t y.
2
Reviewers
Racelighting
Eric Bishop, Ed.D. Christopher B. Newman, Ph.D.
Superintendent/President Associate Professor of Higher Education,
Ohlone Community College District Azusa Pacific University
C O M M U N I T Y C O LLE G E E Q U I T Y A S S E S S M E N T L A B ( C C E A L)
in the Normal Keith Curry, Ed.D.
President/CEO, Compton College
Clyde Wilson Pickett, EdD
Vice Chancellor and Chief Diversity
Realities of Black, Idara R. Essien, Ph.D.
Officer, University of Pittsburgh
Indigenous, and
Assistant Professor of Child and Family B.J. Snowden, Ed.D.
Development, San Diego State University Interim Vice President of Enrollment
Services and Student Success
People of Color Angélica M. González, Ed.D.
Project Director, Title V Stem
Orange Coast College
Los Rios Community College District
Molly Springer, Ed.D.
Associate Vice President, Student
Cedric. D. Hackett, Ed.D. Success and Educational Equity,
Associate Professor, Director, DuBois- California State University, San
Bernardino
Authors Hamer Institute for Academic
Achievement
California State University, Northridge Scott W. Thayer, Ed.D.
Vice President for Student Services
San Bernardino Valley College
J. Luke Wood, Ph.D. Ashanti Hands, Ed.D.
Vice President for Student Services
Distinguished Professor of Education San Diego Mesa College Jacob Alvarado Waipuk
Vice President for Student Affairs and Chair of Tribal Relations, Tribal Liaison
Ivan L. Harrell II, Ph.D. & Assistant Professor, American Indian
Campus Diversity President, Tacoma Community College Studies, San Diego State University
San Diego State University
Adriel A. Hilton, Ph.D. Lawanda Wesley, Ed.D.
Dean of Students, Seton Hill Director of Quality Enhancement
Frank Harris II, Ed.D. and Professional Development, Early
Learning, Oakland Unified School District
Professor of Postsecondary Education Rebecca A. Neal, Ph.D.
Gordon B. Sanders Chair and Associate
Co-Director of the Community College Professor of Education, Hamline Soua Xiong, Ph.D.
University Assistant Professor of Counselor
Equity Assessment Lab (CCEAL) Education and Rehabilitation, Fresno
San Diego State University Carlos Nevarez, Ph.D. State University
Chair and Professor, Graduate and
Professional Studies in Education
California State University, Sacramento
3
In the wake of George Floyd, millions question their realities and sanity. To provide
of people have expressed a desire to context to this conversation, we first explore
RACELIGHTING IN THE NORMAL REALITIES OF BLACK, INDIGENOUS AND PEOPLE OF COLOR (BIPOC)
build a more harmonious nation. This racial the term gaslighting.
reckoning should involve efforts to come to
terms with the historical ills of our nation as The concept of gaslighting originates
well as the continued oppression faced by from a 1938 play Patrick Hamilton wrote
minoritized communities. An understanding called Gas Light. The play features an affluent
of contemporary challenges facing Black, couple named Jack and Bella Manningham
Indigenous and People of Color involves who move into a new home in an upscale
an understanding of systemic oppression neighborhood. Throughout the play, Jack
as well as how racism manifests at the mistreats and psychologically torments
interpersonal level. In this scholarly brief, Bella. He purposefully engages in actions to
the authors offer racelighting as one make Bella feel she is losing her sanity. Jack
mechanism among many (e.g., explicit brazenly flirts with their housekeeper in front
bias, implicit bias, microaggressions, Racial of Bella. When Bella raises concerns about
Battle Fatigue) that must be understood to his flirting, he denies he has done anything
fully account for and address how racism inappropriate. Jack hides objects around the
manifests in the daily, lived experiences house, including pictures, silverware, and
of BIPOC. The interpersonal experiences penchants. Throughout the play, he accuses
of BIPOC are shaped by this widely Bella of stealing the items he has hidden. The
understood, yet underdefined aspect term gaslight, as derived from the title of the
of interpersonal racism. In this brief, we play, comes from scenes where Jack is using
offer racelighting as a framework for light in a different part of their building. Given
understanding the process by which the lights are powered by gas, the lights in the
interpersonal racism leads BIPOC to part of the building near Bella become dimmer.
4
Bella is made to believe she is imagining as intentionally distorting Bella’s reality, the
this, too. Bella questions what she sees, common use of the term gaslighting does not
feels, experiences, and hears. The veracity carry this connotation. Gaslighting, therefore,
and convincing nature of Jack’s assertions can be done consciously or unconsciously
C O M M U N I T Y C O LLE G E E Q U I T Y A S S E S S M E N T L A B ( C C E A L)
makes Bella begin to believe Jack may indeed with no intended end or purpose (Abramson,
be right. This is further bolstered by his 2014). The term gaslighting is believed to
appearance as a devout Christian who leads have first originated from a 1969 paper
prayer time and reads the Bible. Moreover, by Barton and Whitehead, where the
given Bella’s own mother suffered from term was used in an analysis of patients
mental illness, Jack’s assertions are seemingly who were abused by being involuntarily
probable. However, to those watching the hospitalized. The term was used sparingly by
play, it is clear Jack is a habitual liar and is psychotherapists in the 1970s and 1980s and
intent on making Bella believe she is going re-popularized in the mid-2000s (see Sweet,
insane. This play has been turned into several 2019). Most notably, the term returned to
film adaptations, including Angel Street, and wider use after the publication of The Gaslight
has served to influence how popular society Effect, a pop psychotherapy book written
views the use of tactics resulting in individuals by Stern (2007), co-founder and associate
questioning their reality. director of the Yale Center for Emotional
Intelligence and an associate research
Drawing from this, the term gaslighting scientist at the Child Study Center at Yale.
refers to a form of psychological abuse
where a “perpetrator distorts information and The term gaslight has been traditionally
confuses a victim, triggering the victim to conceptualized as occurring in heterosexual
doubt their memory and sanity” (Tormoen, relationships between a man (the perpetrator)
2019, p. 2). Although the play depicts Jack and a woman (Brandt & Rudden, 2020; Calef
5
& Weinshel, 1981; Gass & Nichols, 1988). The have been historically gaslighted through
term gaslight is not necessarily associated narratives suggesting they are incompetent
RACELIGHTING IN THE NORMAL REALITIES OF BLACK, INDIGENOUS AND PEOPLE OF COLOR (BIPOC)
with racism or other forms of marginality; and undesirable. They noted these narratives
however, this has shifted in recent years. In mirror those about Black students and are
the past decade, the term has been applied reinforced by law and policy that positions
more broadly across identity groups. For Black educators as unqualified. They pointed to
instance, Wozolek (2018) applied gaslighting to the rationales used for the nonrenewal of Black
the experiences of queer students in school, educators after Brown v. Board of Education,
where they receive messages that privilege noting many Black educators were "let go"
heteronormative people and actions. With as they were perceived to be less desirable.
a focus on transgender children, Riggs and Although the court ruling was blamed, the
Bartholomaeus (2018) reflected on parent- underlying reason was the desire not to have
child relationships from clinical counseling. Black teachers educating White students.
They noted parents gaslight their children
by deferring to act on their gender identity, Davis and Ernst (2017) also focused on
intentionally forgetting information such as gaslighting within a racial context, which they
hormone therapies, and placing the emotional termed racial gaslighting. They defined racial
burden of transitioning on the child, especially gaslighting as “the political, social, economic
in the context of negotiating and navigating and cultural process that perpetuates and
how extended family would respond. normalizes a white supremacist reality through
pathologizing those who resist” (Davis & Ernst,
In a racial context, Roberts and 2017, p. 3). They argued racial gaslighting
Andrews (2013) used the term gaslighting to relies on racial spectacles, narratives that
discuss the experiences of African American serve to disguise the role of White supremacy
teachers. They proposed that Black educators within a state power structure. To articulate
6this power structure, Davis and Ernst Tobias and Joseph (2020) used
employed policy and case law examples to gaslighting as a conceptual lens to examine
demonstrate how racial gaslighting plays racial profiling against Canadians of African
out in case law. One example highlighted descent. They focused on the practice
C O M M U N I T Y C O LLE G E E Q U I T Y A S S E S S M E N T L A B ( C C E A L)
how anti-Asian discrimination manifested in of “carding,” where a police officer stops
Korematsu v. United States. Korematsu was a a person to ask for information without
Japanese American who refused to report for any actions that warranted the stop. This
internment, arguing it was racial discrimination information is written on small cards (hence
in concentration camps. The U.S. government the name carding) and is retained in a police
defended its actions by alleging that racial database. They noted the use of carding
prejudice was not a motivating factor but has been disproportionately used in larger
rather that internment was a public safety initiatives designed to target low-income
measure to protect Americans from the communities and is acutely used against
Japanese Empire. The Supreme Court affirmed people who are Black, Indigenous, and low
this stance and also argued that the use of the income. In their analysis of articles from 27
word concentration camps framed “relocation media outlets, they found framing from the
centers” in a negative light. Thus, in this case, police that indicated macro-level gaslighting.
the racial spectacle was used to cover the true Specifically, the police failed to correct media
intentions of state-sanctioned actions meant statements that used terms like “street checks”
to criminalize a specific racial group. The and “carding” separately, despite being the
government did not issue a formal apology same practice. Moreover, after not correcting
and reparations for the surviving victims until this misunderstanding, police representatives
1988, when the Civil Liberties Act was signed actively stated their officers do not engage
(Hatamiya, 1994). in carding, suggesting street checks were
a distinct practice (despite being the same).
7The focus in the media transitioned from In their focus groups with 15 Women of Color
disproportionate use against Black people scientists, they identified common experiences
RACELIGHTING IN THE NORMAL REALITIES OF BLACK, INDIGENOUS AND PEOPLE OF COLOR (BIPOC)
and illegality of the carding practice overall with uncivil discourse and harassing behaviors.
to emphasizing the need for discussion Incivility refers to rude or derogatory actions
on defining each practice and associated and messages that can serve to exclude
expectations. Narratives put forth by law Women of Color (Rodrigues et al., 2021). For
enforcement officials further obfuscated the instance, this could include someone refusing
practice by suggesting people had the right to to shake the hand of a Woman of Color
decline the stop—in practice, this was not the scientist or refusing to look her in the eyes.
case. They also noted gender harassment and racial
harassment can occur. A range of examples
Recently, Rodrigues, Mendenhall was offered, including male colleagues kissing
& Clancy (2021) used gaslighting as a female colleagues on the cheek, negative
framework to discuss the experience of remarks and jokes about People of Color
Women of Color scientists. Moving away and/or women, or questions and statements
from a policy and case law focus exemplified denying the existence of race and racism.
in prior works, their research demonstrated Rodriguez et al. also noted gaslighting
gaslighting should be understood through the against Women of Color could be further
intersectional identities of Women of Color at intensified by White allies who fail to disrupt
the interpersonal level. Although most scholars negative remarks and actions that were clearly
have articulated gaslighting against People negative, thereby demonstrating surface-level
of Color as an interpersonal and macro-level allyship instead.
phenomenon, Rodrigues et al. have a more
intentional focus on the interpersonal level.
8Although the original
form of gaslighting was more
...Gaslighting
abrasive and upfront, the against Women
approach to how it is applied of Color could
C O M M U N I T Y C O LLE G E E Q U I T Y A S S E S S M E N T L A B ( C C E A L)
in a racial context is arguably
more sinister. This is due be further
to the fact that race-based intensified by
gaslighting affects individuals
interpersonally but is also
White allies who
institutionalized in the social fail to disrupt
fabric of the masses which negative remarks
holds the power and influence
in society. Next, we explore and actions that
the interpersonal nature of were clearly
race-based gaslighting. negative.
9D E F I N I N G R AC E LI G HTI N G
RACELIGHTING IN THE NORMAL REALITIES OF BLACK, INDIGENOUS AND PEOPLE OF COLOR (BIPOC)
More closely aligned with the experiences, feelings, capabilities, knowledge,
interpersonal aspects of gaslighting Rodriguez decision-making, recollections, and basic
et al. (2021) offered, we conceptualized humanity. When racelit, People of Color begin
“racelighting” as a form of gaslighting affecting questioning their own realities and whether
the daily, normalized experiences and realities they are indeed unintelligent, prone to
of Black, Indigenous, and People of Color maladaptive behaviors, of lesser worth, overly
(BIPOC). Therefore, we defined racelighting sensitive, or less capable than their peers.
as “the process whereby People of Color In addition, it should be noted that People of
question their own thoughts and actions Color can also racelight one another. This is
due to systematically delivered racialized especially true when internalized messages
messages that make them second guess their about racism are accepted tacitly or even
own lived experiences [and realities] with explicitly.
racism” (Wood & Harris III, 2021, para. 4). Racial
microaggressions are used as a means to Following Stern’s (2007) use of the
racelight People of Color (a relationship further terms “gaslighter” to refer to the perpetrator
explicated in the next section). The most and “gaslightee” to refer to the victim, we
common messages reinforce assumptions employ “racelighter” to refer to the perpetrator
that BIPOC are criminals, lesser than, and and “racelightee” for the victim. That said,
academically and/or cognitively inferior. unlike gaslighting, racelighting is not typically
When experiencing racelighting, People experienced in the context of a relationship
of Color may be led to second guess their
10between only two people. A racelightee can working with the student on group projects,
experience multiple racelighters with similar assignments, and demonstrations. Although
messages—even when those messages are the student may perceive the teacher as the
not coordinated—in a given social context, primary racelighter, other microaggressive
C O M M U N I T Y C O LLE G E E Q U I T Y A S S E S S M E N T L A B ( C C E A L)
situation, or organization. For instance, messages further reinforce the belief that the
racelighting could involve a Black student student is not really that smart and does not
in a gifted and talented program starting belong. Thus, the persistence and veracity
to question whether they are indeed high of the messages rendered from a racelighter
performing. Racelighters conveying messages or racelighters to a racelightee convey a
that lead the student to doubt their ability reality that makes the messages (no matter
could include the student’s teacher, counselor, how erroneous) more believable, realistic,
and other students in the program. A teacher and plausible. These messages are further
may repeatedly engage in actions that reinforced by the fact that racelighting tactics
force the student to prove their intelligence (e.g., microaggressions) are conveyed by
when others are not questioned with such numerous perpetrators and even tacitly by
intensity. Although this may be an ongoing well-meaning allies. This is due to the fact that
phenomenon the student experiences, the messages are normalized and occur in the
microaggressive messages are repeatedly daily experiences of BIPOC.
reinforced when they meet with their
counselor about college plans. The counselor Racelighting can be more intensely
may recommend they explore a less selective experienced when People of Color question
institution, one that will “best fit their needs” their experiences with racism and its
and can “support them in succeeding.” The intersections with other forms of marginality
subtlety of this message could be intensified (e.g., sexism, homophobia, transphobia,
by other students in the program who avoid xenophobia, classism, and religious
11discrimination). When this occurs, similar to racelightee to feel disoriented due to the
the play Gas Light, their experiential realities disconnection between the racelighters
RACELIGHTING IN THE NORMAL REALITIES OF BLACK, INDIGENOUS AND PEOPLE OF COLOR (BIPOC)
can be questioned. The veracity and passion assertions and reality.
of a racelighter’s assertions of innocence or
claims of misinterpretation connote a reality Overall, when racelighting occurs, it
that is believable and seemingly credible. As can lead BIPOC to doubt themselves and their
Dovidio and Gaetner (2000) noted, this may abilities. For example, a Black administrator
be due to perpetrators rarely evaluating their who receives a negative performance
own perceptions, behaviors, and actions. evaluation despite being high performing
Given this, some may believe a distorted may begin to question whether they are as
reality where their actions are defended in effective as they thought they were. This can
good conscience (Sue, 2005). Others may be be further intensified if the negative evaluation
deliberately untruthful to protect themselves has feedback that has not previously been
from accusations of racism and other forms shared with the administrator or has concerns
of discrimination. Regardless, the authentic that seem disproportionately heightened.
presentation of these misleading narratives A Latinx scholar who publishes in journals
can lead People of Color to feel they have on social justice and cultural issues may be
possibly misunderstood, did not understand questioned on the quality of their scholarship
the full context, or were being too sensitive. and credibility of the journals they publish.
Even when this does not occur, the veracity The scholar may begin to doubt their own
of the claims of innocence can lead the reputability and contributions to the academy.
A Native student who raises concern about
a campus building being named after
12someone who committed genocide against and confirmation to those observing
their people—and who then receives harsh the racelighting who tend to believe the
backlash in response—may question whether microaggressive messages.
they were being overly sensitive, especially if
C O M M U N I T Y C O LLE G E E Q U I T Y A S S E S S M E N T L A B ( C C E A L)
the building is named after someone who is RACIAL GASLIGHTING AND RACELIGHTING
viewed as key to the institution’s history and
school spirit. They may be led to believe, even
Although racelighting is focused
slightly, that it is not worth raising concern
specifically on the interpersonal level, prior
or that they are being unnecessarily difficult.
scholars have more intently examined
A Southeast Asian high school student who
gaslighting at the macro level. In many ways,
hopes to attend a college or university may
the relationship between the two levels is akin
be led to doubt their academic capabilities,
to the relationship between macroaggressions
especially if their successes are ignored,
and microaggressions, whereby messages
played down, or refuted by classroom
conveyed at the macro level serve to intensify
teachers. They may begin to believe school is
messages at the interpersonal level, the
not for them. Overwhelmingly, these messages
difference being gaslighting in a racial context
connote stereotypical assumptions about
focuses on the role macroaggressions and
BIPOC, particularly that they are criminal or
microaggressions have in disorienting people
defiant, academically inferior, of lesser worth,
and color. Prior examinations of gaslighting
or overly sensitive. These microaggressive
in a racial context focus most clearly on the
messages can sow doubt and can affect
macro level with a particular focus on policy
their actions, dispositions, and beliefs, even
and case law (e.g., Roberts & Andrews,
when consciously rejected by the racelightee.
2013; Tobias & Joseph, 2020). Davis and
They can also sow seeds of affirmation
Ernst’s (2017) explication of racial gaslighting
13can serve as a model framework for this is felt interpersonally. An understanding
perspective. Although their work is framed in of racelighting is essential because when
RACELIGHTING IN THE NORMAL REALITIES OF BLACK, INDIGENOUS AND PEOPLE OF COLOR (BIPOC)
a legal context and addresses racial narratives un-countered at the interpersonal level,
(called racial spectacles) that advance White racelighting serves (and has served) as the
supremacist power structures by the state, precursor to bringing systemic racism and
their work is directly applicable to how oppression to scale (see Figure 1). Moreover,
gaslighting in a racial context occurs at a racial gaslighting fuels narratives at the
macro level in all arenas (e.g., legal, cultural, macro level that affect individuals at the
and historical). Thus, in this terminology, interpersonal level.
racial gaslighting occurs at the macro level,
though it recognizes the role these messages FIGURE 1. Bi-Directional Relationship between Racial
have on individuals and how racelighting Gaslighting and Racelighting
RACIAL GASLIGHTING
(MACRO-LEVEL)
RACELIGHTING
(INTERPERSONAL-LEVEL)
14Informed by this perspective, there are justify slavery to the enslaved. In this context,
numerous examples of racial gaslighting. For enslaved Africans were the descendants
example, enslaved Africans were taught using of Ham and therefore their enslavement
heavily redacted versions of the Bible. These was reasonable, appropriate, and just (see
C O M M U N I T Y C O LLE G E E Q U I T Y A S S E S S M E N T L A B ( C C E A L)
versions emphasized language on slavery Goldenberg, 2009). In total, enslaved Africans
and deleted whole sections focused on were led to believe any desire for freedom was
freedom (Frühwirth, 2020; Zehavi, 2019). More not part of the natural order or God’s will.
specifically, the Slave Bible omitted verses
in the Bible books of Exodus and Jeremiah Another example of racial gaslighting
that condemned the stealing of people to is the genocide committed against Native
sell into slavery and requiring the labor of American peoples, resulting in the loss of
others without compensation (Shepherd, millions of Native lives. This included Native
2019). This reality was reinforced by popular American men, women, and children who
interpretations suggesting that enslaved were intentionally targeted in widespread
Africans were the descendants of Ham. In the massacres (Madley, 2015). This was followed
Bible book of Genesis, a controversy emerges by the brutal practices of the boarding
after Noah and his family (including his three school era, where Native American children
sons Ham, Japeth, and Shem) exit the ark were taken from their families and brought
after the flood. After a long day of tilling the to “schools” where they were intentionally
land, Noah drinks from his vineyard and falls stripped of their linkages to their families
asleep drunk and naked in his tent. Ham finds and cultures. They were physically beaten,
Noah asleep in his tent, and, rather than cover underfed, and purposefully taught to view their
him, he instead tells Shem and Japeth. Upon families and communities as lesser than. Even
waking up, Noah curses Ham, telling him he to this day, narratives around these events
and his descendants would be “slaves unto his are either justified, downplayed, or examined
brothers." This is one of many verses used to without context to the extreme impact on
15Native peoples. Too often, when these issues “owners to get any ‘son of a bitch’ who didn’t
are raised, the response is to “accuse Natives stand for the anthem off the field” (Boren,
RACELIGHTING IN THE NORMAL REALITIES OF BLACK, INDIGENOUS AND PEOPLE OF COLOR (BIPOC)
as being too sensitive or too politically correct 2020, para. 12). He then went on to encourage
when we point out historical errors and owners to “fire” athletes who kneeled during
oversights and are told to ‘get over it’” (Nez, the anthem (“Trump Wishes NFL Owners,”
2016, p. 2). These messages are adjoined 2017). Both political leaders and the media
with notions that these events occurred in the reframed the intention of the silent protest by
distant past and that Native Americans may deliberately asserting misleading narratives
“have it good” because of financial operations about Kaepernick and those who supported
(e.g., hotels and casinos) on their land. his protest. As a result, the pervasiveness
of the narratives of being anti-American,
Contemporarily, the longstanding antipatriotic, and antimilitary even led some
NFL protest in support of racial injustices individuals in the Black community to question
led by Colin Kaepernick serves as another whether or not these accusations were true.
example of racelighting. This occurred when This was especially true at the height of the
Kaepernick was condemned for kneeling protest before public opinion on this issue
during the national anthem in protest of racial began to sway. Ultimately, the shifted narrative
injustice. Kaepernick’s actions were meant to served to disorient those who held similar
draw attention to issues, such as the police- concerns about issues of police brutality and
involved murders of Black people, but instead racial injustice.
his actions were framed as being “unpatriotic,”
“anti-American,” and dishonoring fallen Another contemporary example of
soldiers, the military at large, and the American racial gaslighting is Standing Rock, the protest
flag (Schad, 2020). The consternation reached against the Dakota Access Pipeline. The
a pinnacle when former President Trump told protest began in 2016, after LaDonna Brave
16Bull Allard, a Lakota elder, established the issues of environmental and social justice.
Sacred Stone Camp. The camp was meant The preponderance of the shifting narratives,
to protest the approval of the construction of particularly those around criminality, may have
the Energy Transfer Partners’ pipeline through led some supporters to tacitly and internally
C O M M U N I T Y C O LLE G E E Q U I T Y A S S E S S M E N T L A B ( C C E A L)
the northern United States. The pipeline was doubt their approaches and intentions.
seen as a threat to the region’s water quality This is especially true in the context of
and ancient burial grounds. The camp swelled hundreds of years of colonizing practices that
in numbers with thousands of Indigenous and advanced cultural lenses based on western
non-Indigenous water protectors. The water values—values that reduce injustices (i.e.,
protectors were beaten, pepper-sprayed, infrastructure projects) to obscure counts of
shot using rubber bullets, sprayed with water displacement and economic impact without
cannons, and bitten by dogs (Levin, 2017; an understanding of the damage these
Tromblay, 2020). Despite this, news agencies efforts have on people and their communities
shifted the focus away from the original (Devault, 2016).
concern about water rights and protecting the
integrity of ancient burial grounds. Instead, Again, although these racial gaslighting
Walker and Walter (2018) reported some news incidents occur at the macro level, they are
agencies engaged “negative portrayals of also experienced at the individual level. This
Standing Rock protesters as violent criminals differs from racelighting that is experienced
trespassing on private property” (p. 411). In interpersonally through similar narratives and
these articles, the water protectors were messages that lead to individuals questioning
portrayed as deviants and troublemakers, their own experiences, perceptions, and
and law enforcement officers were portrayed memories due to messages delivered to them
as heroes. Other narratives in the media also directly.
redirected the focus of Standing Rock to wider
17RACELIGHTING PROCESS
RACELIGHTING IN THE NORMAL REALITIES OF BLACK, INDIGENOUS AND PEOPLE OF COLOR (BIPOC)
Racelighting is an outgrowth of an In addition to White supremacy, other
American capitalistic society that has its antecedents to the interpersonal racelighting
historical roots in White supremacy. White process and racelighting experience include
supremacy here refers to the beliefs embodied White nationalism (i.e., the linkage of White
within White culture that deem other races supremacy values with those of a nation-
and people as less dignified and/or worthy. state; Amaya, 2018) and White fragility
More simply, it occurs when the White race (i.e., when racial conflict triggers defensive
sees itself as superior to others (Bonilla-Silva, mechanisms from White people; DiAngelo,
2001). As Davis and Ernst (2017) noted, in the 2011) (see Figure 2).
United States, racial spectacles occur when
narratives about society are meant to cover
up the White supremacist power structure. FIGURE 2. Racelighting Process
ANTECEDENTS INTERPERSONAL LEVEL
WHITE SUPREMACY RACIAL BATTLE FATIGUE
(Smith, 2014)
WHITE NATIONALISM
WHITE FRAGILITY EXPLICIT BIAS
ANTI-BLACKNESS MICROAGGRESSIONS RACELIGHTING STEREOTYPE THREAT
(Pierce, 1970; Sue et al., 2007) (Steele, 1997; Steel & Aronson, 1995)
ANTI-INDIGENEITY
IMPLICIT BIAS MICROASSULTS
CAPITALISTIC INTERESTS
MICROINSULTS
IMPOSTER SYNDROME
SYSTEMIC OPPRESSION (Clance & Imes, 1978)
MICROINVALIDATIONS
18Although White supremacy, nationalism, anti-Indigeneity can also reside in non-White
and fragility affect all People of Color, there are communities adhering to or subtly supporting
also unique relationships between Whites and a White racial normative. Anti-Asian and Anti-
Black and Native American communities. For Latinx discrimination has also risen to increase
C O M M U N I T Y C O LLE G E E Q U I T Y A S S E S S M E N T L A B ( C C E A L)
instance, anti-Blackness manifests as a unique awareness in recent years, especially with the
form of racism against Black people due to the assaults on elders in the Asian community. All
permanent association of Black people with of the aforementioned antecedents have some
Chattel slavery and subsequent views that they relationship with capitalistic interests, where rife
are lesser than (Wilderson, 2010, 2018). Given economic conditions for People of Color serve
the enslavement of Black peoples, segregation, to benefit White communities. These interests
and the prison industrial complex, there is a are advanced through systemic oppression,
unique historical relationship leading to anti- whereby laws and policies are used to advance
Blackness. Similarly, the unique relationship the power of dominant groups and to further
between Whites and Native peoples is the subordination of non-dominant groups.
grounded in generations of genocide. Prior There are innumerable examples of this,
to contact with Europeans, there were an including Jim Crow, housing discrimination, and
estimated five million Native Americans in court minimalization of injustices against People
the United States, a number that fell below a of Color.
quarter-million by 1900 (Madley, 2015). This
genocide also coincided with boarding schools, These antecedents to racelighting inform
involuntary relocation (i.e., the Trail of Tears), implicit and explicit biases held against BIPOC.
and destabilization of Native sovereignty by Explicit biases are overt and intentional beliefs
the federal government. As a result, anti- that negatively view, characterize, and engage
Indigenous actions continue the exploitation others. Often, these biases are self-reported
and oppression from settler colonialism as being consciously held by individuals
(Grenier, 2020). Both anti-Blackness and (Hehman et al., 2019; Leitner et al., 2016).
19In contrast, implicit bias refers to “the attitudes has advanced the concept of microaggressions
or stereotypes that affect our understanding, considerably. Sue et al. (2017) defined racial
RACELIGHTING IN THE NORMAL REALITIES OF BLACK, INDIGENOUS AND PEOPLE OF COLOR (BIPOC)
actions, and decisions in an unconscious microaggressions as “brief and commonplace
manner” (Staats et al., 2015, p. 62). Implicit daily verbal, behavioral, or environmental
biases are more likely to be conveyed when indignities, whether intentional or unintentional,
individuals process information automatically that communicate hostile, derogatory, or
and unconsciously and with lower effort. negative racial slights and insults toward people
This tends to occur when individuals are in of color” (p. 271). Sue et al. (2017) identified
heightened emotional states, have incomplete three types of microaggressions: microassaults,
information, are experiencing time constraints, microinsults, and microinvalidations.
or have their cognitive control compromised Microassaults are like old-fashioned racism and
(i.e., due to stress or loss of sleep; Bertrand include explicit messages of racism (verbal or
et al., 2005; Staats, 2016). When this occurs, nonverbal) that intend to hurt or discriminate
their minds employ traces of past experiences, against People of Color. This can include the
informed by the racelighting antecedents, to use of racial epitaphs; displaying swastikas;
convey negative messages to People of Color. or purposefully avoidant, discouraging,
This results in racial battle fatigue, stereotype or debasing actions. Microassaults are
threat, and imposter syndrome. most closely aligned with explicit racism.
Unlike microassaults, both microinsults and
A clear outgrowth of implicit and explicit microinvalidations are often unconsciously
bias is racial microaggressions. The term rendered from the perpetrator to the victim
microaggressions was coined by Pierce in the and thus are associated with implicit biases.
1970s as part of an attempt to articulate the Microinsults are messages that insult, demean,
ways subtle discrimination manifests in the or convey a lack of respect toward People of
everyday lives of Black people and communities Color. For example, these messages can convey
(Pierce, 1970; Pierce & Allen, 1975). Sue’s work that People of Color are criminals, unintelligent,
20and lesser than. Common examples of this We assert microaggressions are
could be a racelighter saying with a sense racelighting tactics used toward People of Color,
of surprise, “Wow, you are so articulate” or “I though microinsults and microinvalidations
didn’t expect you to know that!” They could are more common racelighting strategies
C O M M U N I T Y C O LLE G E E Q U I T Y A S S E S S M E N T L A B ( C C E A L)
also include a teacher assuming that a student than microassaults. As noted previously,
who performs well on an exam or paper has racelighting is the process by which BIPOC
cheated because they are a student of color. begin to question their own sanity, realities,
Moreover, assumptions that BIPOC come from experiences, knowledge, and memories
communities that do not care about school, are due to systemically delivered messages. So,
lazy, and have unengaged parents are common although microaggressions are the means
statements rendered by racelighters. Wood by which someone experiences racelighting,
et al. (2017) referred to these assumptions the process through which these messages
of criminality, ascriptions of intelligence, and serve to accumulate and distort the realities
second-class treatment as distrust, disdain, of People of Color is racelighting. Ultimately,
and disregard. Wood (2019) suggested distrust, experiences with racelighting may lead to
disdain, and disregard are the three most imposter syndrome, an affective response
recurrent examples of microaggressions facing where individuals begin to doubt their abilities
Black children and youth in education. Lastly, to the point that they have concern others
Sue et al. (2007) described microinvalidations will deem them a fraud (Clance & Imes, 1978).
as acts serving to reduce the experiences, Another outgrowth of racelighting is stereotype
realities, and thoughts of People of Color. threat. According to Steele (1997), stereotype
Microinvalidations often deny People of Color threat occurs when learners are concerned
their individual experiences with racism, and about reifying negative stereotypes about their
convey that they do not belong nor perform well abilities. This concept is based on the notion
because they do not work hard enough. that People of Color are often perceived to
be academically inferior and therefore may
21have concerns about justifying this Psychological
stereotype. Students who take exams
RACELIGHTING IN THE NORMAL REALITIES OF BLACK, INDIGENOUS AND PEOPLE OF COLOR (BIPOC)
and tests in environments where there symptoms can
are stereotypes about their academic include a range of
inferiority are less likely to perform well
than they are in environments where feelings, including
these stereotypes are actively dispelled hopelessness, loss
(Steele & Aronson, 1995).
of confidence,
Even more, racelighting is social withdrawal,
hypothesized to lead to racial battle and frustration.
fatigue, a term named by Smith (2004),
who presented a framework that can be
used to make sense of the effect of racism
(explicit and implicit) on individuals. Smith
et al. (2007) argued racism can serve to
affect one’s cognition, psychology, and
physiology. This can lead to a host of
physiological outcomes, such as tension
headaches, an elevated heartbeat,
fatigue, loss of appetite, or jaw clenching.
Psychological symptoms can include a
range of feelings, such as hopelessness,
loss of confidence, social withdrawal, and
frustration. As Smith et al. (2006) noted,
these symptoms can lead People of Color
to question their life’s work and worth.
22THREE COMMON TYPES OF RACELIGHTING MESSAGES
ACTIVE RACELIGHTING PASSIVE RACELIGHTING DEFENSIVE RACELIGHTING
C O M M U N I T Y C O LLE G E E Q U I T Y A S S E S S M E N T L A B ( C C E A L)
As noted, racelighting occurs as a function of microaggressions.
Specifically, research has shown microaggressions can foster an
attribution ambiguity, where the intent of the message to the recipient is
unclear (Sue, 2010). This can lead the racelightee to feel a sense of doubt
and disorientation. However, there are at least three distinctive ways
microaggressions can lead to racelighting. First, someone can experience
racelighting through microaggressions of all kinds (e.g., microassaults,
microinsults, and microinvalidations) where there is no intent from the
racelighter to intentionally sow doubt and disorientation. We refer to this
as "passive racelighting." Second, someone can experience racelighting
as part of a response to being microaggressed. For example, let's assume
someone has been told with a sense of surprise that they are "very
smart." The recipient may bring this microaggression to the attention
of the person (or perpetrator) who made the statement. In response, A perpetrator
the perpetrator defends their words and actions by sowing doubt and
disorientation in the mind of the recipient. This can occur intentionally
can have
or unintentionally. We refer to this as "defensive racelighting." Third, the intention
racelighting can occur with the intention of doing so. Thus, a perpetrator of sowing
can have the intention of sowing doubt and disorienting the racelightee.
This type of racelighting is most closely akin to the form of gaslighting
doubt and
depicted in the original play. We refer to intentional efforts to racelight disorienting
individuals as "active racelighting." the racelightee.
23AMPLIFICATION FACTORS
RACELIGHTING IN THE NORMAL REALITIES OF BLACK, INDIGENOUS AND PEOPLE OF COLOR (BIPOC)
The intensity of the interpersonal These messages are reinforced in the popular
messages which cause one to question their media through coverage of police-involved
sanity can, in part, be attributed to amplification murders, such as the murders of Michael
factors. For example, as previously articulated, Brown, Jr., Tamir Rice, Alfred Olango, and
racial gaslighting at the societal level can George Floyd. This is especially true given
intensify messages at the interpersonal coverage of police-involved murders often
level. For example, a young Black boy may blames the victims for their loss of life (Dukes
experience racelighting as a result of an & Gaither, 2017). Thus, the veracity and
assumption of criminality, when People of persistence of these macroaggressions at the
Color are assumed to be dangerous and have societal level can intensify the degree to which
malintent (Sue et al., 2007). In his school, he similar interpersonal messages seem plausible.
may be labeled by teachers as “aggressive,” Although these messages are reinforced
“hyperactive,” and a “troublemaker” (Essien- by macroaggressions, the disproportionate
Wood & Wood, 2020). As a result, he may representation of Black people in the prison
be more closely monitored for wrongdoing, industrial complex also serves as a societal
singled out for punishment, and subjected to factor that can intensify the seemingly
harsher and more prolonged punishments legitimate nature of illegitimate messages
(Wood, 2019). These continuous actions of directed toward the child in question. With
teachers toward this child may lead him to this in mind, societal-level amplification
question whether or not he is actually “bad.” factors can include, but are not limited to,
This message is amplified at the societal level macroaggressions, the prison industrial
because of similar messages that depict Black complex, widespread economic disparities, and
people, particularly Black men, as dangerous. lack of positive representation in the media.
24TABLE 1. Amplification Factors
LEVEL OF AMPLIFICATION KEY AMPLIFICATION FACTORS
Macro-Level
C O M M U N I T Y C O LLE G E E Q U I T Y A S S E S S M E N T L A B ( C C E A L)
Macroaggressions Economic Disparities Racial Gaslighting
Prison Industrial Complex Lack of Positive Media Representation
Interpersonal-Level Accumulation of Messages Authority or Credibility of Messenger Intersectional Identities
Note: This listing is demonstrative and not exhaustive.
At a societal level, racial gaslighting Anne Braden. After increasing tensions about
also serves as a direct amplification factor. As a Black family purchasing a home in an all-
Davis and Ernst (2017) noted, racial gaslighting White suburb, their home was firebombed,
is embodied through racial spectacles with the bomb placed beneath their child’s
that seek to distort narratives in ways that bed. It is believed the bomb was placed by
advantage a White supremacist state power an ex-police officer. Ultimately, Carl Braden
structure. This is evident in case law and was unjustly charged with the bombings, and
policy when court rulings obfuscate the true his reputation was debased by assertions
rationale for state-sponsored mistreatment of that he was a communist. Calling civil
Communities of Color. One example includes rights leaders communists was a common
the case of the Commonwealth of Kentucky tactic employed during miscegenation and
v. Braden in 1955. In this case, Andrew and segregation. In this case, this argument
Charlotte Wade were aided in purchasing a distorted what really occurred to the Wade
home in Kentucky by White activists Carl and family. Thus, legal cases that deprioritize the
25experiences and realities of People of Color jokingly from family members, he may begin to
and their allies also serve as amplification believe there is some truth to this point. If he is
RACELIGHTING IN THE NORMAL REALITIES OF BLACK, INDIGENOUS AND PEOPLE OF COLOR (BIPOC)
factors. hired at a new job where he hears accusations
that he was only hired due to affirmative action
Other amplification factors can occur policies, he may start to believe the stereotype
at the interpersonal level. As noted previously, of job stealing is accurate. This may be further
the number of individuals communicating a intensified by statements from coworkers who
seemingly coherent microaggressive message routinely emphasize how deserving other new
can reinforce the credibility of messages hires are and deemphasize his contributions.
received. Moreover, an accumulation of
messages must also be considered. A Interpersonal power dynamics can
message that has been conveyed infrequently also amplify racelighting. As such, a person
to the racelightee throughout their life or in who is largely respected and/or in a position
a specific social context (e.g., school, work, of authority can convey messages viewed
community) is less likely to be believed as being more credible. For example, if a
than messages the racelightee has heard renowned faculty member questions the
repeatedly throughout their lives or within writing ability of a Black female student, this
that social context. For instance, a Latino who message may be viewed as more believable.
has been exposed to stereotypes assuming Possibly this student has excelled at writing
Latinos are job stealers who take away throughout her life, despite wider stereotypes
employment from “deserving Americans” that assume she lacks the capability to do
may dismiss these stereotypes early on in so. Thus, positional power can further amplify
his life. However, if he hears this message the credibility of a message, even when
over and over again from others (e.g., friends, the student has ample evidence that the
acquaintances, and teachers), and even assumption is erroneous.
26Another key example of an interpersonal
amplification factor is intersectional identities.
As Crenshaw (1995) noted, intersectionality
refers to identities as complex and not myopic;
C O M M U N I T Y C O LLE G E E Q U I T Y A S S E S S M E N T L A B ( C C E A L)
therefore, all of one’s identities can serve to
shape one’s experience with biases in specific
ways. As such, a person with a confluence
of minoritized identities will have a different
reality than a person bearing only one of those
identities. For example, a Native American
employee working in a nonprofit organization
may face stereotypes about their academic
aptitude. However, this aptitude is further
questioned if the person has a disability
and is a woman. This is due to converging
stereotypes that assert similar or related
messages of academic inferiority. Therefore,
Intersectional identities intersectional identities with multiple
minoritized groups may produce intensified
with multiple minoritized biases and further disparate outcomes.
groups may produce
intensified biases
and further disparate
outcomes.
27C A S E E X A M PLE S O F R AC E LI G HTI N G “The Promot ion”
RACELIGHTING IN THE NORMAL REALITIES OF BLACK, INDIGENOUS AND PEOPLE OF COLOR (BIPOC)
Tawny is a Mexican American woman
who has worked in advertising for the past ten
To provide a more transparent years and has been with her current agency
picture of racelighting and its impact on the for the past six years. She was initially hired as
experiences, well-being, and success of an advertising specialist and was promoted to
BIPOC professionals, we offer four composite advertising coordinator after one year. After
narratives of situations in this section being in this position for three years, she
involving implicit and explicit bias and racial was promoted to advertising manager. Each
microaggressions that result in imposter year, her performance evaluations have been
syndrome and racial battle fatigue. These consistently “excellent,” and she has been
narratives are based upon insights we have praised for her work in several key areas,
gathered over the past several years through including attracting new business, excelling in
focus groups with educators who shared client relations, and leading the team members
critical moments and traumatic experiences who report to her. Twice, she has won the
in their professional journeys. Although the agency’s Employee of the Year award. Yet,
narratives are focused on one individual, each despite these successes, there have been
narrative is based on a collection of shared occasional issues that have impacted her
experiences from several individuals. overall satisfaction by the agency. She is
one of five Women of Color at the agency,
which has more than 50 employees, and
one of two at the mid-management level.
She also has faced difficulty from one of her
male colleagues who has a hard time taking
28guidance and direction from women. Further, Tawny would be promoted into the position.
there was one instance in which another About a month after receiving applications,
colleague made a racially insensitive joke the agency sent out an announcement to
to Tawny at the agency’s holiday party. This share that Brad, one of the team members
C O M M U N I T Y C O LLE G E E Q U I T Y A S S E S S M E N T L A B ( C C E A L)
interaction sparked a conflict that impacted who had been reporting to Tawny for the
their working relationship and required her past two years, was promoted to the creative
and Tawny to participate in a mediation director position. Tawny was immediately
session recommended by the agency. Tawny’s triggered upon reading the announcement
experience has typified that of BIPOC women because she had hired and trained Brad.
working in Corporate America, especially in She was largely responsible for teaching him
advertising. most of what he knew about the creative side
of the business and had invested heavily in
When Tawny’s supervisor left the Brad’s professional development by sending
agency to take a position elsewhere, the him to conferences and putting him on high-
agency launched a search for his position as profile advertising projects at the agency.
creative director. This position was the next Tawny was never interviewed for the creative
logical step in Tawny’s career and would director position. In a follow-up meeting with
position her to achieve a goal she has been the agency’s assistant to the CEO, Tawny
working toward her entire career—to start her was told she was never considered for the
own agency. Tawny was highly qualified for the position. When she inquired as to why she
position, and hiring her made perfect sense for was not considered, the CEO shared some
the agency to maintain continuity in its creative concerns about her capacity to “manage her
operations, as Tawny worked very closely emotions” and referenced Tawny's mediation
with her supervisor during their time together. with the colleague who made the racially
In fact, everyone at the agency assumed insensitive joke. He also made reference to
29Tawny’s “poor working relationship” with the involving the two colleagues, feeling she
male colleague who struggles to take direction should have remained silent rather than
RACELIGHTING IN THE NORMAL REALITIES OF BLACK, INDIGENOUS AND PEOPLE OF COLOR (BIPOC)
from women. Specifically, he said that Tawny advocating for herself. When discussing the
should have “been the bigger person” in these concerns with a friend, she shared:
circumstances and that the way she addressed
both situations “caused further division and I never should have said anything about the incident at
negatively impacted the work environment.” the holiday party. I was trying to stand up for myself and
make sure she didn’t say to others what she said to me.
Devastated and confused, Tawny began to But it just made them see me as an angry, emotional
question her professionalism and wondered Mexican woman. Maybe they are right. You can’t be
if she was as effective in her role as she once emotional in corporate America. Perhaps I’d be better off
doing non-profit work or something like that. Now I am
thought. She also experienced overwhelming questioning all of my relationships and the agency and
guilt for the ways she handled the situations wondering what folks are thinking when they see me. I
feel like everyone sees me as a problem now.
30“The Token B lack C andidate”
Teri is a Black woman who works After about five years of success as
as a senior associate athletics director at an associate athletics director, a search firm
C O M M U N I T Y C O LLE G E E Q U I T Y A S S E S S M E N T L A B ( C C E A L)
a university in one of the NCAA’s Power 5 invited Teri to interview for the director of
conferences. During her college years, Teri athletics position at a university in a mid-
was a former standout basketball student- major conference. Teri prepared diligently
athlete. After not being drafted into the and had a stellar interview with the search
WNBA, Teri played professionally in Europe, committee. Not surprisingly, she was named
Asia, and Latin America for five years. Once one of three finalists for the position. Again,
she retired from professional basketball, Teri Teri had a great second-round interview, which
returned to her alma mater for graduate school was with the university president, the faculty-
and completed a master’s degree in sports athletics representative, and the head of the
psychology. While in graduate school, Teri search firm. She also participated in a public
was hired by the athletics department to assist forum with the university community and
in fundraising and donor relations. After one local media where she had the opportunity
year, she was promoted to associate athletics to share her vision for how she would lead
director/director of development. While the department. By all indications, Teri was
working as an associate athletics director, Teri the leading candidate and was expected to
earned a PhD in organizational leadership with get the position. In fact, her interviews and
the goal of building her capacity to lead an presentations were so good that local media
athletics department. reported Teri would likely be the school’s next
director of athletics and the first woman and
person of color to hold the position. However,
another candidate, a White male, was
31ultimately chosen for the position—much to Of course, being a former athlete, this was
the surprise of Teri, the search committee, the not the first time Teri had been branded
RACELIGHTING IN THE NORMAL REALITIES OF BLACK, INDIGENOUS AND PEOPLE OF COLOR (BIPOC)
university community, and the local media. with these racist stereotypes, but she was
surprised to see them manifest in what was
Teri and the other finalist who was not supposed to be a transparent search process.
selected had the opportunity to debrief with Teri was left wondering what she could do
the search firm that led the process. This was with this feedback. On one hand, she really
Teri’s first time working with a search firm wanted to be a director of athletics, as this
as a candidate. She was informed (privately) had long been a professional goal of hers;
that although she was the university’s top on the other hand, she was not comfortable
choice, she was not the search firm’s choice with having to ingratiate herself to a search
candidate primarily because she was “new firm—led by a group of influential White
to the scene,” had not been “vetted” by the people—to have an opportunity to be placed
firm, and the candidate who was chosen was nor was she comfortable having to negotiate
“next in line” to be promoted. Teri was also her identity in response to racial stereotypes.
told she needed to spend the next couple of Teri also began to question her credentials
years ingratiating herself with the search firm and wondered if she should have gotten a
so they could become more familiar with her. law degree or an MBA like most of the other
It became immediately clear to Teri, she was athletics directors in the country. She also
the token Black candidate in this process. began to question whether she was indeed
Regardless of how well she did in the search “standoff-ish” and “bossy.” She seriously
process, she had no chance of getting this considered this feedback, even though it had
job. Teri also received feedback that was nothing to do with her actions, performance,
jarring, to say the least—that she presents as or qualifications.
“standoff-ish” and “bossy.”
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