Multilinguismo e ricerca dello standard nell'Inghilterra medievale - Giovanni Iamartino (Milano) - UniBg

Multilinguismo e ricerca dello standard
       nell’Inghilterra medievale

     Giovanni Iamartino (Milano)
            Bergamo, 10.12.2018
                     hj

                                          1

(2) Piano di lavoro e prospettiva
• dall’Old English al Middle English all’(Early) Modern English;
• più fatti storico-culturali che linguistici;
• prospettiva di sociolinguistica storica;
• contatto interlinguistico e multilinguismo;
• la ricerca di uno standard linguistico attraverso la variazione:
(a) diacronica
(b) diatopica
(c) diastratica
(d) diafasica o diatipica
(e) diamesica
    con diversa disponibilità di dati e rilevanza;
• da frammentazione a standard a ri-frammentazione.
• Filologia germanica e storia della lingua inglese                  2

(3) Old English: le radici
• Old English o Anglo-Saxon: ca. 449 – ca. 1066 dC

• Fin dall’inizio complessità linguistica:
(a) Angli, Sassoni e Juti
(b) sostrato celtico

• Ma anche e poi:
(c) influsso latino
(d) influsso scandinavo (invasioni)

• Predominio regno Sassone Occidentale e standard
  linguistico
                                                     3

(4) Angli, Sassoni e Juti sull’isola

                                       4

(5) Anglo-Saxon kingdoms

• The Heptarchy: Wessex, Sussex, Essex, Kent, East Anglia, Mercia,
           Nortumberland

• Political fragmentation 
  Linguistic fragmentation

• Predominance:
  Northumbria (VII c.),
  Mercia (VIII c.),
  Wessex (IX-XI c.)

                                                                 5

(6) i Celti in Europa

                        6

(7) – Anglosassoni e Celti

                             7

(8) (Old) English as a Germanic language

• Alphabet: runes, Latin alphabet
• Phonology: consonants continue
  largely unchanged, vowels change a lot
• Morphosyntax: flexional system
  simplified, more rigid word order,
  development of function words
• Vocabulary: basic lexis of Germanic
  origin
                                                 8

(9) OE - ALPHABET
•

                 •   Latin alphabet
                 •   Rune: Þ
                 •   Irish alphabet: đ
                 •   æ
                                     9

(10) OE - PHONOLOGY

• CONSONANTS:
- substantial changes from Germanic to OE
- large continuity from Old to Present-Day English

• VOWELS:
- large continuity from Germanic to OE
- substantial changes from Old to Present-Day English

• EXAMPLES (English vs German):
- modor/mother vs mutter, neaht/night vs nacht, deop/deep vs
  tief, etan/eat vs essen, muƥ/mouth vs mund
- stan/stone vs stein, beam/beam vs baum, cyning/king vs könig
                                                            10

(11) OE – MORPHOSYNTAX
                         OE as a synthetic language 
             rich morphology, no auxiliary verbs, no fixed word order

NOUN DECLENSION                 Singular                        Plural
- STAN
Nominative                      STAN                            STANAS
Genitive                        STANES                          STANA
Dative                          STANE                           STANUM
Accusative                      STAN                            STANAS

             STRONG         Infinitive     Preterite,   Preterite,       Past
             VERBS                         singular     plural           participle

             1st class      RIDAN          RAD          RIDON            RIDEN

             3rd class A    HELPAN         HEALP        HULPON           HOLPEN

                                                                                      11

(12) OE - LEXIS
•   Marked Germanic character for: (a) Germanic roots of English; (b) limited contacts
    with other languages during the Anglo-Saxon period; (c) wordformation strategies:
    ‘internal’ and ‘mixed’ methods, rather than ‘external’ method’
•   Basic lexis: eorÞe, wæter, sæ, land, fæder, modor, treow, hyll, fot, hand, muÞ, toÞ
•   Anglo-Saxons invaders occupy the land:
-   walas (foreign, enemy, Roman)  Wales, Cornwall, welsh, Walsh, Wallace, walnut
-   Engla-land; Ham (village; ted. Heim); Tun (enclosure, town; ted. Zaun, hedge); burh
    (fortified town)  Burton (burh-tun), -byrig (Salisbury, Newbury, Canterbury)
-   -ing (= son of)  OE cyning; -ingas (= descendants of)  Reading, Worthing, Barking,
    Hastings; Buckingham, Nottingham, Birmingham
-   Lat. via strata  OE stræt, stret  Stratford, Streatham; OE ford (cfr ted furt) 
    Shalford, Bradford, Stamford, Oxford
•   Derivation: unriht, andswarian, ofercuman, wiÞstandan; hunta, synful, luflic,
    cyningdom
•   Composition: widsæ, hlaford ( OE hælan; *haliga > OE halga; OE hail

                                                                                    12

(13) OE mod

• OE mod (n.)= heart, mind, spirit, boldness, courage, pride, haughiness
  (mood: a mental state)
• Modig (adj.) = spirited, bold, high-minded, arrogant, stiff-necked
• Modiglic (adj.) = magnanimous
• Modiglice (adv.) = boldly, proudly
• Modignes (n.) = magnanimity, pride
• Modigian (v.) = to bear oneself proudly, to rage, to be indignant
• Gemodod (adj.) = disposed, minded
• Modfull (adj.) = haughty
• Modleas (adj.) = spiritless
• Modcræft (n.) = intelligence
• Glædmodness (n.) = kindness
• Modcaru (n.) = sorrow
• Ofermod (n.) = pride
                                                                       13

(14) Prestiti dal sostrato celtico

• Prestiti celtici continentali alle lingue germaniche:
- IE *reg- > Celt. ric > OE rice (cfr. German Reich)  ModE bishopric
        cfr. ME rich (< OF riche)
- Celt. dun  OE dun  down  The Downes; OE of dune  down
  cfr It. duna; cfr Bredon, Breedon, Breedon on the Hill (celt. *bre(g)-)

• Prestiti celtici insulari dopo l’invasione anglosassone:
- brock (= badger), dun (= dark grey)
- toponimi: Celt. isca (= acqua)  fiumi Axe, Exe (Exeter), Esk, Usk;
  stour (= forte corrente, cfr. It Stura); Avon (fiume);
  Celt. Venta (città mercato)  Venta Belgarum  OE Wintonceaster
         Winchester;
  Celt. *canto- (confine, limite)  Kent
                                                                    14

(15) – Influsso del latino

• Tre diverse fonti:

A) Romani  tribù germaniche (ante 450 AD)
B) Romani sull’isola (55-410 AD)  Celti (450-600 AD) 
   Anglosassoni
C) Evangelizzatori latini  OE (dopo 600 AD)

• Diversi momenti, diversi tipi di impatto, diverse aree
  semantiche

                                                           15

(16) Influsso latino (tipo A):
                  Romani  tribù germaniche (300-450 dC)
1) Circa 400 prestiti dal latino alle lingue germaniche
2) .

            GREEK        LATIN       *GERM / OE         ModE     GERMAN
            kuriakon                      cirice         church    Kirche
            diabolos      diabolus        deofol          devil     Teufel
             aggelos       angelus         engel          angel     Engel
          presbyteros presbyter,          preost          priest   Priester
                       *prester
3) lat. strata  OE stræt, stret (cfr ted Strasse);
   lat. caupo (= oste)  ceapman (Chapman, German Kaufmann), cheap, Cheapside,
                                 Cheapstow;
  lat. moneta  OE mynet, ModE mint (G. Műnze) (later OF moneie  ME moneye, money)
  lat. caseus  OE cese, ModE cheese
  lat. vinum  OE win, ModE wine
  lat. menta  OE minte, Mod E mint
  lat. vallum  OE weall, ModE wall
   lat. discus  OE disc, ModE dish
                                                                                      16

(17) Roman Britannia 1

• Caesar’s raids in 55 and 54 BC
• Roman conquest under Claudius, 43 AD
• No definite control over
  Caledonia in the north.

                                         17

(18) Roman Britannia 2

• 40.000 people
• Streets, towns, schools, administration
• 5 main towns: Verulamium (St. Albans), Gloucester, Colchester,
  Lincoln, York
• Latin as 2nd language
• Use of Latin strengthened by
  Celts’ christianization
  (314 AD: Council of Arles,
   attended by bishops from
   London, York and Colchester)
• ca 410 AD: Roman troops
  depart from Britain
                                                               18

(19) Influsso latino (tipo B):
                    Romani  Celti  Anglosassoni
• Circa 600 parole dai Romani ai Celti, poche dai Celti agli
  Anglosassoni

• Toponimi:
-   Lat. castra (= accampamento militare, poi villaggio fortificato)  OE ceaster,
    cæster; oggi in circa 70 toponimi: Chester, Winchester, Manchester, Chichister;
    Gloucester, Leicester, Worcester; Lancaster, Doncaster

-   Latin vicus (= villagio)  OE wic; today in Wick, Wike, Longwick, Cowick,
    Gatwick, Butterwick, Chiswick, Honeywick, Bewick

-   Latin portus  OE port

-   Latin turris  OE torr
                                                                                 19

(20) Influsso latino (tipo C):
           Evangelizzazione  Anglosassoni (dopo 600 AD)
• Riprestiti: lat. tabula  eOE tæfl; lOE tabele, tablu  ModE table

• Cultura: accent, (e)pistol, grammatic, magister, paper ( papyrus), philosoph,
  scol, studian

• Religione: altar altar, credo creda (creed), discipul, mæsse (mass), martir, non
  (noon,  nona hora), passion

• Vari: lat. expendere  to spend, organum  organ, cocus (lat. class. coquus) 
  coc (ModE cook), rosa  rose, tigris  tiger, camelus  camel

• Calchi:
a) strutturali: god-spell per ev-angelium, ut-gonge per exodus, Halig Gast per
   Sanctus Spiritus;
b) semantici: Þrowung (=sofferenza) for passio, feond (=nemico) for diabolus, cniht
   (=ragazzo, servitore) per discipulus, witega (=saggio) per propheta         20

(21) – espansionismo scandinavo

                                  21

(22) - Danelaw

                 22

(23) - Scandinavian loanwords 1

• Peculiar features:
       (a) immigration of whole tribes/peoples
       (b) military phase followed by mixing of populations
       (c) common ancestry (i.e. Germanic roots) between OE and Old Norse
       (d) Old Norse no written language

• Result: deep, long-lasting, and long-dated influence

• Typology of Old Norse alloglot influence:
       (a) semantic loans
       (b) phonological loans
       (c) loanwords
       (d) place-names

                                                                            23

(242) Scandinavian loanwords 2
(a) Semantic loans:
- OE dream (=music, joy, celebration)  ON draumr  ME drem, dream (=dream)
- OE eorl (=warrior, man)  ON jarl  ME earl (=earl, count)
(b) Phonological loans:
- germ* /k/, /g/, /sk/  ON /k/, /g/, /sk/; OE /t∫/, /j/ o /dȝ/, /∫/
- doublets: cherl/carl, yeten/geten, ȝive/give, yift/gift, ei/egg, schirt/skirt
- productive model: ME schateren  ME scateren (by analogy)
- some doublets still in use: shatter / scatter, shirt / skirt, church / kirk, Yeats / gate
(c) Loanwords:
- New addition to the English lexical store: feolaga (fellow), utlaga (outlaw), wrang (wrong),
     hæfen (haven), scoru (score), snearu (snare), husbonda (husband); anger, bull, hap (
     happy, happen), skie (sky), wing, casten (cast), gapen (gape), hitten (hit), liften (lift), till;
     they-their-them
- Existing OE words replaced: cnif (knife, OE seax), lagu (law, OE æw), rot (root, OE wyrt),
     windowe (window, OE eag-ƥyrel), calle (call, OE cleopian), take (take, OE niman)
- ON loans and OE words coexist ( semantic change): ON leg vs OE sceanca (shank), ON
     skin vs OE fell, hyd (fell, hide), ON deien (die) vs OE steorfan (starve)
(d) Place-names: (next slide)
                                                                                                  24

(25) Scandinavian loanwords 3
(d) Place-names:

• -by (= inhabited place): (ca 700 place-names!)
   cfr OE buan, German Bau/bauen
   ModE by-law: Rugby < rok (rook) + by;
   Derby < deor (deer) + by;
   Ashby, Thornby, Willoughby; Ormesby, Grimsby

• -ƥorp (= small village dependent on
   a bigger village) – cfr German Dorf:
   Kirkthorp, Canonthorp, Monkthorp; Northorp

• -ƥwaite (= clearing, i.e. open space in a forest;
   grassland surrounded with a hedge):
   Thwaite, Applethwaite, Kirkthwaite, Braithwaite

• -toft (= farm): Toft, Langtoft, Moortoft
                                                        25

(26) – King Alfred and West Saxon standard language

                                                      26

(27) Old English  Modern English?

                                • name,
                                  we
                                • fader
                                • rice
                                • ƥu
                                • hlaf
                                • yfele

                                          27

(28) La Conquista Normanna (1066)
         e le sue conseguenze (socio)linguistiche

• Conseguenze sociali: una nuova élite al potere

• Conseguenze linguistiche:
a) nessuna diretta, ma presenza anglo-normanno

a) conseguenze indirette: ridotta continuità di tradizione
   scritta OE; abbandono di standard OE; evidenziazione
   mutamenti in corso

                                                         28

(29) - Arazzo di Bayeux
    .   .

    .   .

                      29

Cleric, Knight, and Workman (BL, Ms. Sloane 2435, f.85)
                                                          30

(31)
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
Parker ms f.32a
year 1070

  .

                        31

(32) - The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Peterborough Ms. for 1137
Ðis gære for þe king Stephne ofer sæ to      This year went the King Stephen over sea
Normandi; & ther wes underfangen,            to Normandy, and there was received;
forþi ðat hi uuenden ðat he sculde ben       for that they concluded that he should
alsuic alse the eom wes, & for he hadde      be all such as the uncle was; and because
get his tresor; ac he todeld it & scatered   he had got his treasure: but he dealed it
sotlice. Micel hadde Henri king gadered      out, and scattered it foolishly. Much had
gold & syluer, & na god ne dide me for       King Henry gathered, gold and silver, but
his saule tharof. Þa þe king Stephne to      no good did men for his soul thereof.
Englaland com, þa macod he his gadering      When the King Stephen came to England,
æt Oxeneford. & þar he nam þe biscop         he held his council at Oxford; where he
Roger of Serebyri, & Alexander biscop of     seized the Bishop Roger of Sarum, and
Lincol & te canceler Roger, hise neues, &    Alexander, Bishop of Lincoln, and the
dide ælle in prisun til hi iafen up here     chancellor Roger, his nephew; and threw
castles. Þa the suikes undergæton ðat he     all into prison till they gave up their
milde man was & softe & god, & na            castles. When the traitors understood
iustise ne dide, þa diden hi alle wunder.    that he was a mild man, and soft, and
Hi hadden him manred maked & athes           good, and no justice executed, then did
suoren, ac hi nan treuthe ne heolden.        they all wonder. They had done him
Alle he wæron forsworen & here               homage, and sworn oaths, but they no
treothes forloren, for æuric rice man his    truth maintained. They were all
castles makede & agænes him heolden;         forsworn, and forgetful of their troth; for
& fylden þe land ful of castles.             every rich man built his castles, which
                                             they held against him: and they filled the
• Blue: remaining OE features                land full of castles.
• Red: innovations of French origin                                                    32 32

3333

(34) - Multilingualism in medieval England

•   Celtic languages  Cornwall, Wales, Scotland, Ireland
•   Scandinavian languages  former Danelaw region
•   Anglo-Norman or Norman French
•   Latin
•   English

                                                       Anglo-Norman

                  top
                classes

                                                            Anglo-Norman
                 merchants, bailiffs,

                                                            English and
                  supervisors, etc

     Lower and middle classes
                                                        English
                                                                           3434

(35) Il Late Middle English e la ricerca dello standard
• Regni di Henry IV (1399-1413) , Henry V (1413-22), Henry VI (1422-
   61)
• Diffusione dell’inglese: Paston Letters, petizioni al Parlamento
• Gli standard:
a) Dialetto wycliffita: John Wycliffe (c.1330-84), Lollardi, trad. Bibbia,
    opere religiose in area East Midlands
b) First London Standard (1300-50): Essex, Greater London
c) Second London Standard (1350-1400): Chaucer, Hoccleve,
    documenti legali, carattere misto
d) Chancery Standard (dal 1430): da latino e francese a inglese

• William Caxton (Westminster, 1476)

• Great Vowel Shift e altri fenomeni fonologici
                                                                       35

(36) - John Wyclif,
Bible (1382-8)
.

                      36

(37) - Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales

                           .

.

                                                    37 37

(38) Incoronazione di Henry IV, 1399
    (da ms Cronache di Froissart)

                                       38

(39) - William Caxton, Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye
                     (Bruges, 1471)

                                                            39 39

(40) Paston Letters: Margery Brews, Letter to a lover (1477)

                                                               40

(41) Great Vowel Shift

                         41

(42) Early Modern English phonology

                                      42