CONFERENCE GUIDE 2020 - bimun
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CONFERENCE GUIDE 2020
Conference Guide BIMUN 2020
Table of Contents
1. History of the Middle East ..................................................................................................... 3
1.1. From the beginning of civilization until the rise of Islam ............................................... 3
1.2. The rise of Islam .............................................................................................................. 3
1.3. The Crusades and the rise of the Ottomans ..................................................................... 4
1.4. The Ottoman downfall and Middle Eastern partition after WW1 ................................... 5
1.5. Following the First World War ....................................................................................... 7
1.6. The Second World War and decolonisation .................................................................... 7
1.7. The Arab-Israeli conflict ................................................................................................. 8
1.8. Other notable events during the Arab-Israeli conflicts ................................................... 9
1.8.1. Irani .......................................................................................................................... 9
1.8.2. Iran – Iraq War ...................................................................................................... 10
1.8.3. Gulf War ................................................................................................................. 10
1.8.4. 2003 invasion of Iraq ............................................................................................. 10
1.8.5. Yemeni civil war ..................................................................................................... 11
1.8.6. Arab spring ............................................................................................................. 11
2. Political overview of the Middle East .................................................................................. 12
2.1. Foreign influence and internal divisions in the region .................................................. 12
2.1.1. US Influence ........................................................................................................... 12
2.1.2. Soviet/Russian Influence ........................................................................................ 14
2.1.3. Chinese Influence ................................................................................................... 15
2.2. Sunni-Shia Division ...................................................................................................... 15
2.3. The Saudi – Iranian Conflict ......................................................................................... 16
2.4. The Kurdish question .................................................................................................... 17
2.4.1. History .................................................................................................................... 17
2.4.2. The question of an independent Kurdish state ....................................................... 18
2.4.3. Geopolitical Factors .............................................................................................. 19
2.4.4. Turkey ..................................................................................................................... 20
2.4.5. Syria ....................................................................................................................... 20
2.4.6. Iraq ......................................................................................................................... 21
2.4.7. Iran ......................................................................................................................... 21
2.4.8. Women .................................................................................................................... 21
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Conference Guide BIMUN 2020
2.5. Terrorism in the Middle East ........................................................................................ 21
2.5.1. Taliban ................................................................................................................... 22
2.5.2. ISIS ......................................................................................................................... 23
2.6. Important conflicts in the region ................................................................................... 23
2.6.1. Syrian Civil War ..................................................................................................... 23
2.6.2. US-Iran Conflict ..................................................................................................... 25
2.6.3. Yemen ..................................................................................................................... 25
2.6.4. Persian Gulf, Strait of Hormuz .............................................................................. 26
2.6.5. Lebanon .................................................................................................................. 27
2.6.6. Israeli-Arab Conflict .............................................................................................. 29
3. The Legal and Political Relevance of the United Nations ................................................... 32
3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 32
3.2. The United Nations Charter .......................................................................................... 32
3.3. The General Assembly .................................................................................................. 34
3.4. The Security Council ..................................................................................................... 36
3.5. The International Court of Justice ................................................................................. 39
3.6. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 41
List of contributors ................................................................................................................... 42
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Conference Guide BIMUN 2020
1. History of the Middle East
by the Secretary-General and the Deputy Secretary-General
1.1. From the beginning of civilization until the rise of Islam
The Middle East has
played an important role in
shaping human history ever
since early civilizations started
to develop right after the Neo-
lithic Revolution in 12000 BC.
The area between the Tigris
and Euphrates, called Mesopo-
tamia (modern-day Iraq), was
the place where the first civili-
zations and written scripts de-
veloped. Many great civiliza-
tions lived here including the
Sumerians, Akkadians, and
Babylonians.
Later on, from the 6th century BC onwards the Persian Empire rose, which at the
height of its power fought against the Greek city-states in the Greco-Persian Wars between
499-449 BC. After this many shorter-lived empires ruled over this region of the world, includ-
ing that of Alexander the Great, which contributed to the spread of Greek culture in the area.
By 63 BC the Roman Empire had, with the leadership of Pompey the Great, con-
quered much of the Middle East.1 This then led to the spread of Roman culture while aiding
the already present Greek culture as well.
By the 5th century AD the second major religion that was born here, Christianity, be-
came the dominant religion in the Middle East. Many important cities developed here such as
Alexandria and Edessa which became important places for Christian scholars. Christianity
stayed relatively stable in the region even when the western part of the Roman Empire fell
since the eastern part had already established a more independent religious structure. 2 Christi-
anity mostly stayed the dominant religion until the rise of Islam.
1.2. The rise of Islam
Islam arose in the second half of the 6th century on the Arabian-peninsula. This period
saw political disorder and religious division in the region.3 Muhammad was the prophet of
this religion, he started seeing visions in 610, which Muslims regard as divine revelations
1
Catherwood, Christopher. A Brief History of the Middle East. London: Robinson, 2011.
2
https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/history/history_1.shtml
3
Johnson, Scott Fitzgerald. The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity. New York: Oxford University Press, 2016
3
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delivered through the angel Gabriel, later these visions would help shape the Quran. He estab-
lished a strict, monotheistic religion, which aims to fight social injustice, which is apparent in
the five pillars of Islam.4 In 622 Muhammad and his followers migrated to Yathrib (later re-
named Medina)5, later generations counted this event as the start of the Islamic era. This
marked the birth of the third major Abrahamic religion6(the other two being Judaism and
Christianity).7
After this, an Islamic caliphate rose, which occupied much of the Arabian-peninsula
under Muhammad, grew to stretch from Persia to the Iberian-peninsula under the Umayyads
by 750 because of the lack of strong rivals since the Sassanids and Eastern Romans who
could’ve stopped the spread of Islam were weakened by wars against each other. This was
one of the reasons that led to Islam spreading in North Africa, which is still today the domi-
nant religion in the region.
This religion didn't stay united for long since after Muhammad's death debates over
his successor fuelled a big conflict and, in the end, caused the Islamic schism. Today 85-90%
of Muslims are Sunni, they are the majority in most Muslim countries, but there are sates
where Shias are the more populous, these are Iran, Iraq, Bahrain, Azerbaijan and, according to
some estimates, Yemen.8
Under the Abbasid dynasty, which ruled from 750, came the Islamic golden age. Mus-
lims helped preserve and spread Greek advances in medicine, algebra, geometry, astronomy,
anatomy and ethics. They distributed the works of Aristotle, Ptolemy and Hippocrates across
their empire just to name a few, and Arabian trade was the catalyst that helped the Hindu-
Arabic numerical system spread to Europe.
1.3. The Crusades and the rise of the Ottomans
By the 11th century, the Seljuq Turks were the biggest power in the Middle East as
they have successfully captured most of Anatolia. In 1095 Pope Urban II, seeing the success
of the Reconquista in Spain and being asked to help by the Byzantine Empire, summoned the
First Crusade. In 1099 the knights of the First Crusade captured Jerusalem and established the
Kingdom of Jerusalem, which survived until 1187 when it was recaptured by Saladin.
After Mongol invasions in the 13th century, the Seljuq Turks were weakened, and at
the end of the century, a new Turkish dynasty rose the Ottomans. Osman I, the founder of the
dynasty led his people in a series of battles against the Byzantine Empire.9 In 1453 the Otto-
mans captured Constantinople from the Byzantine Empire, thus ensuring their dominance in
the Balkans and Anatolia. By the middle of the 16th century, the empire reached the height of
its power, but it stayed really powerful and influential until the second half of the 18th century.
4
These are confession of faith, the five prayers a day, to fast during the holy month of Ramadan, to pay the tax
for charity (the zakāt), and the hajj, or the pilgrimage that a Muslim needed to take at least once in their lifetime
5
Otherwise known as the Hegira
6
These are a group of Semitic-originated religious communities of faith that claim descent from the Judaism of
the ancient Israelites and the worship of the God of Abraham. The Abrahamic religions are monotheistic, with
the term deriving from the patriarch Abraham
7
Derrida, Jacques, and Gil Anidjar. Acts of Religion. New York, NY: Routledge, 2010.
8
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-16047709
9
Kohn, George C. Dictionary of Wars. New York: Facts On File, 1999.
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The empire span from the Arabian-peninsula to the Balkans, even controlling parts of mod-
ern-day Hungary. This was one of the few instances when a large unified empire could keep
all the different people groups together under one banner for centuries. It achieved this with a
complex system of administration and strong central power in the form of the sultan.
1.4. The Ottoman downfall and Middle Eastern partition after WW1
By the start of the 20th century the
Ottoman Empire’s power veined despite
attempts to reform the empire. Holdings in
the Balkans gained independence, and eth-
nic groups like the Armenians tried to gain
more autonomy but their attempts were si-
lenced by force, by killing 100,000 to
300,000 Armenians between 1894-96 in
what became known as the Hamidian mas-
sacres.10
The desperate and divided empire
signed a secret treaty with Germany which established an alliance between them in August
1914. After the Goeben and Breslau incident, the Ottomans joined WW1 at the end of Octo-
ber in 1914. At the beginning of the war, the Ottomans found success for example at the Bat-
tle of Gallipoli or the Siege of Kut, but there were huge setbacks for example in the Caucasus
Campaign against the Russians. The Russians were aided by Armenians living in the Ottoman
Empire, this triggered a drastic response by the Ottomans, which is classified by most schol-
ars as a systematic genocide against the Armenians.11 The estimates about the casualties of
this genocide vary widely depending on the source, some put them at 300,000 (per modern
Turkish state), others at 600,000 to over a million.12
In 1916 the Arab Revolt turned the tide against the Ottomans in the Middle Eastern
front, where they initially seemed to have the upper hand. The revolt was aided by the British,
and it aimed to establish a single, independent Arab state in the Middle East stretching from
Syria to Yemen, which would be recognized by the British as agreed in the McMahon-
Hussein correspondence. On 30 October 1918, the Ottomans signed the Armistice of Mudros,
which ended hostilities between them and the Entente.
On 9 and 16 May 1916 the Sykes-Picot Agreement was ratified by the British and
French governments. In this secret document that was later revealed by the Bolshevik Rus-
sians, the two sides agreed on their spheres of influences and the partitioning of the Ottoman
Empire. The agreement disregarded the UK’s promises for creating a unified Arab state, this
created mistrust between the sides and still to this day this agreement and the ensuing peace
treaties are looked at as the causes of modern Middle Eastern conflicts.
10
Akçam Taner. A Shameful Act: the Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility. New
York: Metropolitan Books/Holt, 2007.
11
https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Letter_from_The_International_Association_of_Genocide_Scholars
12
https://www.britannica.com/event/Armenian-Genocide/Genocide
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The Treaty of Sèvres was signed on 10
August 1920 between the Central Powers and
the Entente. This marked the beginning of the
partitioning of the Ottoman Empire. The treaty
put military restrictions on the Ottomans, and it
set up a tribunal which aimed to find those who
were responsible for the Armenian Genocide.
Free zones were set up near the Straits, Thrace
was ceded to Greece, foreign zones of influence
were set up inside modern-day Turkey and the
rest of the former Ottoman Empire was partitioned. The British Mandate of Iraq, the British
Mandate of Palestine and the French Mandate of Syria and Lebanon were set up. The people
living here were promised independence in exchange for support during the war by the Allies
but in the end, as agreed in the Sykes-Picot Agreement they became subjects of great powers
who aimed to gain more influence and drew up borders without regard for religious or ethnic
differences. An independent Armenian and Kurdish state were recognized as well. There were
debates between Kurds about the prospective borders of the new state but in the end, no par-
ty's wish was granted, since only the Turkish part of Kurdistan was to be granted independ-
ence, while those Kurds who lived in the new British and French-controlled territories stayed
under the rule of a power that is foreign to them. 13 Since the Treaty of Lausanne replaced this
treaty in 1923, an independent Kurdish state was never actually created. The Kingdom of He-
jaz was also established on the Arabian Peninsula, which during its short-lived history con-
stantly stayed under British influence.
The occupation of Constantinople and
Izmir mobilized the Turkish National Move-
ment, which led by Mustafa Kemal Pasha
won the Turkish War of Independence (1919-
1923). This forced the Allies to sit down to
the negotiating table again and on 24 July
1923 the Treaty of Lausanne was signed, and
it came into effect on August 6 1924. It estab-
lished the borders of modern-day Turkey and replaced the Treaty of Sèvres. With the defini-
tion of Turkey's borders, some territories such as Yemen, Asir and parts of Hejaz were ceded
by them, even though these territories were not controlled by Turkish forces for some time.
This is the treaty that essentially created the Middle East as we know it today, and this decid-
ed the fate that the region would have for the foreseeable future due to its clear lack of fore-
sight regarding ethnic and religious differences.
13
Kubilay, A. (2015). Turkey and the Kurds -- From War to Reconciliation? UC Berkeley: Center for Right-
Wing Studies.
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1.5. Following the First World War
Following the establishment of League of Nations ‘Mandates’ by both the British
(Palestine and Iraq) and the French (Lebanon and Syria) they almost immediately had to face
revolts in the region. The first one of these was the Egyptian Revolution of 1919, a war that
albeit the Egyptians lost forced the British to recognise the de jure independence of Egypt in
1922. Despite this recognition however Britain refused to pull out its troops from the Suez
Canal Zone and still had considerable amount of influence in the country.
A year later, in 1920 both the Syrians revolted against the French and the Iraqis
against the British. The Syrian revolt was crushed by the French in the Battle of Maysalun,
and the British also quelled most elements of the rebellion by October the same year. Signs of
conflict also started to show within the British Mandate of Palestine, where the locals did not
start to act against their colonial overlords, but rather each other. Following the “success” of
the Zionist movement, local Palestinian Arabs, who could also worry because of the Balfour
Declaration14 at the time started to try and foil the “reclamation” of the Jewish homeland by
the Israelites and armed conflicts were regularly happening between the two sides. In 1925
another revolt erupted in Syria and Lebanon known nowadays as the Great Druze Revolt, but
was finally defeated by the French in 1927.
Another notable process in the region during the first half of the century was the unifi-
cation of Saudi Arabia. It began in 1902 when Abdul-Aziz Ibn Saud recaptured Riyadh, the
long-lost home of the Saud family. He allied himself to the Wahhabist 15 army and captured
the town of Al-Ahsa from the Ottomans. In 1921 he defeated the rival Al Rashid family and
took all their lands. After the dissolution of the Ottoman empire, the Kingdom of Hejaz was
formed, at the time ruled by the Hashemites (who also ruled and rule to this day in Jordan),
the area that incorporates Mecca and Medina, two Holy Cities of Islam within it. Ibn Saud
conquered this territory in 1925. On the 23rd of September 1932 the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
was finally formed.
1.6. The Second World War and decolonisation
During the course of the Second World War most of the Middle East was occupied by
the Allied forces. The previously independent Iran was also occupied by British and Soviet
forces and served as a connection between the West and the Soviets. The country was used to
transfer multiple tons of equipment into the Soviet Union in order to halt the German offen-
sive on the Eastern Front. In Egypt the Italo-German forces tried to advance and capture the
Suez Canal, which was vital for the Allies, but were ultimately stopped in the First Battle of
El-Alamein, and pushed back into Libya in the Second Battle of El Alamein.
After the war a period of decolonisation followed, that included the creation of an in-
dependent Lebanon (22nd of November, 1943), Syria (1st of January, 1944), Jordan (22nd of
14
‘His Majesty's government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish
people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood
that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities
in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.’
15
An Islamic religious movement founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, one of the most conservative
schools of Islam.
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May, 1946), Iraq and Egypt (both 1947) and the United Nations plan (General Assembly Res-
olution 181) which partitioned the Mandate of Palestine into two separate states, an Arab and
an Israeli one in 1947.
1.7. The Arab-Israeli conflict
Although the Israelis accepted this solution the Arabs did not, and it led to the First
Arab-Israeli war of 1948. After the 10 months of the conflict Israel has not only lost, but
gained territory, occupying more than 50% of the original territory of the Palestinians. The
remaining Arab territories in Palestine were annexed by Jordan and Egypt, who originally
were fighting against the Israelis on the Palestinian side. As a result of this war around 7-800
000 Arabs fled or were expelled from Palestine and roughly the same number of Jews emi-
grated into Israel from Arab countries for the same reason.
The discovery of oil in the 1950s and the subsequent involvement of the United States
in the region, as well as the U. S. backing of Israel paved the way in the Cold War for the so-
called ‘Arab socialism’, a combination of socialism and Arab national sentiment. The rise of
this ideology gave way for some of the best known Arab socialist rulers such as Saddam Hus-
sein in Iraq, Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt or the al-Assads in Syria. The main promises of
these regimes included social welfare as well as the total destruction of the State of Israel and
any other Western powers or their influence in the region.
The next crisis in the region happened in 1956 right after the Nationalisation of the
Suez Canal, by Egypt, which was considered strategically crucial by the British) and was pre-
viously owned by the French and the British. This was also a time when the Arab-Israeli con-
flict re-intensified. On the 19th of October Israeli forces began their advance in the Sinai Pen-
insula against the Egyptian forces. In response, Britain and France issued a joint ultimatum
for ceasefire, which was ignored by both sides and they used it as a pretext to join the conflict
on the Israeli side. Following days of fighting on the 6th of November due to pressure from
both the United States and the Soviet Union the parties agreed to a ceasefire.
Arab-Israeli relations remained sour however, which led the Third Arab-Israeli War in
1967 (the previous one being the Suez Crisis), also known as the Six-Day War (from the 5th
of June to the 10th). The war started by ‘pre-emptive’ Israeli airstrikes against Egypt which
nearly destroyed the whole Egyptian air force giving Israel air supremacy for the rest of the
war. Following this Jordan and Syria also joined the war but even this could not stop the Is-
raelis from pushing the Egyptians out of the Sinai Peninsula. The Israeli forces were success-
ful against the forces of Jordan and Syria as well and as a result at the end of the war Jordan
had to concede the West Bank and Syria the Golan Heights.
The next armed conflict happened in 1973 and was started on the day of Yom Kippur,
the holiest day in Judaism. Just like the war in 1967 this war was also started with a surprise
attack but now from the Arab side. The two main participants this time on their side were the
Egyptians and the Syrians, but volunteer forces arrived from all around the Arab world and
even Cuba. As always, the Israelis were supported by the USA and the Arabs the Soviet Un-
ion. After initial success by the attacking forces Israel mobilized and started a counteroffen-
sive. Within a week they became able to shell Damascus, the Syrian capital and soon pushed
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the Egyptians out of the Sinai and even crossed the Suez Canal on the offense. On the 25 th of
October a ceasefire was imposed on the halves thus ending the war.
This humiliation of the Arab world had lasting effects on the global population as
well. Seeing that they were unable to defeat Israel by force the Arab countries looked for an
economic approach. This resulted in the 1973 oil crisis when the OPEC countries decided to
embargo the supporters of Israel. It caused one of the worst stock market crashes of modern
history and the price of oil quadrupled within a year. Continual defeats also have changed the
Egyptian foreign policy concerning Israel. The 1978 Camp David Accords laid the founda-
tions of the peace treaty between the two nations the following year. Egypt became the first
state to recognise Israel and in exchange regained the Sinai Peninsula lost in the 1967 war.
This peace treaty also led to the assassination of Egyptian president Anwar Sadat in 1981 dur-
ing a military parade and Egypt’s membership in the Arab League was suspended until 1989.
The failed wars also altered the Palestinian policy towards Israel as they started seek-
ing a diplomatic solution to the problem. In 1974 the Palestine Liberation Organisation be-
came the representative of the Palestinian people in the UN. Tensions however between Israel
and Palestine remained high and in 1987 the First Intifada was proclaimed. It lasted for almost
6 years and was considered to be a general effort of Palestinians to resist against the occupa-
tion of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. It ended after the signing of the Oslo Accords in
1993 which was supposed to start a peace process and the start of limited Palestinian self-
governance in the territories they have retained after the 1967 war.
The Accords however did not bore much fruit as Yitzhak Rabin, the Prime Minister of
Israel who was committed to the fulfilment of the agreement was assassinated by a right-wing
Jewish extremist in 1995 and the full commitments in the Accords never became reality to
this day.
This, and failed peace talks after were the main reasons for the Second Intifada (2000-
2005), during which (and much like the first) conflict erupted between Israelis and Palestini-
ans again. Civilian casualties were over a thousand on both sides, but in the beginning of 2005
the halves agreed to stop the violence caused by both. The intifada also lost its fire after the
death of Yasser Arafat which also contributed the cessation of hostilities.
Since Arafat died elections also took place in Palestine in 2006 which resulted in a
victory for Hamas, a militant fundamentalist Islamic party who refused to commit to nonvio-
lence in the region and as a consequence a conflict erupted between Hamas and Fatah, the
second largest party. Tensions progressively rose between the two and ended up in a quasi
civil war in which Hamas took control of the Gaza strip and Fatah the West Bank.
1.8. Other notable events during the Arab-Israeli conflicts
1.8.1. Irani
After the Second World War the Allied occupation of Iran has ended and Iran became
a democracy. This lasted until 1953 when the then-prime minister of the country tried to in-
vestigate the Anglo-Iranian Oil company and limit their power. After the company has re-
fused the Parliament of Iran has voted to nationalize the country’s oil industry. This however
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was against the interest of the United Kingdom and the United States and in August they have
staged a successful coup d’état against Prime Minister Mosaddegh following which they have
strengthened the rule of the monarch, Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and allowed him to rule
the country.
This regime lasted until 1979 when after two years of revolts and general upheaval the
Shah has left the country for exile. Shortly after his leave Ayatollah Khomeini’s exile was
lifted and returned to Iran to become its Supreme Leader. Iran also voted before the inaugura-
tion of Khomeini to become an Islamic Republic.
1.8.2. Iran – Iraq War
A year after the regime change in Iran Iraq, led by Saddam Hussein, invaded the coun-
try. This happened for two main reasons: first, Iraq wanted to become the strongest power in
the Persian Gulf and dominate oil trade in the region, and second, because of the coup in Iran
the Sunni leadership of the country started to worry that the local (majority) Shi’ite populace
would turn against them. The war lasted for eight straight years. Multiple hundreds of thou-
sand died on both sides both in the military and amongst the civilian populace and numerous
human rights violations were committed by both sides. In 1988 the UN brokered a peace
agreement between the two countries in which no territorial changes happened.
1.8.3. Gulf War
Two years later Saddam Hussein again tried to increase his influence in the region by
invading Kuwait. Iraq refused to pull out of the country even after being called upon to do so
by the UN the UN authorized a coalition of forces16 to use all necessary means to force Iraq
out of Kuwait.
Armed conflict started in January of 1991 with naval and aerial bombardments of Iraq
and the ground assault of the coalition started at the end of February. This assault quickly
decimated the Iraqi forces and the war was over by the 28th of February. The independence of
Kuwait was restored and much of Iraq’s and Kuwait’s infrastructure was destroyed. Iraq was
also forced to start a disarmament program mainly focused on illegal biological weapons pos-
sessed by Iraq and a no-fly zone was also established in the country 36 degrees north that was
later modified to 32 degrees north. Saddam Hussein, however, has remained in power.
1.8.4. 2003 invasion of Iraq
In the October of 1998 it became official US policy to remove Saddam from power
with the enactment of the Iraq Liberation Act. In addition, with the election of George W.
Bush in 2000 the US started pursuing a more aggressive foreign policy. Following the 11 Sep-
tember terror attacks and the enactment of the ‘War on Terror’ the US public was also poised
for war. In his 12 September 2002 address to the UNSC President Bush made his case for
invasion of Iraq.
16
Its members were: the USA, the UK, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, France, Syria, Morocco, Poland, Hungary,
Denmark, Czechoslovakia, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Belgium, Spain, Italy, Australia, New Zeeland,
Greece, Canada, Pakistan, Oman, the UAE, Qatar, Bangladesh, Thailand, South Korea, Singapore, Philippines,
Bahrain, Senegal, Niger, Argentina.
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While some agreed with the proposal key NATO allies disagreed with Bush. Thus a
compromise, UNSC resolution 1441 was born which gave a last opportunity to Iraq to comply
with UN weapons inspections and disarmament obligations. Iraq complied with this resolu-
tion and UN experts entered the country and found no evidence of illegal weapons or weapon
programmes in the country. However, the US was pursuant on attacking Iraq, claiming that
despite the UN inspectors not finding evident of illegal weapons Iraq still possessed some and
also claiming that Iraq had ties to al-Qaeda.
Therefore, a new coalition assembled mainly headed by the US and the UK and opera-
tions began in March of 2003. They lasted until May and resulted in the ultimate success of
US-UK forces. Saddam Hussein was overthrown and was later executed in 2006. This inva-
sion however started an almost 9-year long war as the Iraqi populace started to oppose the
invading forces and that also gave rise to al-Qaeda. Western forces withdrew from the country
in 2011 but left it in such and unstable state that when the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
emerged in 2014 it could hardly fight it.
1.8.5. Yemeni civil war
In 2004 the government of Yemen attempted to arrest Hussein Badreddin al-Houthi, a
Shia religious leader in the country. This sparked fighting in the northern part of the country.
Initially the Houthi rebels used guerrilla tactics, however in 2014 they took over the capital
Sana’a plunging the country into civil war. This sparked international concerns, and neigh-
bouring Saudi Arabia rushed to the aid of the newly overthrown Sunni government. The civil
war lasts to this day.
1.8.6. Arab spring
In the early 2010s a series of revolutions shook the Arab world, mainly Tunisia, Lib-
ya, Egypt, Syria and Yemen and in these countries the regimes were also changed. Demon-
strations also took place in most other Arab countries. Civil wars started in Syria, Libya and
Yemen and the Islamic State began to rise.
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2. Political overview of the Middle East
by the Crisis Team
2.1. Foreign influence and internal divisions in the region
2.1.1. US Influence
The USA’s influence in the Middle East reaches back hundreds of years, it, however,
was quite limited until after World War II, and mostly consisted of commercial ties. Thereaf-
ter, the US quickly gained interest in the region and became involved in its affairs. While
pulling back from the region has been, and in fact is still being considered, it is unlikely to
happen in the near future as the US is still very deeply invested in the Middle East. While it
became involved in the area in order to prevent the spread of communism and ensure a con-
stant, stable supply of oil, today the region is instrumental in counterterrorism cooperation as
well as having many of the world’s main trading routes run through it.17
Israel: In 1947, Truman’s efforts to ensure two-thirds majority for the resolution for
the partition of Palestine in the United Nations General Assembly and the subsequent exten-
sion of de facto recognition to the State of Israel marked the USA’s entry into Middle Eastern
events18. All successive US Presidents and many Members of Congress have been strongly in
favour of close US-Israel cooperation and stressed the importance of the country’s security.19
Israel is by far the US’s most important ally in the entire region. It has maintained or-
der in Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine, and has held back Syria - one of the Soviets’ long-
standing allies. With its well-developed army, it is possible to keep the entire region in check,
as well as conduct research in cooperation with the US army for new military technologies. Its
intelligence resources have also aided the US several times in the past on covert operations or
with the collection of information.20
Since their free trade agreement in 1985, the US has been the state’s largest trading
21
partner , moreover, Israel is the leading recipient of US foreign aid, is a frequent purchaser of
various weapon systems, and oftentimes seeks help to reinforce its defence capabilities and
regional security.
President Trump and his Administration have expressed interest in negotiating a final-
status Israeli-Palestinian agreement, but many questions were raised about the viability of the
initiative. While Israeli leaders were generally very much in favour of the change in US poli-
17
Trofimov, Y. (2019). America Can’t Escape the Middle East. [online] WSJ. Available at:
https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-u-s-cant-escape-the-middle-east-11572016173 [Accessed 18 Dec. 2019].
18
Fraser, T. (1989). The USA and the Middle East Since Word War 2. Macmillan, p.24.
19
Zanotti, J. (2018). Israel: Background and U.S. Relations. [online] Fas.org. Available at:
https://fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL33476.pdf [Accessed 18 Dec. 2019].
20
Institute for Policy Studies. (2002). Why the U.S. Supports Israel - Institute for Policy Studies. [online] Avail-
able at: https://ips-dc.org/why_the_us_supports_israel/ [Accessed 18 Dec. 2019].
21
United States Department of State. (n.d.). U.S. Relations With Israel. [online] Available at:
https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-israel/ [Accessed 18 Dec. 2019].
12Conference Guide BIMUN 2020
cy on Jerusalem, many other countries opposed the President’s statements. Palestinian leaders
have broken off high-level political contacts with the US and have pursued stronger ties with
other international actors and organizations. Tensions over Jerusalem have influenced Admin-
istration decisions to reduce or delay aid to the Palestinians, thus making prospects for Israeli-
Palestinian talks less certain.
Saudi Arabia: The USA and Saudi Arabia established full diplomatic relations in the
1930s after the latter’s recognition, with the main anchors for their bilateral relations being
the US-Saudi security cooperation and Saudi energy supplies. The country is subject of recent
congressional discussions – leadership transitions, human rights issues, foreign policies, Sau-
di-Iranian tension, threats from terrorist groups, and trends in global oil markets being of par-
ticular interest22.
One of the US’s main interests in the country are its vast oil reserves - not only is it an
important source of import oil, but it also stabilizes, and can perhaps change prices on the
global oil market the most effectively, therefore its protection - and, with the help of Saudi
Arabia, the protection other Gulf producers - has been paramount23. Nowadays, it also coop-
erates effectively with the US in counterterrorism24.
Even amidst proceedings such as the murder or Jamal al Khashoggi in 2018 – in
which Saudi Arabia denies having a hand25 – or deepening congressional and public concern
over Saudi policies in Yemen, the Trump Administration has continued to promote US-Saudi
ties. Since 2017, US arms sales, shared concerns about Iran, Al Quaeda, and ISIS, and Yem-
en-related security cooperation have been defining these ties, with the Trump Administration
proposing arms sales and providing advisory support to Saudi Arabia, even deploying military
personnel to the kingdom.
However, Saudi leaders have acted in ways contrary to US preferences multiple times
in the past years. In recent times, Saudi Arabia has sought to diversify its other international
relationships as well as boost its self-sufficiency. Given the country’s strong security ties to
the US alongside its global influence, the progression of its domestic transformation initia-
tives and the fate of its foreign and defence policies may have a prominent effect on these
bilateral ties and international security in the future.
22
Blanchard, C. (2019). Saudi Arabia: Backgound and U.S. Relations. [online] Fas.org. Available at:
https://fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL33533.pdf [Accessed 18 Dec. 2019].
23
Council on Foreign Relations. (2018). U.S.-Saudi Arabia Relations. [online] Available at:
https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/us-saudi-arabia-relations [Accessed 19 Dec. 2019].
24
Freeman, Jr., C. (n.d.). Shifting Sands in the U.S.-Saudi Arabian Relationship | Middle East Policy Council.
[online] Mepc.org. Available at: https://mepc.org/speeches/shifting-sands-us-saudi-arabian-relationship [Ac-
cessed 19 Dec. 2019].
25
Kirkpatrick, D. (2018). Saudi Arabia and U.S. Clash Over Khashoggi Case. [online] Nytimes.com. Available
at: https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/14/world/middleeast/us-saudi-arabia-khashoggi.html [Accessed 19 Dec.
2019].
13Conference Guide BIMUN 2020
2.1.2. Soviet/Russian Influence
Soviet influence in the Middle East peaked in the mid-20th century, being allied with
countries such as Egypt and Iraq26. This influence, however, declined as the Soviet Union was
unwilling to confront the US in the area, and their economical state was not able to compete
with the West.
Syria: Russia’s current influence in the Middle East can be traced back to 2015, when
after many much less successful attempts to do so, following an official request for military
aid, Russia managed to provide President Bashar al-Assad with necessary support in facing
rebels27. At the end of 2017, the Russian government announced that its troops would be per-
manently placed in Syria. Since then, Russia has continually aided Syria, both in the form of
helping to launch peace talks, as well as providing air support in order to retake de-escalation
zones in the country.
Iran: The two countries share an extensive history of geographic, economic and so-
cio-political interaction. The Soviet Union was the first state to recognize the Islamic Repub-
lic of Iran. Under Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the country had a West-friendly government -
this, however, changed with the Iranian Revolution in 1979, as it was meant to help the coun-
try break away from powers such as the US or the UK, as well as to oppose the Soviet Un-
ion28. With the fall of the USSR, diplomatic and commercial relations saw an immediate in-
crease29, and by the mid-1990, Russia had agreed to continue work on Iran’s nuclear pro-
gram30.
Currently, they act as economic partners, owing to sanctions by much of the Western
world, with Iran’s wealth in oil being especially prominent. Iran has also been known to pur-
chase some weapon systems from Russia and is the only Western Asian country to have been
invited into the Collective Security Treaty Organization. In turn, Russia has received help
from Iran with its drone and other military technologies. With tensions rising between the US
and Iran, the latter is being forced into an even closer alliance with Russia, as well as China.
26
Rumer, E. (2019). Russia, the Indispensable Nation in the Middle East. [online] Foreign Affairs. Available at:
https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/middle-east/2019-10-31/russia-indispensable-nation-middle-east [Ac-
cessed 19 Dec. 2019].
27
Russell, M. (2018). Russia in the Middle East. [online] Europarl.europa.eu. Available at:
https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2018/630293/EPRS_BRI(2018)630293_EN.pdf [Ac-
cessed 19 Dec. 2019].
28
Afary, J. (n.d.). Iranian Revolution | Causes, Effects, & Facts. [online] Encyclopedia Britannica. Available at:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Iranian-Revolution [Accessed 19 Dec. 2019].
29
Pieper, M. (2012). Russia and Iran: Strategic Partners or Competing Regional Hegemons? A Critical Analysis
of Russian-Iranian Relations in the Post-Soviet Space. [online] Inquiries Journal. Available at:
http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/631/russia-and-iran-strategic-partners-or-competing-regional-
hegemons-a-critical-analysis-of-russian-iranian-relations-in-the-post-soviet-space [Accessed 19 Dec. 2019].
30
Aras, B. and Ozbay, F. (2019). Middle East Policy, Vol. XIII, No. 4, Winter 2006. [online] Sam.gov.tr. Availa-
ble at: http://sam.gov.tr/wp-content/pdfs/13.pdf [Accessed 19 Dec. 2019].
14Conference Guide BIMUN 2020
2.1.3. Chinese Influence
While China may be considered a newcomer to the region, its ever-growing economic
presence has forced it to become more involved in Middle Eastern affairs. China seems to be
becoming a major actor in the area, both in an economic and political sense. Rather than
building relations with the region as a whole, China is attempting to deepen its connections to
individual countries, as it seeks various things from each partner, and prefers to keep the dis-
tinction between its bilateral ties31.
Their relationship is based on the Belt and Road Initiative – started in 2013, which
would put China in the centre of global trade networks32, and increase its influence over the
Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region33. Almost half of China’s crude oil supply
originates in the area, and the Middle East plays an important role in the BRI as a crossroads
for sea lanes and trade routes. The trade relationships are relatively balanced, as China sells
back a considerable amount to these states, they are, however, less even in countries without
as large a wealth of energy34.
Although at first glance, China’s intentions may seem to stem purely from economic
reasons, there are strategic interests in play as well. Most prominent in the case of Iran, the
goal is to reduce the US’s military presence in the Western Pacific and lending assets to the
western Indian Ocean, thus splitting the US from its allies and making for a more bilaterally
organized system with China as the leader.
2.2. Sunni-Shia Division
The division between
Sunnis and Shias dates back to
nearly 1400 years. In 632, right
after the death of the Islamic
prophet, Mohammed, conflicts
arose around his succession.
Should only Mohammed’s blood
relations reign or rather shall the
leader be chosen by a democratic
consensus? The arguments essen-
tially boil down to the fact that
31
Alterman, J. (2019). China’s Middle East Model. [online] Csis.org. Available at:
https://www.csis.org/analysis/chinas-middle-east-model [Accessed 19 Dec. 2019].
32
Lons, C., Fulton, J., Sun, D. and Al-Tamimi, N. (2019). China’s great game in the Middle East. [online]
ECFR.EU. Available at: https://www.ecfr.eu/publications/summary/china_great_game_middle_east [Accessed
19 Dec. 2019].
33
Fulton, J. (2019). China's Changing Role in the Middle East. [online] Atlanticcouncil.org. Available at:
https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Chinas_Changing_Role_in_the_Middle_East.pdf
[Accessed 19 Dec. 2019].
34
Fulton, J. (2019). China Is Becoming a Major Player in the Middle East. [online] Brink – The Edge of Risk.
Available at: https://www.brinknews.com/china-is-becoming-a-major-player-in-the-middle-east/ [Accessed 19
Dec. 2019].
15Conference Guide BIMUN 2020
Sunnis believe the Prophets’ trusted friend and advisor Abu Bakr was the first rightful leader
of Muslims or “caliph”, while Shias believe that Mohammed’s cousin and son-in-law Ali was
chosen by Allah to hold the title. This conflict led to the Islamic schism35.
The schism resulted in the development of different cultures, doctrines and schools of
thought in the region. While both religions have moderate and extremist followers, Sunnis are
mostly focused on the power of God in the physical world, while Shias look more towards the
rewards of afterlife. Sunnis and Shias have also separated geographically. There is a Shia ma-
jority and dominance in Iraq, Iran and in Lebanon. Syria is dominated by a small Shia sect,
the Alawites who make up roughly 15% of the country. Sunnis, who give nearly 90 % of the
Islamic population, are in a majority and dominate everywhere else36.
2.3. The Saudi – Iranian Conflict
The Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict is an ongoing struggle for influence in
the Middle East and surrounding regions between the Islamic Republic of Iran and
the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Iran is a theocracy run by orthodox ayatollahs, while Saudi
Arabia is a country based on extremist Wahhabi Islam, a strand more extreme then the Af-
ghan Taliban. The conflict is waged on multiple levels over geopolitical, economic, and sec-
tarian influence in pursuit of regional hegemony37. The rivalry today is primarily a political
and economic struggle exacerbated by religious differences, and sectarianism in the region is
exploited by both countries for geopolitical purposes. The main goal of both sides is to win
more influence in the region. At present, the Saudi leadership finds Iran especially threaten-
ing, because of the successful intervention of the Iranians in the Syrian civil war. Both Iran
and Saudi Arabia are also instrumentalizing religion in the conflict, therefore re-enforcing the
religious differences between the two states.
In this conflict, the US and its regional ally Israel support Saudi Arabia, while Russia
and China support Iran. The two states have provided varying degrees of support to opposing
sides in conflicts, including the civil wars in Syria, Yemen, and Iraq. The rivalry also extends
to disputes in Bahrain, Lebanon, Qatar, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nigeria, and Morocco. This
issue is especially significant, due to its striking similarities with the Cold War between the
USA and the Soviet Union. The two powers do not want to wage direct wars against each
other, therefore, they support smaller states in local conflicts to gain political advantage. Also,
Iran is trying to develop its own nuclear weapons, which would immediately upset the bal-
ance between the two opposing powers and would also infringe the Non-proliferation of Nu-
clear Weapons Treaty (NPT)38 signed in 1968 by the major powers of the world. Saudi Arabia
35
"Sunnis And Shia: Islam's Ancient Schism". 2019. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-
16047709.
36
"Distribution of Sunni And Shia Muslim Population in The Middle East". 2019. European Parliamentary
Research Service Blog. https://epthinktank.eu/2016/01/12/the-wider-middle-east-between-iran-and-saudi-
arabia/sunni_and_shia/.
37
Marcus, Jonathan. 2019. "Why Saudi Arabia And Iran Are Bitter Rivals". BBC News.
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-42008809.
38
Treaty On The Non-Proliferation Of Nuclear Weapons. 1970. International Atomic Energy Agency.
16Conference Guide BIMUN 2020
in turn has attempted to acquire nuclear weapons of its own and build alliances with countries
that already possess nuclear weaponry. However, Saudi Arabia cannot take hazardous steps,
while Donald Trump, President of the United States has not unquestionably clarified his coun-
try’s goals in the region.
As mentioned before, Iran is largely Shia Muslim, while Saudi Arabia sees itself as the
leading Sunni Muslim power. Iran also wages a proxy war against Israel through its support to
Hamas and Hezbollah, Shia terrorist groups located in Gaza and Lebanon, and wages several
proxy wars on Saudi Arabia through its support to the Houthi insurgents in Yemen fighting
Saudi occupants, through support to Shia separatists in the Al-Hasa and Qatif region of Saudi
Arabia.
Saudi Arabia in turn supports the People's Mujahedin of Iran, a long existing rebel
Iranian group, to Kurdish insurgents in Iraqi Kurdistan active in Iran.
2.4. The Kurdish question
2.4.1. History
Kurds are regarded as39 an Indo-European ethnic group originating from Mesopota-
mia, the earliest evidence of their distinct culture dates back to 8000 years ago. They were
originally settled on the Zagros Mountains and had a nomadic culture with outstandingly de-
veloped agricultural and farming techniques40.
According to archaeological finds, in 621 BC Erbil, the capital of the Kurdistan Re-
gion became part of the Babylonian Empire, which was followed by the invasion of the an-
cient Persian Empire 70 years later. 600-700 AD, the region was conquered by Arabs who
converted many to Islam. In the following 700 years, the region was ruled by semi-
independent monarchical feudatories and became the subject of rivalry between the Persian
and the Ottoman empires. After the Turkish have conquered the region, the principalities were
granted a wide range of autonomies. The collapse of the last sovereign Kurdish principality
happened in 1847.
In the 20th century, a Kurdish nationalist movement emerged, partially as a response
to Turkish nationalism and assimilationism41 after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, which
threatened the ethnic group with marginalization. Following that, Turkey transformed its poli-
cy and Kurds gained office, initiating negotiations with the government. However, this has
radically changed after the 1960 Turkish coup d’état, when a renewed nationalist movement
rose against feudal authorities. Later on, the PKK or Kurdistan Workers Party was formed as
a result of this Marxism-influenced movement.
39
A. Izady, P. (2019). Origin of The Kurds – KURDISTANICA. [online] Kurdistanica.com. Available at:
http://kurdistanica.com/origin-of-the-kurds/ [Accessed 17 Dec. 2019].
40
Bois, T. (1966). The Kurds. Beirut: Khayats, pp.9-15. “It was probably one of those centres where for the first
time man cultivated different varieties of wheat and barley”
41
Zeydanlıoğlu, W. (2012). Turkey's Kurdish language policy. International Journal of the Sociology of Lan-
guage, 2012(217), p.100.
17Conference Guide BIMUN 2020
2.4.2. The question of an independent Kurdish state
Ever since the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920, the Kurdish have been seeking autonomy at
all costs42. The treaty idealized a very promising future for the people of the region: with the
partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, an autonomous Kurdish state would have been created,
outlined by ethnic borders. But in the narrative43 of the Turkish nationalist movements of the
time, this region's creation would only have meant another loss of 'Turkish territory', therefore
they insisted on keeping it, in order to unify their nation. So whilst this nation-state was never
actually established, the idea of autonomy stuck in Kurdish culture and their political views.
The nation went through numerous difficulties in the 20th century, such as having
their revolts crushed44 multiple times in the 1920's and the 1930's45, getting their negotiations
for integration into the Turkish society and political decision-making halted, as well as having
their largest political organization, the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) considered as a ter-
rorist force in Turkey46.
After the Gulf war's end in Iraq, the Kurdish minority managed to gain the title of au-
tonomous region for a small area in Northern Iraq. The newly formed Kurdistan Region has
held its first election in 1992, forming a democratic parliamentary republic within the home
country.
In more recent history after the successful anti-ISIS operations of the Kurdish-led mi-
litia (the Syrian Democratic Forces), the current president of the United States, Donald Trump
withdrew the American military from Syria, practically rendering the Kurdish forces in Syria
defenseless against the Turkish government. Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, president of Turkey has
ordered to invade the areas controlled by the Yekîneyên Parastina Gel (People’s Protection
Units) after Trump’s move, because the YPG is considered a separatist, therefore anti-Turkish
organization in Turkey.
According to the foreign ministry of Russia, “Moscow respects the national aspira-
tions of the Kurds”, and they believe that “All disputes that may exist between the Iraqi feder-
al government and the government of the Autonomous Kurdish Region can and should be
solved through constructive and respectful dialogue, with a view to devising a mutually ac-
ceptable formula of coexistence within a single Iraqi state.” According to these claims Rus-
42
Stansfield, Gareth R. V. 2003. Iraqi Kurdistan. “For most of the twentieth century, the Kurds have fought to
obtain greater autonomy within their different states, while retaining the ultimate vision of an independent Kur-
distan.”
43
Çağaptay, Soner. 2002. "Reconfiguring The Turkish Nation In The 1930S". Nationalism And Ethnic Politics 8
(2): 67-82. doi:10.1080/13537110208428662. “An emphasis on Turkey (Anatolia and Thrace)
became a visible tendency within Turkish nationalism”
44
O'Ballance, Edgar. 1996. The Kurdish Struggle, 1920-94. Houndmills, Basingstoke [England]: Macmillan
Press. "Ataturk responded swiftly and with a very heavy hand"
45
O'Ballance, Edgar. 1996. The Kurdish Struggle, 1920-94. Houndmills, Basingstoke [England]: Macmillan
Press. “The Turkish government was able to launch a successful offensive against them”
46
Unal, Mustafa Cosar. 2012. "The Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) And Popular Support: Counterterrorism
Towards An Insurgency Nature". Small Wars & Insurgencies 23 (3): 432-455.
doi:10.1080/09592318.2012.661610. “Turkey has conceptualized the issue solely as a problem of terrorism”
18Conference Guide BIMUN 2020
sia’s policy is rather anti-interventionist, which seems to contradict their territorialist ap-
proach to the Middle East.
2.4.3. Geopolitical Factors
Kurdish peoples are ethnic groups native to an area often referred to as 'Kurdistan'.
The region is located in the Middle East around the Zagros Mountains, and consists of territo-
ries belonging to the four countries with the largest number of Kurdish citizens: Turkey, Iraq,
Iran and Syria. In addition, there are Kurdish diaspora communities outside the said region,
mainly in western Turkish cities, and also an estimated 1.2-1.5 million Kurds are known to be
living in Germany. Altogether around 30-45 million people worldwide are counted as ethnic
Kurds.
Kurds use a wide variety of languages, with most of them speaking both the language
of the country of their origin, as well as one of the Kurdish languages. The latter are the
Northern Kurdish Kurmanji (spoken by the largest amount of people), Sorani (Central-
Kurdish), and Southern Kurdish (Pelawani or Xwarig). A group of ethnic Kurds in Kurdistan
speak a type of Zaza-
Gorani languages.
Kurdish people
practice a variety of reli-
gions, the most important
one of them being the Shafi
school of Sunni Islam. The
rest of the Kurds are very
diverse in their choice of
religion, with a large por-
tion of them being Shia
muslims and Alveists, while
some of them practise
Yarsanism, Yazidism, Zo-
roastrianism or even Chris-
tianity.
Being a mainly Is-
lamic region, their religion provides the foundation of culture for Kurdish peoples. They have
inherited a lot from historical Kurdish states, but having developed inside, or sometimes side-
by-side with the Ottoman and the Persian Empire, they share a lot of traditions and habits
with their successor states.
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