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Rural perspectives on
digital innovation:
Experiences from small enterprises
in the Nordic countries and Latvia
Linda Randall, Louise Ormstrup Vestergård & Mari Wøien Meijer
NORDREGIO REPORT 2020:4
nordregio report 2020:4 1
Rural perspectives on digital innovation: Experiences from small enterprises in the Nordic countries and Latvia Linda Randall, Louise Ormstrup Vestergård & Mari Wøien Meijer NORDREGIO REPORT 2020:4
Table of Contents
Rural perspectives on digital innovation: Experiences from small enterprises
in the Nordic countries and Latvia
Nordregio Report 2020:4
ISBN 978-91-87295-89-8 (print)
ISBN 978-91-87295-90-4 (PDF)
ISSN 1403-2503
DOI: http://doi.org/10.6027/R2020:4.1403-2503
1. Introduction and background....................................................................................................... 7
© Nordregio 2020
Nordregio 2. Digitalisation in the Nordic-Baltic rural context........................................................ 10
P.O. Box 1658
2.1 The digital divide: Infrastructure......................................................................................................... 10
SE-111 86 Stockholm, Sweden
nordregio@nordregio.org 2.2 The digital divide: Knowledge and skills............................................................................................ 23
www.nordregio.org
www.norden.org 3. Digitalisation in key rural sectors........................................................................................... 32
Analyses and text: Linda Randall, Louise Ormstrup Vestergård & Mari Wøien 3.1 The digital revolution in the bioeconomy.......................................................................................... 32
Meijer 3.2 A potential blessing, a possible curse: Digitalisation and sustainable tourism....................36
Contributors: Linda Randall, Louise Ormstrup Vestergård, Mari Wøien Mei- 3.3 Getting started on the digital journey: Digital transformation in the manufacturing
jer, Anna Berlina, Jukka Teräs, Laima Engere-Levina, Elin Slätmo, Hjördis Rut
sector.......................................................................................................................................................... 39
Sigurjonsdottir, Pontus Arledal Thunell, Eeva Turunen & Jens Grelck
Cover photo: Unsplashed
Maps and data: Oskar Penje & Linda Randall 4. Supporting digitalisation of small rural enterprises in the Nordic
Layout: Marija Zelenkauskė
countries and Latvia......................................................................................................................... 44
Nordregio 4.1 Denmark..................................................................................................................................................... 45
is a leading Nordic and European research centre for regional development
4.2 Finland........................................................................................................................................................ 46
and planning, established by the Nordic Council of Ministers in 1997. We
conduct solution-oriented and applied research, addressing current issues 4.3 Iceland.................................................................................................................................................. 47
from both a research perspective and the viewpoint of policymakers and 4.4 Norway.......................................................................................................................................................48
practitioners. Operating at the international, national, regional and local 4.5 Sweden...................................................................................................................................................... 49
levels, Nordregio’s research covers a wide geographic scope, with an
4.6 The Faroe Islands................................................................................................................................... 50
emphasis on the Nordic and Baltic Sea Regions, Europe and the Arctic.
4.7 Greenland...................................................................................................................................................51
The Nordic co-operation 4.8 Åland...........................................................................................................................................................51
Nordic co-operation is one of the world’s most extensive forms of regional 4.9 Latvia.......................................................................................................................................................... 52
collaboration, involving Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and the
Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Åland. Nordic co-operation has firm traditions
in politics, the economy, and culture. It plays an important role in European 5. Conclusions and advice for policy makers....................................................................... 54
and international collaboration, and aims at creating a strong Nordic
community in a strong Europe. Nordic co-operation seeks to safeguard Nordic
and regional interests and principles in the global community. Common References....................................................................................................................................................... 57
Nordic values help the region solidify its position as one of the world’s most
innovative and competitive.
The Nordic Council of Ministers
is a forum of co-operation between the Nordic governments. The Nordic
Council of Ministers implements Nordic co-operation. The prime ministers
have the overall responsibility. Its activities are co-ordinated by the Nordic
ministers for co-operation, the Nordic Committee for co-operation and
portfolio ministers. Founded in 1971.
The Nordic Council
is a forum for co-operation between the Nordic parliaments and
governments. The Council consists of 87 parliamentarians from the
Nordic countries. The Nordic Council takes policy initiative s and monitors
Nordic co-operation. Founded in 1952.
Stockholm, Sweden, 2020
nordregio report 2020:4 5
1. Introduction and background
List of Figures
Figure 1. Digital Economy and Society Index, 2019....................................................................................... 7
Figure 2. Broadband network segments........................................................................................................ 11
Figure 3. Next Generation Access broadband coverage/availability in 2018 (as a % of
households). .........................................................................................................................................13 In April of 2017, the Ministers responsible for availability of digital infrastructure and the
Figure 4. Average municipal household coverage of fixed broadband by speed and municipality digital development in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, adoption of digital technologies. As such, this
type....................................................................................................................................................... 20 Finland, Iceland, Faroe Islands, Greenland, Åland, project sought to provide a rural perspective on the
Figure 5. People with basic or above basic digital skills, 2017.................................................................. 23 Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania met in Oslo and second goal: Strengthening the competitiveness of
Figure 6 Key indicators tracking digital progress, EU, 2018 (% enterprises)........................................ 25 set an ambitious agenda for digitalisation across our enterprises through digitalisation. Specifically,
Figure 7. Pyramid of digital maturity.............................................................................................................. 25 the Nordic-Baltic Region. Their vision is to make it aimed to demonstrate how smart, sustainable
the Nordic-Baltic Region a digital frontrunner by and inclusive approaches to digitalisation can be
Figure 8. Digital transformation and maturity of companies step by step.
pursuing the following policy goals (The Norwegian used as a tool to increase the competitiveness
Source: REG LAB, 2018..................................................................................................................... 26
Ministry of Local Government and Modernisation and attractiveness of rural areas by exploring the
Figure 9. Challenges and opportunities associated with digitalisation for small rural
& Nordic Council of Ministers, 2017): challenges and opportunities for small enterprises
enterprises............................................................................................................................................ 30 in rural and sparsely populated areas. The project
1. Strengthening the ability for digital trans-
Figure 10. Applications of digitalisation in the bio-based circular economy........................................ 33 was funded by the Nordic Council of Ministers for
formation of our governments and societies,
Figure 11. The travel cycle. Source: Visit Sweden, 2019..............................................................................38 especially by creating a common area for cross- Digitalisation (MR-Digital), the Nordic Thematic
Figure 12. Industrial Revolution......................................................................................................................... 39 border digital services in the public sector. Group for Innovative and Resilient Regions 2017-
Figure 13. Omstillingsmotor - Project model.................................................................................................41 2. Strengthening the competitiveness of our 2020 and the North Atlantic Cooperation (NORA)
Figure 14. SIA BALTMA - Digitisation process.............................................................................................. 42 enterprises through digitalisation. and included a baseline study, local workshops
3. Enhancing the digital single market in the and a webinar series. Its primary focus was the
Nordic-Baltic Region. Nordic countries and Latvia; however, data is also
provided for Estonia and Lithuania where possible.
In fact, the Nordic countries are already at the The baseline study explored the nature of
forefront of digitalisation in Europe (see Figure 1). digital transformation in rural areas and reflected
List of Maps The Baltic States show a more mixed performance, on opportunities and challenges for small and
but still score around or above average on the medium sized enterprises (SMEs) in rural areas
Map 1. Next Generation Access Household coverage, 2018..................................................................... 14 European Commission’s annual measure of digital in each of the Nordic countries and in Latvia. The
progress, the Digital Economy and Society Index study was developed through desk-based research
Map 2. Next Generation Access Rural household coverage, 2018.......................................................... 15
(DESI). conducted by Nordregio and a report prepared
Map 3. Household access to fixed broadband at download speeds >100 Mbps, 2018......................17
Despite this positive development overall, by Vidzeme Planning Region which detailed the
Map 4. Household access to fixed broadband based on download speed available to >50% of
disparities remain with respect to digital deve- Latvian context. It provided an overall context for
households, 2018..................................................................................................................................... 19
lopment within countries; with rural and sparsely the digitalisation of SMEs in rural areas including
populated areas often lagging behind on the sector-specific information on the bioeconomy,
1 Connectivity 2 Human Capital 3 Use of Internet 4 Integration of Digital Technology 5 Digital Public Services
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
FI SE NL DK NO UK LU IE EE BE MT ES DE AT EU LT FR SI LV CZ PT HR SK CY HU IT PL EL RO BG
Figure 1: Digital Economy and Society Index, 2019.
Data source: European Commission, 2019f.
nordregio report 2020:4 6 nordregio report 2020:4 7
manufacturing and tourism sectors. It also pro- The webinar series brought together parti-
vided an overview of the policy context in each of cipants from the local workshops to present their Workshop location and theme2 Regional characteristics3 Number of
the Nordic countries and independent territories perspective to practitioners and policy makers.
participants
and in Latvia. The baseline study was designed to Episodes were presented weekly during March Ii Municipality, Finland Northern Ostrobothnia - 6
inform the local workshops and was circulated to 2020 and were based on the following topics: predominantly rural
“Digital transformation in rural enterprises”
all participants in advance. ■ Webinar 1: The digital divide
Local workshops were held in rural locations ■ Webinar 2: Digitalisation in the manufacturing Trøndelag County, Norway Nord Trøndelag - 5
throughout the Nordic-Baltic Region, including the industry predominantly rural; Sør-
“Digitalisation of rural SMEs”
five Nordic countries, Latvia and the Faroe Islands.1 ■ Webinar 3: The digital revolution in the bio- Trøndelag - intermediate
region
The workshops were developed and promoted in economy
partnership with local stakeholders and aimed to ■ Webinar 4: Digitalisation and sustainable Ísafjörður, Iceland Westfjords - predominantly 13
provide an opportunity for local capacity building tourism rural, remote
“Digitalisation: From threat to opportunity”
and networking as well as a source of data. Each
workshop was organised in partnership with a local This Nordregio Report presents the results of Vesthimmerland Municipality, Denmark Region Nordjylland - 10
stakeholder and contained several presentations these activities. It builds on the original baseline predominantly rural
“Digitalisation of rural SMEs4“
deemed to be of relevance to the audience. This study by including practical examples and
insights from the local workshops and webinar Vingåker Municipality, Sweden Södermanland - intermediate 10
was followed by a discussion guided by a series of
region
questions: series to provide a genuine rural perspective on “Meet the challenge of rural farming with
■ How do you currently use digital solutions in digital innovation. The report is presented in four simple digital tools”
your company? sections. The first section provides an introduction
Tórshavn, The Faroe Islands The Faroe Islands - 11
■ What opportunities do digital solutions present to digitalisation in the Nordic-Baltic rural context. predominantly rural, remote
in your company / sector? It is structured around the two aspects of the “Digitalisation: what are the great
■ What are the main challenges for implementing urban-rural digital divide: digital infrastructure opportunities for Faroese businesses?”
digital solutions and tools in your company and digital knowledge and skills. The section Līgatne, Latvia Vidzeme Region, predominantly 18
(e.g. skills, knowledge, access to finance, poor includes a series of maps illustrating the current rural, remote
“Improving bioeconomy value chains through
connectivity, regulations, lack of time)? situation with respect to broadband connectivity.
digitalisation”
■ What kind of support do you need for increasing It also presents a broad introduction into the
digitisation within your company / industry? challenges and opportunities that rural enterprises
face in the context of digitalisation. The second Table 1: Nordic-Baltic workshop locations, themes and attendance.
The tailored approach in each location resulted in a section discusses the effect of digitalisation on
unique constellation of stakeholders attening each small rural enterprises, shining a spotlight on
event. As such, we are cautious in our interpreta- three sectors deemed to be particularly relevant
tion of the data and have avoided making cross- in the rural context: bioeconomy, sustainable
country comparisons or drawing strong overall tourism and manufacturing. The third section
conclusions about digitalisation practice in each addresses the support structures that are
region. Instead the workshop data provides a expected to facilitate the digital transition
rich series of practical examples and personal for rural enterprises. It presents the ideas for
experiences from Nordic-Baltic rural areas that support raised by workshop participants before
illustrate (and at times challenge) the findings of describing the support structures available in
the desk-based research. This provides a strong each country and independent territory. The
basis for future research and is an important first fourth and final section provides the overall
step in highlighting the need to include rural areas conclusions from the project, along with advice
in the conversation about digital innovation. The for policy makers about how to best support
locations, themes and participant numbers from rural and sparsely populated areas to make the
the workshops are shown in Table 1. most of the opportunities digitalisation offers.
2
The workshop titles listed here are translations. All workshops were promoted in the local language. With the exception of Iceland
and Latvia, the quotes provided throughout the report are also translations as the workshops were held in the local languages. In
Latvia the workshop event was held using a combination of Latvian and English, with simultaneous translation provided for both
1
The workshop in the Faroe Islands was made possible through additional funding from NORA (Nordic Atlantic Cooperation). This languages.
funding was also intended to allow for a workshop in Greenland but unfortunately this workshop was cancelled due to the outbreak 3 Based on the Eurostat urban-rural typology.
of Covid-19. As such it was not possible to include results from Greenland in this Report. Nordregio hopes that this workshop may 4
Due to limited registrations, study visits to three local companies were conducted in place of the workshop. The same questions
still be conducted at some point in the future. were addressed in the study visit in the form of an informal interview.
nordregio report 2020:4 8 nordregio report 2020:4 9
2. Digitalisation in the Box 1. Understanding digital
infrastructure – how fast is
DOCSIS 3.0, VDSL (Very high-speed Digital
Subscriber Line) and other types of fast
Nordic-Baltic rural context fast?
The European Commission defines three cat-
broadband (at least 30 Mbps download)
(European Commission, 2015). The aim was
that all Europeans should have access to
egories of download speed (European Court 30 Mbps by 2020, however it is unlikely that
of Auditors, 2018): this target will be reached (European Court
■ Basic broadband - speeds between of Auditors, 2018). In the Nordic countries,
144 Kbit/s and 30 Mbps; governments are increasingly striving for
Digitalisation holds considerable potential for countries is unequal; with rural and sparsely ■ Fast broadband - speeds between 100 Mbps coverage for all households and
rural areas. It allows us to overcome the challenges populated areas often lagging behind with 30 Mbps and 100 Mbps; businesses (see Box 2).
associated with geographical distance, ensuring respect to the availability of digital infrastructure ■ Ultra-fast broadband - speeds above But what does all this mean from a
equal opportunities regardless of where people and the adoption of digital technologies. These 100 Mbps practical perspective? Think of an internet
live (Gillespie et al., 1994). This includes new modes urban/rural disparities are often referred to as connection as being like a pipe. Just as the
of service provision through the emergence of the digital divide and are caused by shortcomings The upper limit of the connection speed diameter of the pipe determines how much
is generally determined by the type of liquid can pass through at any given
eHealth, distance learning and eGovernment with respect to supply (e.g. infrastructure) and
infrastructure used (see Figure 2). Fixed-line moment, the speed of the internet
solutions. It also relates to new ways of organising demand (e.g. lack of knowledge or skills to unlock
infrastructure delivers the highest speeds (up infrastructure determines how much data
work, for example, new business models that allow the opportunities associated with digitalisation)
to 2.5 Gbps/1.2 Gbps (down/up) in the best can pass through in any given second. More
a single entrepreneur to start a business with (Labrianidis & Kalogeressis, 2006). This section will case (fibre to the premises)) and wireless complex activities require more data and
limited capital, opportunities for self-employment address both sides of the digital divide, beginning links deliver the lowest speeds (up to 60 thus a faster connection. For example,
through the platform economy (e.g. renting with digital infrastructure before moving on to Mbps/10 Mbps (down/up) for terrestrial activities like general browsing of the
out rooms though Airbnb), and remote working discuss digital knowledge and skills. wireless and 20 Mbps/8 Mbps (down/ internet or checking emails only require
arrangements (OECD, 2017; Vironen & Kah, 2019). up) for satellite technology) (European about 1 Mbps, while a high-definition video
Together, these developments are expected to 2.1 The digital divide: Infrastructure Court of Auditors, 2018, p. 11). Within the conference call requires at least 6 Mbps
play a role in addressing many of the challenges Access to modern digital infrastructure and European Union, Next Generation Access (Federal Communications Commission,
rural areas face, including population ageing, the services it facilitates is crucial for rural (NGA) is a commonly used indicator of 2020). If multiple people are using the same
out-migration of young people, skills shortages, communities. This infrastructure is the foundation progress and is defined as including the connection at the same time, the capacity of
following technologies: FTTH (Fibre to the the infrastructure is divided across the users
accessibility challenges, and lack of labour-market for competitiveness, attractiveness, innovation,
Home), FTTB (Fibre to the Building), Cable (Woodall, 2018).
diversity (Interreg Europe, 2019a; Roberts et al., and economic growth (Interreg Europe,
2017; Vironen & Kah, 2019). 2019a). At the national level, the Nordic-Baltic
Nordic rural communities are well placed to countries mostly perform well on measures of
realise these potentials, as the region is generally digital connectivity. Taking, for example, Next
considered to be at the forefront of digitalisation Generation Access (NGA) coverage, which is
in a European and even global context (Alm et al, generally considered fast broadband (see Box 1),
2016; Chakravorti & Chaturvedi, 2017; European almost all countries had coverage that is better
Commission, 2019c; 2019d). The Baltic States or equivalent to the EU average in 2019 (83%).
show a more mixed performance, with Estonia Iceland (97%), Denmark (95%) and Latvia (93%)
generally considered a frontrunner – particularly have the highest percentage of overall household
in the context of eGovernance (European access followed by Sweden (86%), Norway (84%)
Commission, 2019c; 2019d) – and Lithuania and and Estonia (84%). Finland (75%) and Lithuania
Latvia performing around the European average (63%) are the only Nordic-Baltic countries in which
(European Commission, 2019b). Despite this NGA coverage levels are below the EU average
positive picture overall, digital development within (European Commission, 2019f).
Figure 2: Broadband network segments.
Source: European Court of Auditors, 2018.
nordregio report 2020:4 10 nordregio report 2020:4 11
All households Rural households
Malta
Netherlands
Iceland
Luxembourg
United Kingdom
Belgium
Ireland
Portugal
Latvia
France
Greece
Germany
Estonia
Slovakia
Hungary
Denmark
Cyprus
Slovenia
Czechia
European Union
Austria
Norway
Lithuania
Photo: Andreas Dress / unsplash.com Romania
Poland
Spain
A regional perspective on broadband coverage The maps that follow show the same two Italy
The infrastructure accessibility figures cited above indicators from a regional perspective. Map 1 Croatia
go someway to explaining the Nordic countries' shows NGA household coverage for all households Bulgaria
reputation as digital frontrunners. It is important at the NUTS 3 level for the Nordic-Baltic Region. Sweden
to note however that these figures are based on Map 2 shows the same indicator but includes Finland
coverage for the population as a whole and, as only rural households. Here, rural households are
such, hide the urban-rural divide. Once urban-rural defined as ‘households in square kilometres with a 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
differences are taken into account, we see that the population of less than one hundred’ (Point Topic, % of households
Nordic countries actually perform fairly poorly in 2013, p. 17). This means that the map showing
a European context. Using the same measure of rural household coverage only includes households
NGA coverage (as a % of households) in 2018, for in areas with a density of less than one hundred Figure 3: Next Generation Access broadband coverage in 2018 (as a % of households).
example, Finland and Sweden were the European houses per square kilometre. In some regions this Data source: European Commission.
countries where the gap in access between rural is a very small proportion of households (e.g. Byen
and urban households was the largest (see Figure København, Denmark = 0.1%), while in others it
3). Lithuania and Norway also performed below includes a substantial proportion of households
the European average on this indicator. Iceland (e.g. Utenos apskritis, Lithuania = 62.4%). This
and Latvia stand out as regional frontrunners is quite different to the approach that is often
in this regard, both with high levels of coverage taken to urban rural comparisons, which involves
overall and relatively small gaps between urban classifying a whole region or municipality as
and rural households. “urban”, “rural” or “intermediate” (see for example
Grunfelder et al., 2020).
nordregio report 2020:4 12 nordregio report 2020:4 13
Map 1: Next Generation Access Household coverage, 2018. Map 2: Next Generation Access Rural household coverage, 2018. nordregio report 2020:4 14 nordregio report 2020:4 15
Considered together, Map 1 and Map 2 provide
a clear demonstration of the digital divide from Box 2. National broadband
the infrastructure perspective. Map 1 shows NGA
targets in the Nordic-Baltic
coverage for all households and presents a regional
picture largely consistent with the national countries
averages. Over 75% of households have access to Denmark: 100 Mbps download and 30 Mbps
NGA coverage in most regions for most countries, upload accessible to all households and
with the exception of Finland and Lithuania businesses by 2020 (Agency for Digitisation,
2016).
where overall household coverage is below 75% in
Finland: 100 Mbps providing 100 % coverage
several regions. Map 2 shows the same indicator
by 2025 (The Ministry for Transport and
but only includes rural households and reveals a
Communications of Finland, 2018).
picture that is in stark contrast to the national Iceland: 99,9 % coverage of 100 Mbps for
averages. In most of Finland and Lithuania, as households and businesses by 2023 (Icelandic
well as many regions in Sweden, less than 35% of Parliament, 2019).
rural households have access to NGA coverage. Norway: 90 % accessibility by 2020, with
Norway performs somewhat better, with NGA access to at least 100 Mbps (The Norwegian
access for 35-65% of rural households in most Ministry of Local Government and
regions. Perhaps unsurprisingly, the countries with Modernisation, 2016)
the highest level of connectivity overall – Iceland, Sweden: 100 Mbps covering 95 % of
Latvia and Denmark – are also the countries with households and businesses by 2020 and
a completely connected Sweden by 2025
the smallest urban-rural divides.
(The Swedish Ministry of Enterprise and
Innovation, 2017).
A municipal perspective on broadband coverage
Latvia & Lithuania: 50 % coverage of
The urban-rural disparities described above can 100 Mbps by 2020 and 100 % coverage
largely be explained by the market driven nature of at least 30 Mbps by 2020 (European
of broadband development. Long distances Commission, 2019b).
and low population density mean that, in Estonia: 60% coverage of 100 Mbps &
many rural and sparsely populated areas, the 100% coverage of 30 Mbps by 2020 (The
demand is insufficient to recoup the cost of the Estonian Ministry of Economic Affairs and
infrastructure investment and thus broadband Communications).
providers struggle to make a business case for
rural expansion (Houzet, 2007; OECD, 2017).
The ‘last mile’ of coverage is generally the most several municipalities where coverage drops
challenging (see Box 1), but it often affects those below 60% of households (Skinnskatteberg, Berg,
remote areas for whom digital access could be Strömsund, Torsås, Vansbro, Borgholm, Älvdalen,
most transformative. Högsby & Nordanstig). The poorest coverage can
The implications of this are best revealed by be found in Finland and parts of Norway. It should
zooming in to the municipal level. Map 3 shows be noted that in some Norwegian regions, satellite
the significant variation in the percentage of technology is used, as opposed to fixed broadband.
households with access to a broadband connection As noted in Box 1, satellite technology is not
of at least 100 Mbps. This speed has been chosen currently capable of reaching this speed so including
as it is the national target in all Nordic countries this technology in the map would not affect the
(see Box 2). Unfortunately, municipal level data is results. In Iceland, the poorest coverage can be
not available for the Baltic States, so the map only found in the eastern part of the country and in the
shows the Nordic countries. Westfjords. Outside of these areas the coverage
As Map 3 demonstrates, a substantial pro- is relatively good, with at least 60% of households
portion of households (>75%) have access to 100 having access to minimum download speeds of 100
Mbps in most Danish municipalities. Sweden also Mbps in many municipalities. It should be noted
has relatively good fixed broadband coverage that, due to the limited availability of municipal
across most of the country, though there are level data, figures for Iceland are from 2020.
Map 3: Household access to fixed broadband at download speeds >100 Mbps, 2018.
nordregio report 2020:4 16 nordregio report 2020:4 17
Åland has the highest percentage of high- broadband with minimum speeds of 30 Mbps,
speed broadband availability among households in Map 4 shows the percentage of households who
Finland, with 97% of all households having access have access to fixed broadband with minimum
to fixed broadband with a minimum speed of 100 speeds of 10 Mbps (orange shading).
Mbps. More remote municipalities fare worse, with The most striking finding in Map 4 is the small
only 9% of the households in Föglö having access but significant portion of households in the Nordic
to 100 Mbps and only 1% at Kökar. In the Faroe Region who do not have access to fixed broadband
Islands the majority of the population (92%) have coverage with a minimum speed of even 10 Mbps.
access to the internet from home and, even in the This suggests that there is substantial work to
outlying islands, the connection is generally good be done if the Nordic countries are to reach the
(Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Trade, and Industry broadband provision targets set out in Box 2.
and Ministry of Finance, 2018). In Greenland, 83% With the exception of Samsø (Denmark, 82%),
of the population have access to the internet from these municipalities are all in Finland and Norway.
home (Epinion, 2018).5 In Norway, the most problematic regions appear
It is important to acknowledge that fixed line to be Trøndelag (an intermediate region), and
broadband of at least 100 Mbps is an ambitious the predominantly rural regions of Hedmark
measure and that larger proportions of the and Oppland6 and Møre og Romsdal. In Finland,
population in each municipality have access to municipalities with comparatively poor levels of
some form of internet. To explore this, Map 4 coverage are scattered around the country.
integrates speeds of 30 Mbps (for municipalities We compared the figures for “all technologies”
where less than 50% of the population has in the Norwegian context to allow for the possibility
access to speeds of 100 Mbps) and 10 Mbps that coverage in these municipalities improves
(for municipalities where less than 50% of the substantially once satellite technology is taken
population has access to speeds of 30 Mbps). into account. Using this method, there remains 86
Map 4 shows different speeds for municipalities municipalities where less than 50% of households
based on the coverage accessible to the majority have access to minimum speeds of 30 Mbps.
of households (>50%). In municipalities where over However, in all but one of these municipalities
50% of households have access to fixed broadband 100% of the population has access to 10 Mbps.7
with minimum speeds of 100 Mbps (blue shading), Notably, these figures are similar even once
Map 4 presents much the same picture as Map 3. In satellite technology is removed from consideration,
municipalities where less than 50% of households suggesting that the majority of these households
have access to fixed broadband with minimum access these speeds using mobile technology. In
speeds of 100 Mbps, Map 4 instead shows the Finland, mobile coverage is comparable to that
percentage of households who have access to provided in Norway, with almost all households
fixed broadband with minimum speeds of 30 Mbps having access to 4G (European Commission,
(green shading). Finally, for municipalities where 2019a), suggesting that a similar result may be
less than 50% of households have access to fixed obtained for Finland if the data was available.
5
Neither Greenland nor the Faroe Islands are included on the map due to difficulties in obtaining municipal level data.
6 Due to a regional reform which took effect on 1st January 2020, the regions of Hedmark and Oppland are now one region: Innlandet. Map 4: Household access to fixed broadband based on download speed available to >50% of
7
The only exception was Masfjorden where 99% of the population have access to minimum speeds of 10 Mbps. households, 2018.
nordregio report 2020:4 18 nordregio report 2020:4 19rural areas in recent years. While 63% of houses Applications are evaluated on the basis of the
Urban Intermediate Rural and companies in rural municipalities had access following criteria: 1) Areas with no basic need; 2)
to a fast connection in 2015, 81% had access in Areas with basic need, but without the need for
100 2018 (Energistyrelsen, 2018). This is compared a high-capacity broadband; 3) Cost-efficient
90 with 91% at the national level (Energistyrelsen, network development; 4) Local co-funding; 5) Plan
80 2018). Generally speaking, the companies we for sustainable operation after development, and
visited in Denmark did not consider connectivity 6) Significance for local community development
70
a problem. One exception was companies which and value creation (Oslo Economics et al, 2017).
60 produce machinery for farms that are reliant on The total annual grants may differ and was in
50 access to store data in a cloud solution. Here, poor 2019 close to 250 MNOK following the increase of
40 connectivity was raised as an issue. 50 MNOK in the revised national budget in May
30 In Finland, state funded, targeted support 2019 (Norwegian Communications Authority,
mechanisms aim to support rural municipalities to 2019). The upper limit of state aid for broadband
20
implement the optical fibre network. Through this development purposes are set in concordance
10 funding, the Municipality of Ii has implemented an with the GBER (general block regulations) set out
0 optical fibre network to secure broadband access by the European Commission and applies to the
10 Mbps 30 Mbps 100 Mbps across the town, including in remote localities. Just Norwegian case through the European Economic
because such a network exists however, does not Area and the EFTA Surveillance Authority
Figure 4: Average municipal household coverage of fixed broadband by speed and municipality type for guarantee its use, and, according to participants in (The Norwegian Ministry of Transport and
Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden, 2018. the Nordic-Baltic workshop, uptake has been slow, Communication, 2019).
Data source: National Public Telecom Agencies. particularly among older residents. Participants In Sweden, broadband development is largely
also mentioned challenges for businesses when it characterised by a bottom-up approach with
comes to the reliability of the network. local fibre networks operating in almost 200
In order to more clearly understand the timeframe has now been revised to 2023 (Icelandic
In Norway, the Norwegian Communications municipalities and accounting for 60% of the
distribution of speeds between urban and rural Parliament, 2019). Through the program, local
Authority provides needs-based government total network (Svenska stadsnätsföreningen,
municipalities, we looked at the average municipal governments can apply for state aid from the
grants for the development of high-speed 2014). The Swedish Local Fibre Alliance (Svenska
household coverage by municipality type for Telecommunications Fund. Around 5500 house-
broadband. Counties and municipalities are the stadsnätsföreningen) supports local communities
three speeds: 100, 30, and 10 Mbps (see Figure 4). holds and businesses had been connected in 2019,
only ones eligible for funding and must go through to develop these networks, which are, in
Average household coverage was substantially with approximately 1500 buildings in sparsely
a public tendering process. Other public and private most cases, municipally owned and managed
lower for rural municipalities than either populated areas still to be connected in order
actors may participate in the planning processes. (see Box 3).
intermediate or urban municipalities at all three to reach the targets. The project has a strong
speeds. Perhaps unsurprisingly, the largest gaps emphasis on cost effectiveness, seeking synergies
were found at the higher speeds. Intermediate with other utilities development projects wherever
municipalities fell behind urban regions with
Box 3. Vingåker Municipality a reliable, independent assessment of the
possible (Government Offices of Iceland, 2019). reception that they then use in dialogue with
respect to the two faster speeds, but a comparable Connectivity was not raised as issue in the Nordic- – One of Sweden’s smartest the operators to advocate for a more stable
proportion of households have access to at least Baltic workshop held in Iceland. rural areas connection across the municipality.
10 Mbps. This suggests that, regardless of the Government policy has also played an Vingåker Municipality is proactively Vingåker is among few municipalities
method of classification8, there is substantial important role in Denmark. In particular, the working towards the goal of access to fibre in Sweden that have installed a sensor
evidence to support the existence of an urban- broadband fund which was a part of the strategy for all households and businesses in the network. This LoRa-WAN network covers
rural divide when it comes to digital infrastructure “Growth and development in all of Denmark” municipality by 2020. It employs a standard the whole municipality and enables a vast
in the Nordic Region. cost rate, ensuring affordable access to range of applications using the Internet
(2016-2019) (Regeringen, 2015). Though deve-
infrastructure regardless of where in the of Things. For example, the municipality
lopment of digital infrastructure is principally
municipality someone is located. Associations can monitor the moisture in the soil to
A policy perspective on broadband coverage market-driven in Denmark, this state fund sought
that own houses can apply for monetary ensure that plants are only watered when
The relatively high levels of coverage in Iceland are to improve opportunities for development and
compensation to connect to the fibre necessary. The investment in LoRa-WAN is
largely a result of the Rural Fibre Project (Ísland growth for businesses and citizens everywhere expected to cut costs and transport needs
without any extra cost. Over 300 persons
ljóstengt), a Government program launched in in Denmark with an explicit focus on access in both within the public and private sectors.
have participated in workshops about how
2016 which aims to provide ≥100 Mb/s internet to rural and sparsely populated areas where the to choose operators and to connect to the Vingåker participates in two regional
99.9% of households and businesses (Government telecommunication companies were not planning fibre infrastructure. WiFi-zones in the centre networks related to digitalisation. The first
Offices of Iceland, 2019). The original goal was to expand (Erhvervsministeriet, 2018a). This has of Vingåker have also been installed. To is focused on municipal cooperation on
to provide this coverage by 2020, however the significantly improved access to the internet in ensure good mobile-phone connectivity, the digital infrastructure (bredbandssamordnare
municipality measure speeds using devices nätverk) and the second focused on
attached to the garbage trucks. Through coordinating digitalisation work across
8
Figure 3 determines rurality by classifying whole municipalities as urban, intermediate or rural while Map 2 classifies individual
households as rural based on the density of the surrounding area. this activity the municipality is able to make Region Södermanland.
nordregio report 2020:4 20 nordregio report 2020:4 21Alongside these municipally owned networks, and large-scale producers in the bioeconomy. 2.2 The digital divide: Knowledge and United Kingdom, Belgium, Malta and Switzerland,
there are also over 1 000 associations representing Availability of Internet of things applications that skills people in cities were significantly more likely to
community owned networks. In these cases, a are suitable for small-scale application is vital to Alongside the infrastructure shortcomings report having at least basic digital skills than
lack of interest from both the market and the ensuring the benefits of digitalisation are shared described above, rural and sparsely populated people in rural areas or in towns and suburbs.
state has resulted in communities installing equally between large-scale and capital-intensive areas also experience barriers when it comes to This relationship was evident across countries
their own broadband infrastructure, either by agriculture and small-scale farms (The Swedish the knowledge and skills required to unlock the regardless of the overall level of digital skill.
investing their own funds, seeking grant funding, Board of Agriculture, 2017). opportunities associated with digitalisation (ENRD, Perhaps unsurprisingly, the largest gaps among
or a combination of the two. These associations A final consideration with respect to 2017; Labrianidis & Kalogeressis, 2006). Digital the Nordic-Baltic countries were evident in Finland
can get support from the Village Internet Forum connectivity is that not all internet access is from competence is often found to be concentrated in and Lithuania, the countries found to have the
(Byanätsforum), a national network consisting of a fixed line. In fact, mobile access is increasingly as the capital regions and other larger urban areas poorest infrastructure coverage in the previous
over 400 community owned internet associations. important as household coverage and accelerating (Danmarks Erhvervsfremmebestyrelse, 2019). section. The smallest gap among the Nordic-Baltic
The Swedish case is often used to illustrate the deployment of fifth-generation mobile Figure 5 is based on regional data collected countries was found in Sweden. The remainder of
how the challenge of broadband expansion to systems (5G) in the Nordic countries is among as part of the European Commission’s Digital this section will consider the implications of this
rural areas can be addressed through grass- the prioritised items on the Nordic Cooperation Economy and Society Index and shows the dimension of the digital divide in the context of
roots action. While the work happening in agenda. The Letter of Intent from the Nordic percentage of people aged 16-74 years with basic small rural enterprises in the Nordic-Baltic Region,
these communities is of course impressive, it is Prime Ministers on development of 5G in the or above basic digital skills, based on where they using the notion of “digital capital” to frame the
important that the existence of such networks Nordic Region promotes the deployment of 5G live. With the exceptions of Luxembourg, the discussion (see Box 4).
does not shift the focus from the responsibility technology in several sectors, including transport
of the state to provide an equal level of service and energy, environment, agriculture and
and infrastructure to all residents, regardless aquaculture. 5G is expected to provide considerably
of where they live. Not all communities have the higher speeds than 4G, and has a theoretical
resources and capacity to develop such networks maximum capacity for download speeds of up
or make such investment, yet all have a right to be to 10 Gbps (European 5G Observatory, n.d.).
connected. This is particularly relevant to farmers, Thus, 5G deployment has the potential to enable
foresters and companies alike who may want to the development of new industries and services
use sensor networks or cloud services. A study by beyond communications and provide better and
the Swedish Board of Agriculture (2017) found faster connections for rural areas. At the same
that unequal access to financing for new digital time, a lack of critical mass and high costs of a
solutions has the potential to further exacerbate 5G system may limit its deployment to rural areas,
the unbalanced power relations between small further widening the digital divide.
Photo: Nicholas Doherty / unsplash.com
Figure 5: People with basic or above basic digital skills, 2017.
Source: Eurostat.
nordregio report 2020:4 22 nordregio report 2020:4 23more than 250 employees (The Norwegian
Box 4. What is digital capital? Ministry of Local Government and Modernisation, SMEs Large enterprises
One way of understanding digital knowledge 2019; Statistics Norway, 2020). Ensuring
and skills is through the concept of digital that these enterprises have the capacity to Exploit B2C eCommerce
capital (Ragnedda, 2018). Digital capital is embrace digitalisation is vital to ensuring the
Buy medium‐high cloud‐computing services
defined by Ragnedda (2018) as ‘the accumu- continued competitiveness of the Nordic-Baltic
lation of digital competencies (information, Region in European and global markets. Sending eInvoices suitable for automated processing
communication, safety, content-creation, According to the Digital Economy and Society
and problem solving), and technology’ Index (European Commission, 2019f), SMEs fall Selling online (at least 1% of turnover)
(p. 2367).
behind large companies on all key indicators used Pay to advertise on the internet
Digital capital is a useful concept, as it
to track digital performance (see Figure 6). Several
infers the potential for exponential growth. >20% of workers with portable devices for business use
explanations for this have been suggested in the
As with other types of capital (e.g. social,
cultural, political), the more a person or literature, including: lack of knowledge about
Fastest broadband connection is at least 30 mbit/s
group has, the more likely they are to have digital opportunities and their benefits, low level
opportunities to accumulate more (Putnam, of ICT skills, limited ability to adapt to rapidly >50% of persons employed use computers & internet
2000). Put another way, those with higher developing technologies and know-how, limited
Website has reference to the enterprise's social media…
levels of digital capital to begin with are more access to capital and finance, lack of appropriately
likely to interact with digital tools in a way tailored support structures, lack of engagement Website has some interactive functionalities
that further increases their digital capital. with support structures and limited capacity to
Thus, investments in digital capital develop- Access to ICT specialist skills
employ ICT specialists or professionals to direct
ment may have benefits that go well beyond digital strategy or drive organisational change Enterprises having a website or homepage
the initial support provided. To take a simple
(European Commission, 2018, 2017d; European
example, a municipality may engage with 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Investment Bank, 2019; OECD, 2017; Interreg
elderly residents for the purposes of teaching
Europe, 2018). % of enterprises
them to use eGovernment services. The skills
acquired may in turn enable further digital Although these findings are not specific to
interactions (e.g. skype with grandchildren), rural areas, the tendency for digital competence to
Figure 6: Key indicators tracking digital progress, EU, 2018 (% enterprises).
providing an additional boost to the person’s be concentrated in urban areas may result in SMEs Data source: European Commission.
digital skills as well as generating other indi- in rural areas experiencing a double digital divide.
rect benefits (e.g. decreasing social isolation) Challenges that have been highlighted in the
(Forsman & Nordmyr, 2017). literature as particularly relevant to SMEs in rural
areas include: lack of access to information about
support instruments and funding possibilities,
brain drain, and insufficient innovation potential
Digital capital and small and medium sized of SMEs (Interreg Europe, 2018).
enterprises Several tools have been developed that aim
In 2017, about 93% of all EU enterprises were to support SMEs to engage successfully with
micro-enterprises with less than 10 employees and digitalisation. Figure 7, for example, provides
5.8% were small enterprises with 10-49 employees a useful framework for assessing a company’s
(European Commission, 2017a; Tillväxtverket, digital maturity. It contains six levels, ranging
2018). In Sweden, the corresponding figure from no digital engagement to a situation where
was 94.7% and 4.4% respectively (European technology transforms the entire business model.
Commission, 2017a), while in Denmark micro According to research by the Latvian IT cluster,
enterprises accounted for 88.7% and small approximately half of Latvian SMEs sit at level 2
enterprises for 9.2% (European Commission, on the pyramid (Irmeja, 2020). The next largest
2017b). Over 99% of all enterprises in Norway are groups are at level 3 (25%), followed by level 0
considered small and medium sized enterprises (15%) and level 1 (10%). Only 5% of Latvian SMEs
(SMEs), with only 0.1% of all enterprises having can be considered digitally transformed based on
this model (Irmeja, 2020).
Figure 7: Pyramid of digital maturity.
Source: Irmeja, 2020
nordregio report 2020:4 24 nordregio report 2020:4 25A similar model has been developed by A key distinction between the complexity levels is These models demonstrate that, much like capacity for digital innovation in rural areas. This
REG LAB, in this case using the staircase as a the degree to which the business is transformed other forms of capital, the accumulation of includes building the digital capital of individuals
metaphor (see Figure 8). This model is based on through the implementation of digital tools. digital capital is a gradual process. A business but can also be achieved by building digital capital
research with Danish SMEs who have successfully The steps within the low complexity group may need to spend some time working at the in companies, organisations and even at a whole-
undertaken a digital transformation process mostly involve the implementation of digital lower levels to generate the capital necessary of-community level (see Box 5).
and aims to provide a deeper and more nuanced tools within the constructs of existing work to make the next step in their digital journey. For companies who took part in the Nordic-
understanding of the key steps and drivers practices while the steps in the high complexity Further, companies may return to the lower levels Baltic workshops, a lack of knowledge about
along the digital journey (REG LAB, 2018). group are more likely to require or enable with a new perspective further down the track digitalisation was a common challenge (see Figure
Here the steps are grouped into high and low some form of organisational transformation (REG LAB, 2018). Such models can be useful for 9). Participants discussed feeling confused about
categories based on the level of complexity. (REG LAB, 2018). companies who are not sure where to start and which solutions were best suited to their company,
may also help authorities to determine the level at as well as uncertainty about how to get the best
which to pitch capacity building activities (Irmeja, out of the solutions they already had access to.
2020). Although neither model is specific to rural Interestingly, some participants also spoke about
areas, the notion of a step-by-step approach is a lack of knowledge in a much more fundamental
quite relevant, as small rural enterprises may have way, struggling to relate to what this concept
limited time and financial capital to invest in rapid of digitalisation actually means in the context
digital development. of their company. Others talked about a need
to change the mindsets of others as a first step
Digital capital in Nordic-Baltic rural areas to truly embracing digitalisation. For example,
The example of digital capital accumulation the perception that a digital meeting is a (less-
given in Box 4 is, in many ways, indicative of the favourable) substitute for a physical meeting
discourse surrounding digitalisation in rural rather than a genuine communication tool in its
areas. Throughout the Nordic-Baltic Region, own right (see Box 6).
rural populations are experiencing considerable
challenges with respect to both the outmigration
of young people and population ageing (Kull et
I think when you say
al, 2020; Stjernberg, 2020). In this context, rural
communities are often positioned as receivers
digital, you often think
of technological solutions designed to improve about a smartphone, and then
access to services for citizens while at the same some people might think, then
time resulting in increased efficiency for providers digitalisation is not for me. But
(Johnsen et al., 2018; Mergel, Edelmann & Haug, digitalisation is much more
2019). Where capacity building comes into focus, than that: it is about optimizing
it is generally in the context of programs designed
production. And that is something
for those whose skills are most limited (e.g. the
elderly, people with limited education), so that
everybody wants. So I also
they can access these digital services (Löfving, think it is about being better at
Norlén & Heleniak, 2019). articulating what digitalisation
Ensuring everybody has the skills required actually is.
to access basic digital services is, of course,
important. Equally important, however, is the Workshop participant, Vesthimmerland
need for a broader focus that works to build the Municipality
Figure 8: Digital transformation and maturity of companies step by step.
Source: REG LAB, 2018 (translated to English by the authors).
nordregio report 2020:4 26 nordregio report 2020:4 27Box 5. Country #196 (Valsts To achieve this goal, the initiative
Box 6. Rural actors lead the entrepreneurs the chance to spend some
“Country#196” is engaging with Cēsis city in
#196, in Latvian) two ways. First, they have worked with the way on eLearning and remote time working from the unique environment
In the world today, there are currently 195 of the Arctic. In this respect, participants
municipality on their data strategy, setting
officially registered Nation States. Country
working in the Isafjordur workshops discussed the
up working groups with the view to opening
#196 is thus a metaphor for the digital state, The Westfjords (Iceland) covers 22,271 km² opportunity to “sell” the simpler, cleaner
up data on the city and using it in new and
a country to which we all belong. This social and has a population of just 6 994, almost lifestyle of the Westfjords, in a context
innovative ways.
movement was founded a year ago and is an one third of whom live in Isafjordur, the where choosing this lifestyle does not
Second, they are working with local
initiative from international data technology region’s largest town (Statistics Iceland, necessarily mean being shut off from the
business and society to improve their
company “Squalio”. The initiative brings 2018). The remainder of the population is world or turning ones back on outside
capacity to work with digital tools and data
together researchers, national and local dispersed in a number of very small towns opportunities. The Westfjords Development
management. This work began with a large
government representatives, entrepreneurs and the region is characterised by limited Centre has staff located all over the region
conference about digital awareness which
and opinion leaders to develop knowledge accessiblity, particularly during the winter meaning that digital meetings between
raised questions like: What is data? What is
and tools that can be put into practice months. As a result, the people of the staff are commonplace. The team have
digital identity? How can I survive and know
so that change can take place now. The Westfjords are no strangers to eLearning developed several strategies to ensure
this digital world? How can I benefit from
Latvian IT cluster actively participates and remote working. the effectiveness of online collaboration
this? Following on from this, they held a
in and supports this movement with its In fact, distance learning first started in and make sure that those outside of the
series of workshops and meet-ups with local
knowledge, experience and resources. Cēsis, the Westfjords in 1998 when a trial program main office in Isafjordur feel included. For
entrepreneurs about how they can make the
which is home to just 18,300 people, was for training nurses was introduced by the example, if one meeting participant needs
most of digital tools within their business.
the first place in Latvia to get involved in University of Akureyri (Peer Review Group, to join via digital means, everyone joins
Finally, Riga Technical University is
the movement “Country#196” as pilot city. 2001). Today, communications technology individually via their computers – even if
running the first vocational education course
Through the movement, Cēsis Municipality is used in the region in a range of ways. they are sitting in the same building. This
on data analytics for beginners in Cēsis.
hopes to discover ways in which technology One third of the students in Isafjordur’s helps to even out the power dynamic and
The intention was to start with one group
can be used to develop a sustainable city. secondary school are distance learners avoids marginalising the person who is not
of 14 students, however, after receiving
While this “smart city” concept is by no from around the country and the Center for physically present.
135 applications, the program received
means new, it does looks quite different in a Lifelong Learning offers online courses in The diverse ways in which the
additional funding from the city and instead
rural context. Here, sustainability goals are Icelandic for immigrants as well as working communities of the Westfjords are using
started with two groups (28 students). The
primarily related to addressing outmigration, to increase digital competence among the information and communications technology
ambition is that, within 2 years, 1% of Cēsis
particularly among young people. population. The University of the Westfjords highlights the need for a critical perspective
residents will have undertaken this course.
The idea is that, by increasing digital offers on-campus master programs (in when discussing the knowledge and skills
The overarching idea is that, in this data
literacy, people can have the opportunity to cooperation with the University of Akureyri) dimension of the digital divide. While there
driven world, understanding data flows can
stay in rural areas while at the same time as well as eLearning. The online courses may be an overall tendency for people in
be a powerful tool to support citizens of
taking advantage of global opportunities and benefit local students but can also be rural areas to have lower levels of digital
“Country #196” to identify new opportunities
markets. attractive to international students who competence than those in urban areas, the
in their businesses, organisations and society
might come to the Westfjords for only some very experience of remoteness may also
(Irmeja, 2020).
parts of their course. Here, digitalisation has necessitate digital skill development. Here,
the potential to be a driver of population the concept of “digital skills” is less about the
growth by both supporting young people technology itself, and instead relates more
to stay in the region and attracting new- to the ability to derive value from online
comers. interactions that is equivalent to that which
Importantly, there was no evidence of a not always well suited to the specific needs of
Actors in the Westfjords are also can be achieved face-to-face.
lack of curiosity or competence as a barrier enterprises. In the Latvian workshop, lack of trust
challenging traditional models of work. According to participants in the
to engagement with digitalisation. Instead, also appeared to be a substantial barrier when Isafjordur workshop, the limited value
The Blue Bank, offers accommodation
limited time and lack of financial resources were considering a new investment. Opportunities to and access to a coworking space to people attributed to these skills outside of rural
emphasised as the main barriers. When it came participate in the provision of public services is one from all around the world. It describes itself areas means that they are currently most
to time, participants clearly appreciated the long- avenue through which to support the long-term as “ a community of ideas, at the service useful in connecting actors within the
term efficiency benefits of digital technologies sustainability and financial security SMEs need of the village and the world” (Blue Bank region. Participants suggested that a fairly
but were often simply too busy to invest in their to prioritise investments in digital development. CoWorking, 2020). The centre is part of dramatic mind-set shift is required if digital
initial adoption. From a financial perspective, This requires more equitable access to public Arctic Digital Nomads, a project funded by tools are to have the same degree of success
investments in technology were perceived as procurement processes which, according to the North Atlantic Cooperation that aims in facilitating urban-rural connections (e.g.
high risk, particularly if there was a long pay- workshop participants in Norway, tend to favour to inspire micro-innovation by offering through “placeless jobs”).
back time. Development of tailored solutions was larger companies.
found to be expensive and existing solutions were
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