A review of international and Australian trends in applied learning - July 2021
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A review of international and
Australian trends in applied
learning
July 2021
210278
ISBN
Electronic version: 978-1-74378-152-4
© State of Queensland (QCAA) 2021
Licence: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 | Copyright notice: www.qcaa.qld.edu.au/copyright —
lists the full terms and conditions, which specify certain exceptions to the licence. |
Attribution: ‘© State of Queensland (QCAA) 2021’ — please include the link to our copyright notice.
Queensland Curriculum & Assessment Authority
PO Box 307 Spring Hill QLD 4004 Australia
154 Melbourne Street, South Brisbane
Phone: (07) 3864 0299
Email: office@qcaa.qld.edu.au
Website: www.qcaa.qld.edu.au
Contents
Glossary _________________________________________________ 1
List of figures_____________________________________________ 2
List of tables _____________________________________________ 2
1 Purpose _____________________________________________ 3
1.1 Background .......................................................................................................4
1.2 Methodology ......................................................................................................6
2 Applied learning ______________________________________ 7
2.1 Authentic learning experiences and assessment ..............................................9
2.2 Community connections ....................................................................................9
2.3 Student-centred and flexible approach ..............................................................9
2.4 Hands-on learning in a collaborative environment ........................................... 10
3 Jurisdictional scan ___________________________________ 12
3.1 Overview ......................................................................................................... 12
4 Analysis of applied learning ___________________________ 20
4.1 Authentic learning experiences and assessment ............................................ 20
4.2 Community connections .................................................................................. 24
4.3 Student-centred and flexible approach ............................................................ 27
4.4 Hands-on learning in a collaborative environment ........................................... 30
5 Conclusion _________________________________________ 32
5.1 Limitations ....................................................................................................... 32
6 References _________________________________________ 34
7 Appendixes _________________________________________ 39
Appendix 1 Definitions of applied learning in the literature................................................39
Appendix 2 Applied subjects offered in different jurisdictions............................................40
Appendix 3 Definitions of applied subjects ........................................................................45
Appendix 4 Examples of curriculum and assessment documents ....................................47
Appendix 5 Assessment of applied learning ......................................................................61
Appendix 6 Underpinning factors of applied subjects ........................................................63
Appendix 7 Dimensions/objectives of applied subjects .....................................................65
Glossary
Abbreviations and acronyms
Term Explanation
ATAR Australian Tertiary Admissions Rank
CDC Curriculum Development Council
CEC NESA Content Endorsed Courses
COAG Council of Australian Governments
CPDD Curriculum Planning and Development Division (Singapore)
CSfW Core Skills for Work Developmental Framework
GCE General Certificate of Education
HKEAA Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority
HSC New South Wales Higher School Certificate
MOE Ministry of Education
NCEE National Center on Education and the Economy
NESA New South Wales Education Standards Authority
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
PISA Programme for International Student Assessment (OECD)
QA quality assurance
QCAA Queensland Curriculum and Assessment Authority
QCE Queensland Certificate of Education
QSA Queensland Studies Authority
SACE South Australian Certificate of Education
VCAA Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority
VCAL Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning
VCE Victorian Certificate of Education
VET Vocational Education and Training
WACE Western Australian Certificate of Education
A review of international and Australian trends in applied learning Queensland Curriculum & Assessment Authority
July 2021
Page 1 of 66
List of figures
Figure 1: Post-secondary directions of Australian students
Figure 2: Methodology of the current study
Figure 3: The main factors of applied learning as a pedagogical approach
Figure 4: Education pathways in Finland
Figure 5: A sample pathway in Ontario’s education system
Figure 6: Education pathways in Hong Kong
Figure 7: Common features of applied learning
Figure 8: Core Skills for Work (derived from QCAA Applied syllabuses)
List of tables
Table 1: Common subjects offered (by learning area)
Table 2: Certification across Australia
Table 3: Certification processes in selected international contexts
Table 4: Assessment techniques in applied senior syllabuses — Australia
Table 5: Assessment techniques in applied senior syllabuses — international
Table 6: Alignment between the 21st century skills and the CSfW
Table 7: Comparison of general capabilities and NESA CEC key competencies
Table 8: Moderation of applied subjects — Australia
Table 9: Moderation of applied subjects — international
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July 2021
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1 Purpose
This literature review focuses on defining applied learning and examining how applied learning is
implemented across local and international educational jurisdictions. The conversation
surrounding applied learning is currently active in many educational jurisdictions. There have
been three major Australian reports published in the past year (2020): the Shergold report, the
Masters report and the Firth report. Each of these papers calls for a reform of vocational
education and a rethinking of the role of applied learning in senior secondary schooling. This
report seeks to summarise these conversations and present an account of the implementation of
applied learning in Australia and overseas.
Within Australia, the 2020 report Looking to the Future: Report of the review of senior secondary
pathways into work, further education and training (the Shergold report) highlighted the
importance of applied learning in providing meaningful learning for students on a vocational
pathway as they complete senior secondary schooling. It brought to the foreground the disparity
between the reputation, resource allocation and support for students on a vocational pathway
versus those progressing to tertiary education.
Concurrently, Nurturing Wonder and Igniting Passion: Designs for a new school curriculum (the
Masters report, 2020), reviewing the design of the New South Wales school curriculum, solidified
this stance and called for equality between applied and academic learning as a progressive step
toward the future. Drawing on international examples of applied learning in high-performing
countries in Europe and Asia, Masters demonstrated that applied learning can and should be
seen as different, but equally valuable, learning for students.
Finally, the most recent review of vocational and applied learning pathways in senior secondary
school was conducted by Firth (2020) as part of the Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning
(VCAL) review. In that report, Review into Vocational and Applied Learning Pathways in Senior
Secondary Schooling (the Firth report), Firth also highlighted the disparity between vocational
and academic learning in both perceptions and resources, citing this as an under-representation
of the potential value of vocational and applied learning for the economy.
In each of these three reports, the authors called for major reform to bring the status of Australian
Tertiary Admissions Rank (ATAR) subjects and applied subjects into closer alignment.
Queensland is in a unique situation in that the Queensland Curriculum and Assessment Authority
(QCAA) offers Applied syllabuses aimed at students on a vocational pathway who are completing
senior secondary. One Applied subject can be used in the calculation of an ATAR. However,
these syllabuses are often subject to the same perception as other examples of applied learning
around Australia. They are seen as separate to, and/or less than, ATAR subjects (Masters 2020;
Shergold et al. 2020). As Firth (2020) outlines, there is a ‘general widespread bias towards
university education’, which is contributed to by decreased quality assurance (QA) or
accountability for applied subjects; reduced resourcing in schools, such as teacher allocation and
timetabling; and a lack of detail in policy and curriculum documents (pp. 43–44).
In the 2020–2024 review and revision of senior syllabuses, the QCAA has an opportunity to
ensure:
• Applied syllabuses contain learning that is valuable for students on a vocational pathway and
distinct from the learning found in General subjects
• Applied subjects have a valued place in the QCAA offerings, continuing trends such as
including Applied subjects in the QCE and QCIA Policy and Procedures Handbook
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• curriculum and assessment guidance and resources in Applied syllabuses match those
provided in General syllabuses
• QA mechanisms are robust and warrant the inclusion of Applied subjects in the calculation of
the ATAR.
Consequently, this syllabus review and revision cycle has the potential to raise the status of
Applied syllabuses in Queensland.
To facilitate a robust conversation about the learning that is valuable for students on a vocational
pathway, this paper begins with a literature review of applied learning as found in current
educational texts, studies and journals. Numerous sources were analysed and compared to draw
together a common definition of applied learning as a pedagogical approach. QCAA Applied
syllabuses currently include applied learning as an underpinning factor, however there are rich
opportunities available to draw on applied learning as a pedagogical approach that guides
teaching and learning in Applied syllabuses. This would not only strengthen these syllabuses but
raise the status of these subjects as valuable and dependable learning.
Next, a jurisdictional scan was conducted to analyse the role of applied learning in a range of
Australian and international educational contexts. This scan focused on Australian states and
territories as well as high-performing international education systems overseas, primarily based
on Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) results and National Center on
Education and the Economy (NCEE) rankings. The scan begins with a report on the subjects
offered in these contexts and the pathways students take on completion of these subjects. As
each system is idiosyncratic, this scan aims to provide a context for applied learning within each
system.
Finally, the applied subjects (those identified as equivalent to the QCAA Applied subjects) offered
in each jurisdiction were analysed according to how they integrate the factors of applied learning
as a pedagogical approach drawn from the literature.
It is anticipated that the findings of this literature review will be used to inform the review and
revision of QCAA Applied syllabuses. This paper is a starting point for an important conversation
about the role of applied learning in Queensland and the structure of Applied syllabuses.
1.1 Background
There is an emerging agenda in Australia’s educational landscape to determine whether senior
schooling offerings in each state provide students with access to quality learning suited to their
chosen pathway. With around a half of all Australian students moving into non-university
pathways on completion of secondary schooling, Shergold et al. (2020) posit that it is important
that schools offer valuable learning for those students who are not university bound (see Figure
1). As the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) set a target to lift the Year 12 (or
equivalent) attainment rate to 90% by 2020, it is imperative that all students have access to
meaningful learning throughout senior schooling (Shergold et al. 2020).
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Figure 1: Post-secondary directions of Australian students
Data sourced from Shergold et al. 2020.
The three Australian reviews into vocational education and applied learning indicate in general
that there is a hierarchical delineation between University/ATAR and VET subjects and pathways,
described in the Shergold report (2020) as,
The dominance of a ranking score, the Australian Tertiary Admission Rank
(ATAR), privileges academic capability over the value of vocational education
and training. Many students believe that those headed for university are
accorded higher status at school than those who prefer to pursue a trade
apprenticeship or traineeship (p. 6).
There is the notion that applied learning is inferior to more academic learning (Firth 2020; Masters
2020; Polesel & Clarke 2011; Shergold et al. 2020; Scott, Hundloe & Jackson 2019). Applied
subjects are often given fewer resources, less guidance and support and less credibility than
ATAR subjects (Polesel & Clarke 2011). Masters (2020) has called for a major shift in thinking to
reduce the perceived divide between academic and vocational pathways.
This division is not consistent across all international educational contexts. In jurisdictions such as
Finland, Germany and Singapore, applied learning is a different but valued pathway that sits
beside academic learning (Scott, Hundloe & Jackson 2019). In different contexts, such as in
Hong Kong, applied learning is seen as a valuable complement to academic learning, viewed as
a place to apply and further develop academic learning.
Applied learning is different to academic or theoretical learning and it has an important place in
schools as they work to support practical intelligence, enhance a range of skills, and encourage
excellence in students who can fulfil a range of societal roles (Education Bureau (Hong Kong)
2020). The Masters and Firth reports (2020) both highlight the need for Australia to migrate
toward this approach. The Shergold report (2020) advocates a VET pathway for ‘students who
have the interests, strengths and passions that align to the offerings of the VET sector’ (p. 83).
The QCAA’s Applied subjects, therefore, are unique. They are aimed at students on a vocational
pathway and successful completion contributes toward the achievement of the QCE. Further, one
Applied subject can be used in the calculation of an ATAR. The QCAA states that ‘Applied
subjects are suited to students who are primarily interested in pathways beyond senior secondary
schooling that lead to vocational education and training or work.’ Applied subjects cater for
students who cannot or do not wish to study General subjects for a variety of reasons. They are
also an alternative for students who cannot access VET courses while at school.
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The Shergold report (2020) identifies several reasons VET participation rates are falling,
including:
• funding arrangements
• staffing arrangements
• regulatory requirements
• wage rates for graduates
• employer satisfaction with students’ skill levels
• community perceptions about the worth or quality of VET courses.
Applied subjects are not a substitute for a VET qualification. Where Applied subjects contain
knowledge or skills that significantly overlap with VET qualifications, only one can contribute
toward the QCE (QCAA 2020b).
This research paper provides a review of applied learning in the literature and across various
contexts to help determine the role of applied learning and the QCAA Applied syllabuses in senior
schooling.
It is timely for the QCAA to consider these significant research papers in the current review and
revision of Applied syllabuses to ensure we are meeting the needs of students on a vocational
pathway.
1.2 Methodology
This paper used three main investigative techniques:
1. a literature review of recent educational reports, publications and peer-reviewed articles,
including the exploration of applied learning as a pedagogical approach
2. a jurisdictional scan of Australian and selected overseas educational contexts to further
define applied learning and determine its role within other educational systems
3. an analysis of curriculum and assessment in Australian and selected overseas educational
contexts to determine how applied learning is taught and assessed.
Together, these considerations will influence the direction of the review and revision of Applied
syllabuses (see Figure 2).
Figure 2: Methodology of the current study
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July 2021
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2 Applied learning
Applied learning as a construct is not new; it has its roots in experiential learning and
constructivism (Blake 2006; Campbell, Faulkner & Pridham 2010; Dewey 1938; Pridham & Deed
2012). It has evolved over the years including facets of authentic learning, situated learning,
problem-based learning and project-based learning (Herrington & Oliver 1995; Pridham & Deed
2012). Applied learning is not confined to applied subjects or vocational learning. For example,
the recent review of New South Wales senior schooling acknowledges that there is a need for
schools to prepare students on all pathways for the workplace, through the cultivation of 21st
century skills in applied learning and work-integrated learning (Masters 2020). Furthermore, some
aspects of the ideology of applied learning permeates a range of QCAA General syllabuses as
students learn by doing in a hands-on, practical and authentic way.
However, educational bodies and researchers are increasingly recognising that applied learning
is more than an ideology. Rather, it is a powerful pedagogical approach that seeks to value
practical intelligence and engage students who may not suit a more traditional model of education
(Bagnall & Wong 2014; Blake 2006; Downing & Herrington 2013; Pohlen 2015; Pridham,
O’Mallon & Prain 2012; Schulz 2016). It draws on experiential learning, constructivism and the
principles of adult learning, such as acknowledgement of personal history, relevance of learning,
flexibility and independence and problem-centred learning, to draw students toward learning as a
way of acquiring knowledge through solving problems in authentic situations (Blake 2006;
Campbell, Faulkner & Pridham 2010; Downing & Herrington 2013; Knowles 1984).
A formal definition of applied learning has not yet been adopted (Campbell, Faulkner & Pridham
2010; Pridham, O’Mallon & Prain 2012). Applied learning is typically defined according to its
attributes (see Appendix 1 for a range of definitions of applied learning drawn from the literature).
It is most often associated with authentic learning and assessment, it is student-centred and
based on hands-on learning experiences, and it is delivered in coordination with the community.
Applied learning is continuous and occurs through active, practical experiences whereby students
apply their learning in authentic contexts and are assessed through authentic tasks (Blake 2007;
Schulz 2016).
In a study of an Australian teacher education program designed for teachers of applied subjects,
Downing & Herrington (2013) developed a definition which includes:
1. provide authentic contexts and applied learning activities that connect theory and practice
2. recognise and incorporate the lived experience of students
3. provide opportunities for meaningful, collaborative construction of knowledge within the
learning community
4. encourage the development of a reflective, professional identity through collegial interactions
in a variety of settings
5. provide authentic assessment tasks that reflect real work settings
6. encourage student ownership of learning and increasing professional autonomy.
This framework is underpinned by Downing and Herrington’s (2013) research on applied learning
and builds on the work of Herrington, Reeves and Oliver (2010) who developed a framework for
authentic learning.
An example of recent classroom research seeking to define applied learning was conducted by
Pohlen (2015) in his doctoral research. Through taking a phenomenological approach to studying
senior secondary school students taking two American applied subjects, he found that the
elements that most appealed to students were student independence and choice when
collaborating and creating to solve complex and open-ended problems, real-world relevance
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Page 7 of 66when producing or performing for authentic audiences and the shifted role of the teacher as a
facilitator of learning.
Teachers spend more time designing alternative forms of authentic assessment and authentic
evaluation and spend less time on transmission and testing memorisation (Duckett 2010).
McDonough (2017) confirms that testing does not always relate to applied learning and is not an
effective way of assessing students in applied subjects.
Not only do most types of students report their satisfaction of applied learning, data also shows
that applied learning as a pedagogical approach improves student outcomes (Downing &
Herrington 2013; McDonough 2017).
After conducting a review of numerous research papers, including studies with primary and
secondary data sources, common themes of applied learning as a pedagogical approach (see
Figure 3) are:
• authentic learning experiences and assessment
• community connections through workplace learning, where appropriate
• a student-centred and flexible approach
• hands-on learning in a collaborative environment.
These themes are consistent with the findings of the Firth report (2020), where real-life learning,
flexibility, community engagement and partnerships, work-based learning and work readiness
were noted as the most valued aspects of Victoria’s applied subjects. These themes are also
identifiable in the current underpinning factors of the QCAA Applied syllabuses, however they are
reportedly not always the driving factors for teaching, learning and assessment.
Each of the major components of applied learning is discussed in turn here, drawing on
information gained from a range of studies. These four main factors are interrelated, and it is easy
to see how they weave together and complement each other.
Figure 3: The main factors of applied learning as a pedagogical approach
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Page 8 of 662.1 Authentic learning experiences and assessment
Applied learning involves authentic, real-world experiences, activities or contexts (Blake 2006;
Downing & Herrington 2013; Herrington, Reeves & Oliver 2010; Schulz 2016). Theory is learnt
and consolidated through application to authentic situations (Downing & Herrington 2013; Schulz
2016). Authentic experiences allow for students to learn through complex and open-ended
problems which require a solution and involve the natural complexity of the real world (Calder
2000; Herrington & Oliver 1995; Pohlen 2015).
Assessment of applied learning is also authentic and open-ended, suited to the content and
context and often leads to the documentation and development of products and performances
rather than the assessment of academic merit via an examination (Calder 2000). Applied learning
is strongly associated with project-based or problem-based learning (McDonough 2017; Pridham
& Deed 2012). Products are created to solve real problems for real people or performances are
presented to authentic audiences (Downing & Herrington 2013; Pohlen 2015).
Assessment should not be viewed as an add-on to learning, rather as an authentic and integral
part of learning that occurs across the learning journey (Herrington & Oliver 1995). McDonough
(2017) shows that students enjoy authentic assessment and it is positively correlated with student
outcomes. Critics consider one success of the VCAL is that assessment is developed to best fit
the learning content and context.
2.2 Community connections
Applied learning is often linked to workplace learning and the development of employability skills
(Schulz 2016). Workplace learning is important because students need access to experts who
can model skills and processes at critical junctures in their learning (Herrington & Oliver 1995).
Learners are not dependent on the teacher for instruction but should be offered guidance and
help throughout the learning process (Knowles 1984; Pridham, O’Mallon & Prain 2012).
Most researchers advocate for applied learning to occur in an out-of-school context (Campbell,
Faulkner & Pridham 2010). These contextualised experiences are made possible through
community connections, which are relationships formed with departments within the school or
organisations and businesses outside of the school. They are central to the success of applied
learning as students learn through applying their knowledge in real-life situations and developing
relationships with peers and adults in workplace situations (Blake 2006; Pridham & Deed 2012).
Student engagement with the adult community can trigger the need and desire for learning
(Calder 2000; Knowles 1984). A skilled professional models expert performance and processes,
allowing students to demonstrate their skill, coaching students and scaffolding learning at critical
times (Herrington, Reeves & Oliver 2010; Pohlen 2015). Where community connections are not
easy to forge, such as in remote locations, simulations that are close to real life are valuable.
Herrington and Oliver (1995) acknowledge that interactive, technology-based simulations have
the potential to provide students with these connections for authentic assessment if they are
constructed correctly.
2.3 Student-centred and flexible approach
Applied learning must be flexible enough to start with the needs and interests of the student
(Blake 2006; Schulz 2016). A ‘one size fits all approach’ is not suited to the typical student drawn
to applied subjects (Blake 2006; Campbell, Faulkner & Pridham 2010). Applied learning is often
referred to as an alternative to traditional pedagogical approaches, such as direct instruction.
There is a commitment to the education of the ‘whole person’ through applied learning and
A review of international and Australian trends in applied learning Queensland Curriculum & Assessment Authority
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Page 9 of 66researchers acknowledge that students who are disenfranchised, disengaged or have
challenging behaviours are drawn to these subjects (Blake 2006; Downing & Herrington 2013;
Holdsworth 2005; Pohlen 2015; Schulz 2016; VCAA 2019. Research in Hong Kong shows that
applied learning benefits academically weaker students (Bagnall & Wong 2014). However,
research also shows applied learning benefits students on all pathways, with a range of
backgrounds, and thus caters for most students who enrol in applied subjects (McDonough 2017;
Pridham & Deed 2012). This is important for Queensland’s Applied subjects as they may be used
in the calculation of an ATAR and thus may attract students with a range of academic ability.
Knowles (1984) purports that the recognition of students’ experience and background is central to
adult learning. Applied learning should take into account students’ prior learning, interests and the
learning context. Flexibility can derive from subject matter, curriculum design and assessment
requirements, especially where students are given choice and independence at different stages
in the process (Pohlen 2015). The VCAA (2019) principles of VCAL subjects begin with the
learners and encourages the negotiation of the curriculum (Downing & Herrington 2013). Aligned
with the principles of personalised learning, applied learning as student-centred is designed to
provide all students with opportunities and resources that meet their needs and aptitudes
(Duckett 2010).
Applied learning should be self-directed as it relies on a readiness to learn (Knowles 1984). This
readiness is encouraged when leaners are presented with authentic and hands-on learning that
leads to the immediate use of knowledge (Knowles 1984).
2.4 Hands-on learning in a collaborative environment
Pridham, O’Mallon and Prain (2012) emphasise that applied learning involves active learners in
supportive environments who develop knowledge in collaboration with others. Applied learning
involves hands-on, practical approaches to learning whereby students develop, build, create or
produce something (Blake 2007; Calder 2000; Holdsworth 2005; Schulz 2016). Applied learning
is, therefore, both ‘embodied and social’ (Pridham, O’Mallon & Prain 2012).
Herrington, Reeves and Oliver (2010) advocate for collaborative learning as students work
through an applied learning inquiry together. Relationships and collaboration are central to
constructing knowledge (Downing & Herrington 2013; Pohlen 2015) along with drawing
knowledge together from a range of disciplines (Calder 2000). In relating applied learning
pedagogy to Science education, McDonough (2017) found that applied learning involving hands-
on learning increases achievement, attitude, skill proficiency and language development,
especially when it occurs within a context of cooperative learning and is object mediated.
Summary
While applied learning as an ideology is not new, there is movement toward applied learning being
developed as a pedagogical approach that guides teaching and learning for students on a vocational
pathway. This approach values the practical intelligence that underpins applied learning and gives
students a way of acquiring knowledge through solving problems in authentic situations.
A formal definition of applied learning has not yet been adopted globally, however after analysing and
comparing a range of research and studies related to applied learning, it was determined that applied
learning as a pedagogical approach involves four main factors:
• authentic learning experiences and assessment, whereby theory is learnt and demonstrated through
application to problem-solving in real-life situations
• community connections formed with skilled professionals who can model and scaffold learning through
workplace learning and the development of employability skills, where appropriate
• a flexible approach that is student-centred, committed to the education of the whole person and
acknowledges that students bring a reservoir of knowledge and experiences to new learning
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Page 10 of 66• hands-on learning in a collaborative environment whereby students work with others in a supportive
environment that ensures learning is an embodied and social experience.
While these factors could be presented in a range of combinations and formats, these four
interconnected components were selected as pillars that guide this pedagogical approach. While most of
these elements are present in the underpinning factors of the current QCAA Applied syllabuses, they are
not always the guiding force for teaching and learning in these subjects. Adopting applied learning as a
pedagogical approach would strengthen this way of teaching and learning in Applied syllabuses. It is
unsurprising that the Firth report (2020) identified a similar list of features of applied learning as the most
valued features of the VCAL system and he has used these as a basis for the future development of
applied subjects in Victoria.
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Page 11 of 663 Jurisdictional scan
Senior subjects offered in Australian and selected international educational contexts were
analysed to develop a common understanding of how applied learning is implemented through
senior subjects.
A list of Applied subjects that are offered in each jurisdiction was compiled for each educational
context studied in this report (see Appendix 2) along with a definition of Applied learning within
these systems (see Appendix 3). The number of subjects offered ranges from between 7 and 10
in New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Finland, Germany and Singapore, to more than 20
in Queensland and Ontario, and more than 50 subjects in the Australian Capital Territory,
Western Australia and Hong Kong. Common subjects are listed in Table 1.
Table 1: Common subjects offered (by learning area)
Technology Arts Humanities Health/Sports Science
Home economics Media/Film & TV Work skills Exercise/Sports Environmental
science science
Hospitality Theatre/Drama Accounting/Finance Physical Primary
education industries/Agriculture
Woodworking/ Music Marketing/Business Childcare/Early Interdisciplinary
Manufacturing childhood science
ICT/Computing Art Retail Food/Health
studies
Robotics Dance Tourism
Design
Before analysing the offerings of each jurisdiction, an overview of each system and how it
operates is provided. Where possible, permission has been sought from jurisdictions to include
images and direct references to curriculum documents in this report.
3.1 Overview
3.1.1 Australia
Across the jurisdictions of Australia, there is no direct comparison to QCAA Applied syllabuses.
The ACTBSSS A courses and the WASCSA General courses (distinct from QCAA General
syllabuses) are configured similarly to the QCAA Applied syllabuses. However, both course types
are closely aligned with an ATAR course or VET equivalent and are not necessarily designed
around applied learning or workplace preparation. They feature less challenging assessment and
are designed for students who do not intend to apply for an ATAR, but who may not necessarily
be on a vocational pathway.
In Victoria and New South Wales, there are specific subjects or courses that are similar enough
to draw a comparison to QCAA Applied syllabuses. For example, in the VCAA VCAL subjects,
assessment is sustained and lengthy in time and duration only in senior level units, thus only
those units are featured in this report. Selected units from the VCAL subjects can contribute
toward university entry when students complete an additional examination (Schulz 2016). NESA
Board Endorsed Courses include Content Endorsed Courses and School Developed Endorsed
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Page 12 of 66Courses, however only the former are reviewed here as their content and assessment are
developed by NESA. If students choose to complete a Higher School Certificate (HSC)
examination for some of these subjects, they can also be used towards the calculation of an
ATAR.
Comparing subjects is not straightforward, since academic rigour, flexibility in subject matter
selection and sequencing, time allocations, assessment requirements, certification processes,
quality assurance processes and pathways differ across educational contexts. It is also
problematic that some subjects aimed at students on a vocational pathway integrate VET
qualifications, however the QCAA Applied subjects do not. Table 2 outlines the subjects across
Australia that contribute to certification and the calculation of an ATAR for students on a path to
university and those that contribute to certification only.
In some contexts, such as New South Wales, students of applied subjects may sit an additional
examination or complete alternative scaling assessment if they wish to use applied learning to
contribute toward university entrance. All SACE Board subjects can count towards an ATAR,
however, students must apply for it specifically.
Table 2: Certification across Australia
ATAR and certification Certification only Duration
QLD General subjects General subjects 55 hours per unit
Senior External Examinations Applied subjects (4 units)
Alternative sequence Senior External Examinations
One Applied subject Alternative sequence
One VET Cert III qualification VET
Short Courses
NSW Stage 6 Board Developed Stage 6 Board Developed Courses 60 hours per unit
Courses Board Developed VET Courses
VET courses (with HSC exam) Board Endorsed Courses (Content
Board Developed Courses Endorsed Courses)
(with HSC exam)
VIC VCE study designs VCE study designs 50 scheduled
VCE VET (scored Unit 3 VCE VET hours per unit
and 4) VCAL
WA ATAR courses ATAR 55 hours per unit
General
Foundation
VET
Endorsed programs
ACT T courses (Higher education A courses (General) 55 hours per unit
prep) T courses
H courses (accredited by H courses
Higher education institution) M courses (students with disability)
C courses (accredited voc. education)
E courses (nationally recognised voc.
qualification)
SA Tertiary admission subjects Tertiary admission subjects 55 hours per unit
(request an ATAR) Community studies
Modified studies
Recognised studies
Broad definitions of these courses included in this review and their roles, drawn from relevant
curriculum and assessment documents published by state and territory authorities, are available
in Table 3.1 in Appendix 3.
A review of international and Australian trends in applied learning Queensland Curriculum & Assessment Authority
July 2021
Page 13 of 66This review will compare:
• QCAA Applied subjects
• NESA Board Endorsed Courses
• VCAA VCAL subjects
• WASCSA General courses
• ACTBSSS A courses
• SACE Board Community Studies subjects.
Which subjects are taught?
Most Australian educational contexts offer a narrow range of applied subjects. One reason may
be due to low student numbers, as these subjects cater for a specific section of students who are
on a vocational path, are not interested in obtaining an ATAR or are not able to access VET. Less
than 25% of students in most contexts select this pathway (see Figure 1). In New South Wales
and Victoria, student numbers in these subjects have increased in recent years, but they still
involve relatively low student uptake.
Australian Capital Territory and Western Australia offer comparatively high numbers of subjects.
These subjects run parallel to ATAR subjects; therefore, schools can combine students on
different pathways in the one class. It is not uncommon for the ATAR and non-ATAR subjects in
these states to draw on the same curriculum documents and/or teach the same content in the
same classroom but assess students differently, through alternative assessment instruments or
instruments that require shorter responses.
In South Australia, all subjects can be used to calculate an ATAR. Community Studies subjects
are the focus of this review as they relate to workplace preparation and involve community
connections.
Queensland offers a moderate number of subjects between that of other states and territories.
The QCAA offers 23 Applied syllabuses plus Applied (Essential) English and Applied (Essential)
Mathematics. These subjects are distinct from General subjects and VET, and students may use
one of these subjects in the calculation of an ATAR.
3.1.2 International
Selected international educational contexts were reviewed for this report. Countries were selected
based on their PISA results, NCEE rankings, education system and subject offerings. The
countries chosen are:
• Finland
• Germany
• Canada (Ontario)
• Singapore
• Hong Kong.
Table 3.2 in Appendix 3 contains a description of applied subjects, courses or applied learning in
each international context reviewed. In each case, information and descriptions have been drawn
from ministerial or governmental sources. In some cases, English translations were not available,
therefore web-based translation services were used and may contain translational errors. Where
permission was not granted for the publication of materials, links to documents have been
provided.
A review of international and Australian trends in applied learning Queensland Curriculum & Assessment Authority
July 2021
Page 14 of 66In the international contexts studied for this report, applied learning is viewed as practical,
authentic, hands-on and different to academic or theoretical learning. In most countries studied,
there is a delineation between academic subjects, applied subjects and VET. Setting VET aside,
students study general or academic subjects which prepare them for university, or they study
applied subjects which prepare them for Universities of Applied Sciences or Polytechnic colleges.
Curriculum, assessment and certification information is available in Table 3.
Table 3: Certification processes in selected international contexts
Finland Germany Ontario Singapore Hong Kong
Certification Upper Abitur Ontario O-Level Hong Kong
secondary (Secondary Secondary Cambridge Diploma of
school leaving school diploma) School Diploma School Secondary
certificate and Secondary Certificate Education
Matriculation school leaving (MOE)
examination certificate
certificate.
Upper
secondary
school diploma
Applied National Board Regional Ontario Ministry Polytechnics in Education
subjects of Education Ministries of of Education partnership bureau
developed Service Education with secondary Stakeholders
by: providers schools Quality
assurance
agencies
Assessed Matriculation School Ontario Ministry Polytechnics Course
by: Examination of Education through MOE providers and
Board Assessments CPDD exams the Hong Kong
(GCE O-Level Examinations
aggregate and
scores) Assessment
Authority
Moderated Finnish No information No information Singapore Hong Kong
by: Education found found Examinations Examinations
Evaluation and and
Centre Assessment Assessment
Board Authority
MOE
Cambridge
Assessment
International
Education
Which subjects are taught?
Internationally, Finland and Germany feature schools that specifically cater for students on a
vocational pathway. They offer a narrow range of subjects to students to fulfil the requirements of
the school leaving certificate but acknowledge that students will carry on to future studies to
specialise in a field of interest.
Similarly, Singapore offers a narrow range of Applied Subjects. This may be due to their
development and delivery by specialist schools or the need for these subjects to align with the
O-Level examinations that lead to certification. Hong Kong offers the widest range of subjects,
which are developed and offered by education providers, thus there is wider scope for industries
A review of international and Australian trends in applied learning Queensland Curriculum & Assessment Authority
July 2021
Page 15 of 66to develop specific courses. Often, these courses are offered on Saturdays and work to
complement school-based learning.
3.1.3 Country overviews
As international systems vary, a brief summary of each system follows, with a diagrammatical
representation.
Finland
Students in Finland choose between general secondary programs which lead to university
studies and applied programs that integrate general studies and work-based learning and lead to
Universities of Applied Sciences (see Figure 4). Up to 60% of students choose to begin their
vocational education during secondary schooling (Scott, Hundloe & Jackson 2019). Around a
quarter of secondary school students choose to gain a VET qualification instead.
The Australia Institute’s Nordic Policy Centre research shows academic and applied study
streams in Finland are viewed as ‘different, but equal’ (Scott, Hundloe & Jackson 2019). This
equity is underpinned by the mindset that students on a vocational pathway may possess a
different intelligence to academic students, but all students can and should strive for excellence.
Finland has a higher rate of vocational enrolment than Australia and Universities of Applied
Sciences work closely with workplaces. Long-term youth unemployment in Finland in 2017 was
65% lower than in Australia, which many attribute to the value placed on applied learning in
Finland and the support for students on a vocational path (Scott, Hundloe & Jackson 2019).
Applied learning involves site-based training and experiences where students apply their learning
in a workplace (Ministry of Education and Culture (Finland) 2019). Degrees from Universities of
Applied Sciences provide students with practical professional and technical skills, and students
can move between these universities and academic or theoretical universities as they progress
through their studies.
Figure 4: Education pathways in Finland
A review of international and Australian trends in applied learning Queensland Curriculum & Assessment Authority
July 2021
Page 16 of 66Source: Ministry of Education and Culture (Finland) 2020, 'Education system in Finland' diagram in The Finish Education System
https://minedu.fi/en/education-system. Used with permission.
Germany
In Germany’s education system, students choose the type of study they wish to complete from
early in their schooling. Students on a vocational path may choose to attend a Hauptschule,
which is a pre-vocational school that provides applied learning to prepare students for the
workplace. Around 25% of students enrol in these programs. These programs are described as
being a field for testing professional inclinations rather than being vocational education
(Hessisches Kultusministerium 2020).
Students may also choose to attend a Realschule, schools which integrate general and applied
learning (NCEE 2015). In recent years, some Hauptschule programs have been combined with
Realschule programs or eliminated altogether as students seek a more balanced education. All
Realschule programs lead students toward VET qualifications, which they can then use to gain
entry to Universities of Applied Sciences.
Finally, students may choose to attend Gymnasium programs, which aim to provide students with
an academic education that leads to university. Around 25% of students attend Gymnasium
programs. These programs are delivered by schools, and each school may offer a range of these
programs.
Ontario
Before entering secondary school, Grade 8 students in Ontario choose between applied courses,
focused on practical, concrete application of concepts, and academic courses, which focus on
abstract applications of concepts. Applied subjects have a poor perception in that they are
believed to limit students’ prospects (Schulz 2016). These subjects are prerequisites for Open
courses, which are Grade 11 (or occasionally Grade 12) courses with multiple pathway options.
These Open courses are generally prerequisites to Workplace courses, which are Grade 12
subjects focused on the workplace as students’ postsecondary destination (see Figure 5).
Figure 5: A sample pathway in Ontario’s education system
Source: Ontario Public Service 2018/The Ontario Curriculum Grades 9 to 12 (2018): Course Descriptions and Prerequisites, (p. 7). © Queen’s
Printer for Ontario, 2018 http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/document/curricul/secondary/descript/descri9e.pdf. Used in accordance with terms at
https://www.ontario.ca/page/copyright-information-c-queens-printer-ontario.
A review of international and Australian trends in applied learning Queensland Curriculum & Assessment Authority
July 2021
Page 17 of 66Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, students select Applied Learning courses as electives alongside Core Subjects.
Applied Learning courses are viewed as complementary to Core Subjects as they involve
practical learning linked to professional and vocational fields (CDC & HKEAA 2017).
Students may take one Applied Learning course in combination with other elective subjects to
enrich their learning, or students on a vocational or professional pathway and who learn better in
practical contexts may take two Applied Learning courses. Applied Learning courses are viewed
as electives and are studied beside Core Subjects (see Figure 6). Research indicates that
student outcomes are improving for all students, and this model particularly increases students’
engagement and commitment to lifelong learning (Bagnall & Wong 2014).
Figure 6: Education pathways in Hong Kong
Source: 'Learning to Learn 2+ The Hong Kong School Curriculum' in Applied Learning Curriculum and Assessment Guide (Senior Secondary
Level) (c) Education Bureau (Hong Kong), 2020. https://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/en/curriculum-
development/renewal/ApL/ApL_C&A_Guide_E_2017.pdf. Used with permission.
Singapore
In Singapore, students experience applied learning through specific applied subjects. Applied
subjects are seen to complement academic learning and broaden students’ educational
experience and cater for a range of pathways. Ministry of Education (MOE) Applied subjects are
assessed via GCE O-Level certification examinations and lead students toward junior colleges or
polytechnic institutions.
Summary
To determine the role of applied learning in senior schooling, a range of educational jurisdictions were
examined. Each jurisdiction has idiosyncrasies; therefore, the context of each system was also
examined. While there are no direct comparisons to the QCAA Applied subjects available, the closest
subjects offered across jurisdictions were examined.
Within Australia, QCAA Applied subjects were compared to NESA Board Endorsed Courses, VCAA
VCAL subjects, WASCSA General courses, ACTBSSS A courses, and SACE Board Community Studies
subjects. Internationally, applied subjects offered in Finland, Germany, Canada (Ontario), Singapore and
Hong Kong were examined.
There are two main approaches to supporting vocational learning in schools:
• separate certification systems for academic and applied subjects
A review of international and Australian trends in applied learning Queensland Curriculum & Assessment Authority
July 2021
Page 18 of 66• certification systems which integrate academic and applied subjects.
In the former approach, students select a pathway from an early point in their schooling and they
complete subjects that lead them on this pathway. For example, in Germany, students select an
academic or vocational pathway after mandatory elementary schooling. The vocational pathway can lead
them to universities of applied sciences, which are held in the same esteem as academic universities.
In the latter, students can choose to study academic and applied subjects which complement each other.
Both subjects are perceived to offer valuable learning, and both contribute toward certification. Hong
Kong implements this approach, however, most applied subjects are offered by private providers. There
is also an acknowledgement in most jurisdictions that applied subjects offered in schools are not a
replacement for VET courses. Students wishing to gain a vocational qualification are required to study
their trade further after completing school, thus it is not always appropriate for schools to offer highly
specific trade-based subjects.
A review of international and Australian trends in applied learning Queensland Curriculum & Assessment Authority
July 2021
Page 19 of 664 Analysis of applied learning
Applied subjects offered to senior secondary school students in Australia and selected
international contexts were identified and curriculum documents were analysed (see Appendix 4
for excerpts from syllabuses related to each educational context studied). For each context,
overarching curriculum and assessment documents developed by the relevant department,
ministry or authority were analysed according to the common features of applied learning derived
from the literature and articulated in Section 2 (see Figure 7).
Figure 7: Common features of applied learning
4.1 Authentic learning experiences and assessment
4.1.1 Australia
There is agreement across Australian jurisdictions that applied learning involves real-world,
authentic learning experiences. This entails students engaging in learning experiences or
completing assessment that replicates what they might encounter in the world outside of school.
QCAA Applied syllabuses are underpinned by five factors, one of which relates directly to
authentic experiences: applied learning. Applied learning is defined in these syllabuses as ‘the
acquisition and application of knowledge, understanding and skills in real-world or lifelike
contexts’ which is more akin to the ‘authentic learning experiences and assessment’ component
of applied learning as a pedagogical approach proposed in this paper.
A key tenet of applied learning as a pedagogical approach is that assessment is also authentic.
Authentic assessment is open-ended, suited to the content and context and often leads to the
documentation and development of products and performances rather than the assessment of
academic merit via an examination (Calder 2000). This includes real-life applications of skills and
knowledge to solving problems, developing products and implementing projects (NSW
Department of Education 2020; SACE Board 2020; VCAA 2019). The Firth report (2020) shows
that authentic assessment is one of the most highly valued aspects of Victoria’s VCAL subjects.
A review of international and Australian trends in applied learning Queensland Curriculum & Assessment Authority
July 2021
Page 20 of 66In Queensland, New South Wales, Western Australia and Australian Capital Territory, teachers
have the scope to select from a wide range of assessment techniques to develop school-based
assessments that can effectively document students’ knowledge and skill development (see
Table 4). These jurisdictions most commonly require students to complete a project, an extended
response, investigation or presentation.
Table 5.2 in Appendix 5 provides a more detailed look at the assessment techniques offered in
each Australian jurisdiction studied.
Table 4: Assessment techniques in applied senior syllabuses — Australia
QCAA NESA VCAA WASCSA ACTBSSS SACE
Applied Board VCAL General A courses Board
subjects Endorsed subjects subjects Community
Courses Studies
subjects
Project
Portfolio
Examination
Performance/
demonstration
Product/artefact/
prototype
Extended
response/essay
Investigation/
research
Presentation
Assessment in applied subjects also often involves authentic situations. For example, while
SACE Board Community Studies subjects involve more prescribed assessment, where students
compile a portfolio, demonstrate their works skills and present their findings, this is based on
students’ work in authentic situations.
4.1.2 International
Internationally, all contexts studied have the option to assess applied learning via projects (see
Table 5). These take on a broader definition than that adopted in the QCAA Applied syllabuses
and include the development of evidence of research, a portfolio documenting the development
of a product or performance, evidence of the product or performance, an evaluation of the
product or performance and a presentation of findings. Following an inquiry-based model to
develop products or performances, projects detail the full cycle of learning from the inception of
an idea to the development or creation of a product or performance and the reflection on this.
A review of international and Australian trends in applied learning Queensland Curriculum & Assessment Authority
July 2021
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