Women and the Future of the Digital Economy in Asia - Decent work for all? Maria Dolores Picot and Kerstin Spath
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Women and the Future of the Digital Economy in Asia Decent work for all? Maria Dolores Picot and Kerstin Spath
Women and the Future
of the Digital Economy in Asia
Decent work for all?
May 2020Contents List of Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... VI Foreword .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... VII Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... VIII Global and regional developments and trends ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1 Going digital ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3 Women and the future of work: Challenges and opportunities ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5 Gender digital divide .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6 Reskilling and upskilling ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8 Women in STEM—Education and employment ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10 Feminist perspectives on the future of work in Asia ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 12 Why is a feminist perspective necessary? .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 12 What are the main challenges for women from an economic, social and societal justice perspective of the digital economy in Asia? ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 13 Reality check: Advocates for women’s right to decent work in the digital economy in Asia ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17 Concluding remarks and outlook ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 19 Actionable recommendations .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 20 Endnotes .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 21 Bibliography .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
VI
List of Abbreviations
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations NGO non-government organization
ICT information and communication STEM science, technology, engineering
technology and mathematics
ILO International Labour OrganizationVII
Foreword
Despite economic growth and declining poverty levels narratives for advancing social justice. Among the most
across Asia, inequality continues to increase with large innovative platforms is its Women and the Future of
groups of society remaining socially and economically Work in Asia Project.
marginalized.
Although the future of work is debated worldwide,
Women in Asia continue to experience massive structural marginalized voices are missing from the conversation,
disadvantages, from early childhood education through and perspectives, particularly from the Global South, are
their retirement—if they are even able to work—and into underrepresented. FES aims to expose these blind spots by
their old age. On the heels of all the economic progress gathering women’s perspectives and voices from developing
now comes rapid technological transformation, which is countries. By developing inclusive conceptual ideas and
altering the nature of work in ways that offer multiple policy recommendations, we hope to mitigate the risks and
opportunities as well as new risks for social groups across the rising inequalities in the future world of work.
the Global South.
The FES Asia feminism project has singled out care work
Technological innovation, digitalization and automation and the digital economy as core issues requiring further
form the core of the developments changing the future research and analyses from women’s perspectives. The
of work and disrupting the way people live and work project’s two working groups consisting of feminist
in many ways. At the same time, the digital divides and researchers from nine countries in Asia worked respectively
skills gaps are determining how successfully individuals on the two core issues. Their insights contributed to the
can cope with the new challenges. On those scores, two papers. This paper focuses on the digital economy
women start off generally at a disadvantage. Women in while a second paper looks at women and care work in
Asia have less access to a telephone, let alone a laptop Asia, both offering narratives on the region’s situation
and the Internet. They have fewer, if any, opportunities and policies and concluding with thought-provoking
to gain the new skills needed to thrive in jobs created in recommendations.
the Fourth Industrial Revolution. For women and men to
fully participate in the digital economy, it is important to FES and its partners aim to further promote gender
ensure their meaningful access and participation. equality in the world of work, with emphasis on
enhancing women’s participation in public and political
The goal for us in development cooperation work is life and promoting decent work for all persons through
to find socially just and gender-equal responses to gender-just and human-centric economic models.
these challenges. Technological developments need
to be accompanied by appropriate policies. If existing We extend our sincere gratitude to Maria Dolores Picot
socioeconomic inequalities and injustices are ignored, and Kerstin Spath, the authors of this paper on the digital
vulnerabilities and discrimination can be amplified. economy, for their thorough research. We hope that it
contributes to a fruitful discussion and provides valuable
Through our regional networks, Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung insights for future initiatives.
(FES) brings together diverse voices from social movements,
civil society organizations, trade unions, political parties Mirco Günther and Lea Gölnitz
and academia to jointly develop progressive ideas and FES Office for Regional Cooperation in AsiaVIII
Introduction
All around the world, the impact of the Fourth Industrial productive, better-paid work. If they cannot, they could
1
Revolution can be felt. New technologies, digitalization, experience a growing wage gap or risk having to leave
automation, artificial intelligence and machine learning the labour market (McKinsey and Company, 2019a, p. vi).
are changing the way we work at an unprecedented rate.
Supporting women to benefit from the advantages of
These developments, accompanied by the promise of the Fourth Industrial Revolution will mean greater female
economic growth, increased efficiencies, safety and labour force participation as well as positive impact on
convenience, raise questions about their impact on job the whole of society from a social as well as economic
security, skills needed for the future of work and, more point of view.
importantly, their implications for women.
New digital tools can be empowering and can support Decent work
a new source of inclusive global economic growth.
Technology adoption cannot be predicted, however, and According to the International Labour Organization
some technologies will help enhance workers’ productivity (ILO), “decent work” refers to work that is productive,
without replacing them as “job automation takes place delivers a fair income with security and social protection,
only where it is both technically and economically safeguards basic rights and offers equality of opportunity
feasible” (ADB and others, 2018, p. 49). and treatment. Decent work provides prospects for
personal development, the chance for recognition and the
The adoption of new digital technologies means that freedom to express concerns. Decent work also enables
women across Asia have access to a growing gig economy individuals to organize and participate in the decision-
that allows for flexible, independent work arrangements making that will affect their lives, and it promotes equal
via digital platforms. For instance, with Grab, a Singapore- opportunities and treatment for all women and men.
based ride-hailing mobile application that operates in
South-East Asia, the number of women driving ballooned The ILO developed its Decent Work Agenda, building on
by more than 230 per cent in 2017 (Grab, 2018). Yet, the four pillars: (i) job creation, (ii) rights at work, (iii) social
gig economy may be a reinforcer of gender stereotypes protection and social dialogue and (iv) gender equality,
and offer precarious working conditions for women due which is a cross-cutting theme.
to its high levels of informality.
Decent work is also one of the United Nations Sustainable
Nonetheless, there is no denying that the “new Development Goals (Goal 8: Decent work and economic
technologies will alter the composition of skills needed growth), which aims to “achieve fill and productive
by the workforce. It may also lead to more frequent employment and decent work for all women and men by
unemployment, lower wage growth—especially for the 2030” (UNDP, n.d.).
less skilled—and widening income inequality” (ADB and
others, 2018, p. 50). Women and girls are assumed to
be particularly affected, which is why it is imperative to While much has been written about the overall
focus on them. advantages that greater female participation in
the labour force means for women’s economic
While some progress has been made in the region empowerment, there are also intrinsic advantages for
towards gender equality at work, women already face the world economy. In a recent study, researchers with
additional challenges in the age of automation—with the the McKinsey Global Institute estimated that in Asia
skills and connectivity access they lack. Women and girls and the Pacific alone, promoting more women into full-
will need to be equipped with relevant knowledge in the time employment in higher-paid, higher-productivity
science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) sectors would add 4.5 trillion US dollars per year to the
fields and with skill sets to adapt and shift towards more region’s gross domestic product. This would constitute aIX
12 per cent increase over current figures (McKinsey and of work holds decent and sustainable work opportunities
Company, 2018). for all persons who want employment.
Greater female labour force participation does not always The paper set out to answer two questions: First, what
carry with it positive outcomes for women, however. It are the central discussions on the future development
can also relegate them to lower-paid occupations as well of the digital economy and its impact on society at the
as create a double burden of paid work and unpaid care global and regional levels? Second, what are the main
work. challenges for women from an economic, social justice
perspective around the digital economy in Asia?
The debates on the future of work and the impacts of
the digital economy only recently brought in an Asian After examining those questions, the paper looks at the
perspective. Despite the fact that the jobs that are most feminist perspectives around building a just and sustainable
vulnerable to automation are the low-paid, lower-skill digital economy as well as considering the relevant actors
jobs that women typically occupy, the consequences of working to ensure an equal gain from the technological
automation on their employment and the role of women advantages for societies as a whole. It considers the blind
in the region’s economic development are frequently spots in the current debate on the future of work with a
overlooked. This paper singles out that knowledge gap view to digitalization and automation. To conclude, the
and concentrates on the economic and social implications paper provides recommendations for policy-makers and
of automation and digitalization for women. In doing so, decision-makers to act upon when considering the risks
it discusses what should be done to ensure that the future and benefits of a digitalized future of work in Asia.Global and regional developments and trends · 1
Global and regional developments and trends
The global economy is being transformed due to the are just some of the risks that workers are looking at
adoption and rapid spread of digital technologies as the world moves further into the Fourth Industrial
and many new economic opportunities. The digital Revolution.
transformation taking place in the world is driven
by technologies, such as artificial intelligence, cloud The adoption of new technologies, especially artificial
computing, robotics, blockchain, big data analytics and intelligence, will “lead to a major shift in the labour
the Internet of things. market, including the disappearance of jobs in some
sectors and the creation of opportunities in others, on
These digital technologies have the power to increase a massive scale” (Bahia and Suardia, 2019, p. v). Retail,
productivity (especially among low-skilled workers) and manufacturing and health care are among the sectors
create innovation, transforming economies and impacting expected to be affected the most.
heavily on productivity, skills, income distribution, well-
being and the environment (OECD, 2017, p. 3). Moreover, a large amount of administrative or routine
tasks will be completed through digital tools, such
Contrary to the traditional North-South divide between as virtual assistants or artificial intelligence for the
the wealthy developed countries and the poorer registration of appointments or travel arrangements.
developing countries, the economic geography of the But workers are still going to spend more time
digital economy is “being led by one developed country, interacting with customers, patients, etc., which will
the United States, and one developing country from Asia, require interpersonal skills development and problem-
China” (UNCTAD, 2019, p. 3). solving skills.
There is a digital divide within Asia, however, that does
not allow all countries to fully participate in the digital Automation
economy. More than 70 per cent of people in Myanmar,
listed as one of the United Nations Least Developed “Automation” refers to the creation and application of
Countries, remain offline (IMF, 2018). technology to allow a process or a system to operate
mechanically, with minimal human involvement. It can
And there is also a rural-urban divide with mobile be partial, where certain functions are still performed
telephone Internet access within countries, especially in with human interaction; or total, whereby no human
the low- and middle-income countries of South Asia, involvement is necessary. Automation is already applied
where rural populations are 40 per cent less likely to in several industries, such as manufacturing, agriculture,
access the Internet through a mobile telephone than transport and defence. Some of its benefits include
urban populations (Bahia and Suardia, 2019, p. 8). reduced costs, increased productivity and availability and
improved quality. Job loss with its consequent loss of
Despite the digital divide, transformation of the economy income, job adaptation and the lack of necessary skills are
is shepherding progress for millions of citizens across some of the disadvantages of the automation process.
Asia, along with risks and challenges. The debate around
the future of work is filled with polarized opinions
between people who anticipate unlimited opportunities Across all countries, workers with a low level of
and people who predict significant job disruption (WEF, education are at the highest risk of displacement. Several
2016, p. v). international organizations, such as the International
Monetary Fund, the World Bank and the Organisation
Workers could lose their jobs to automation. And for Economic Co-operation and Development, agree
growing inequalities regarding access to the labour that women are at higher risk of displacement than
market as well as growing inequalities in the wage men because of the types of jobs they typically perform,
structure between low-paying and high-paying jobs which consist of routine, repetitive tasks, and because
Women and the Future of the Digital Economy in Asia2 · Global and regional developments and trends
of their low education level. This is particularly true for Some countries in the region have been working to prevent
developing countries, where routine jobs could be easily a shortage of human resources and human replacement
replaced with automation. by equipping their citizens with the required skills to adapt
in a changing world. For example, Singapore’s Ministry of
Manpower, together with the Ministry of Education and
What is the digital economy? other government agencies, launched SkillsFuture. It is
an “integrated system of education training to provide all
The term “digital economy” was coined by Don Tapscott in Singaporeans with the enhanced opportunities to acquire
1995. In his book, The Digital Economy: Promise and Peril greater skills proficiency, knowledge and expertise”
in the Age of Networked Intelligence, Tapscott showed (MOM, n.d.). Similarly, Thailand launched a Digital
how the Internet would change the way businesses are Government Academy to promote the development of
conducted. The digital economy refers to a broad range digital knowledge of government authorities and public
of economic activities that rely on digital computing officials (TDGA, n.d.).
technologies as factors of production. It consists of
various components, which include government, policy The World Economic Forum launched the ASEAN Digital
and regulation, the Internet, intellectual property rights, Skills Vision 2020 initiative in 2018, pledging to equip
human capital and knowledge workers as well as emerging 20 million workers with digital skills by 2020 and
technologies. While some countries in Asia are benefiting supported by some of the major tech companies, such as
from the current trend of digital transformation, developing Google, Microsoft and Cisco Systems (Di, 2018).
countries that lack access to basic Internet services and
infrastructure due to various socioeconomic factors are The impact that digital transformation is already having
still unable to take full advantage of the benefits offered on societies can be seen at different levels. It influences
by the adoption of the digital economy. human relationships and the way people interact with
each other as customers, employers and workers,
facilitating communication and inclusion. It also has an
impact in the way citizens interact with their government
Some of the emerging jobs include software and and the services that governments provide.
application developers, data analysts, scientists,
managing directors and chief executives. The jobs created Digital transformation also brings with it concerns for
by automation and those that will survive will likely be job stability as well as data privacy, security and the way
more demanding in terms of technical skills and cognitive tech companies could use this transformation to their
abilities than the jobs they replace. advantage.
Women and the Future of the Digital Economy in AsiaGoing digital · 3
Going digital
Not since the mechanization of labour in the beginning the significant challenges this digital transformation
of the Industrial Revolution have changes in the world presents if they are not able to upskill workers and
of work been so intensely debated. Government embrace technological innovations. Some countries in
officials and business managers globally are coming to the region have welcomed technological innovation
terms with the potential effects of artificial intelligence, and promoted digital transformation policies, such as
robotization, high-speed mobile networks, cloud China, which already leads in the e-commerce sector
computing and more. and is now starting to adopt digital technologies into its
manufacturing sector.
While some developed economies of the world
are increasingly benefiting from digitalization and
automation innovations, less developed countries are
lagging. This effect is also felt at the regional level and Super apps
within countries.
A “super app” is a mobile telephone application within
According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), an umbrella app that works as a marketplace of services
“technological progress and policies designed to foster and offerings, delivered via in-house technology and
innovation in the Asia-Pacific region seem to be creating through third-party integrations and acting as a “one-
jobs and incomes at a disproportionately higher level in stop shop”. While millions of people in Asia’s emerging
urban areas” (ILO, 2020, p. 13). markets do not have access to a personal computer, they
do have smartphones and use mobile phone applications
Asia has a fast-moving digital ecosystem. Much of this on a daily basis. Consequently, super apps have become
has been enabled by rising mobile telephone adoption a way of doing business. The two leading super apps
and consumers’ willingness to integrate mobile phone in Asia, WeChat and Alipay, originated in China. They
solutions into their daily lives. Although e-commerce or can be used for services ranging from e-payments and
Internet-banking penetration might be low in countries financial services to instant messaging and food delivery.
like Pakistan and Mongolia, social network penetration In addition, a leading super app in South-East Asia,
is generally high in Asia. East Asia even has the highest Gojek, began as a ride-hailing app in Indonesia and is
social media penetration rate in the world (We Are now offering services from fintech to massage services in
Social and Hootsuite, 2019), resulting in unique business countries across the region.
opportunities that take advantage of various social
media networks. The “super apps” Line and Zalo, which However, there is a question of whether the rise of
dominate the Thai and Vietnamese markets, respectively, these super apps will hamper online competition and
are two examples of such native platforms (ADB, 2018). innovation. Privacy is another concern because these
super apps have the ability to collect a lot of users’
Another example of the impact of digitalization and the data.
future of work in the region can be seen in India, where
digital and mobile telephone payments are creating
opportunity for small businesses and bringing convenience
to people without access to a bank account or a credit Other examples of the trends and impacts of digital
card. The initiative is supported by the government via transformation come from South-East Asia. In Singapore,
its Digital India programme, which aims to “transform the government launched the Smart Nation initiative. In
India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge doing so, the island State is setting the pace of innovation
economy” (Cashless India, n.d.). and the application of technology for the private sector
with which it aims to transform the government,
Asian countries see the potential that digitalization and businesses and society in general with the application of
automation bring. Yet, at the same time, they recognize digital technology.
Women and the Future of the Digital Economy in Asia4 · Going digital
In 2018, as part of Singapore’s chairmanship of the and broadband network access to more than 150
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the municipalities across the country.
ASEAN Smart Cities Network was established as a way for
cities to exchange good practices and urban solutions, with In Thailand, the government, working in partnership with
the goal of improving people’s lives by using technology as business leaders, initiated the Thailand 4.0 strategy with
an enabler (Smart Nation Singapore, n.d.). the aim of moving away from the middle-income trap
and transforming the country into a developed nation by
In 2015, Indonesia launched its 2020 Go Digital Vision improving its infrastructure and connectivity. To achieve
campaign to boost the country’s digital economy. Its this, the government will increase its expenditure on
goals include establishment of local e-commerce sites research and development, offer tax breaks and “smart”
for agriculture and fisheries, incubated tech start-ups, visas for companies and raise the education standards of
8 million small and medium-sized enterprises digitized its population (Anuroj, n.d.).
Women and the Future of the Digital Economy in AsiaWomen and the future of work: Challenges and opportunities · 5
Women and the future of work:
Challenges and opportunities
The labour market is a precarious place for many women work, education, customer service and social services. All
in the region. They experience multiple disadvantages that these jobs require cognitive and interpersonal skills and
range from intrinsic social norms to access to education are thus less prone to automation.
and to gender-biased norms in the labour market. These
obstacles become even more difficult for women in rural Additionally, the gig economy offers women the possibility
areas and are exacerbated by women’s unpaid work. of flexible work arrangements and thus enables them to
Occupational segregation in the region “generally confines balance work and family commitments while earning a
women to jobs with low pay, worse prospects for career living. But when it comes to women’s participation in the
advancement, poor working conditions and a lack of gig economy in the developing world, a large majority of
access to maternity protection. It contributes to the gender women lack the necessary technical and social skills to
pay gap, and it hinders women from taking up jobs and compete in an online platform environment.
occupations in sectors with job growth” (ILO, 2018, p. 7).
Having greater female labour force participation, The platform economy
together with policies that support their advancement, is
a well-studied economic and social imperative: it boosts The gig economy functions as an umbrella term for
productivity and economic growth, reduces income various working models commonly known as “gig
inequality and supports economic resilience (IMF, 2018). economy, on-demand economy, crowdsourcing,
microworkers, collaborative economy, uberization
The main narratives on the future of work agree that of employment’ and access economy” (Parternio,
automation presents unique challenges for women in the 2020, p. 21). It refers to temporary (part-time or full-
workforce due to the concentration of women in lower- time) work engagements by which companies hire
and middle-skill jobs (such as manufacturing and clerical independent contractors or freelancers instead of full-
jobs) (Wesley and Midgley, 2019). time employees. Tasks allocated through such platforms
range from ride hailing and food delivery to personal
According to a McKinsey forecast, between 40 million services and digital content creation and consultancy
and 160 million women globally might need to transition service for larger firms. Among its advantages, the
to other roles by 2030, mostly higher-skill ones. To platform economy allows workers independence, the
manage this challenge, women need to be skilled, mobile freedom to choose their working hours and, sometimes,
and tech-savvy. Yet, they face barriers on all levels and flexible work arrangements to do telework. Despite
will require targeted support from governments and these benefits, this new type of work also possesses
employers (McKinsey and Company, 2019a). disadvantages for workers, especially for low-skilled
labourers, because many of the jobs have unpredictable
Another factor of concern in the discussions on the schedules, lack job security, income stability and social
role of women in the future of work is the need for protection benefits.
women to occupy more managerial roles at the senior
level, across sectors and occupations. The reason: the
underrepresentation of women in professional and As well, these types of flexible work arrangements can
managerial positions leaves them at greater risk for reinforce gender stereotypes and traditional gender roles
displacement (Brussevich and others, 2018). if cultural norms go unchecked (women are perceived as
less committed and less productive if unable to extend
At the same time, there are jobs that are likely to grow their working hours due to care responsibilities), resulting
in traditionally female-dominated sectors, such as health. in a step backward in women’s economic participation
Demographic changes are increasing the demand for care and empowerment.
Women and the Future of the Digital Economy in Asia6 · Women and the future of work: Challenges and opportunities
The perceived flexibility also can intensify women’s care Internet, compared with 58 per cent of men, representing
burdens instead of easing them. a gender gap of 17 per cent (ITU, n.d.).
Several studies on the role of women in the future
Gender digital divide of work have indicated that digital disruptions in the
workplace will cast women aside. Providing women
The gender digital divide refers to the gap between with the necessary tools and resources to adopt the
men’s and women’s access to technology. It denotes the new digital technologies would empower them both
differing amount of information between those who economically and socially. At the same time, it would
have access to technology and the Internet and those ensure their participation in the economy and increased
who have been marginalized from accessing information levels of productivity.
and communication technology (ICT) tools for their
socioeconomic development. If not actively included in preparations for the future of
work, women will face several challenges in the labour
It also considers the differences in resources and abilities market and with their financial status. With the job
to access and effectively use ICT for development that market becoming increasingly digital, women who do
exist within and between countries, regions, sectors, not have access to digital technologies will not be able to
socioeconomic groups and gender. see job advertisements, apply for them and gain insightful
information on wages or their labour rights. Additionally,
by being digitally excluded, women will encounter even
Digital divide more difficulties in accessing financial services, which are
becoming increasingly reliant on computer algorithms
The “digital divide” refers to the growing gap between (Sorgner and others, 2018).
members of the society who have the economic means,
the technical skills and experience to access information To prevent this from happening, women should have
and communication technology (ICT) and those who do the same level of digital fluency and access to digital
not have access to mobile phones, computers and/or technologies as men do. Data show that in Asia, the
the Internet. The divide covers several layers, including gender gap in mobile telephone ownership varies
accessibility and connectivity. greatly. The largest mobile gender gap of any region
worldwide is in South Asia, at 28 per cent. In general
Several factors, such as age, levels of education, throughout Asia, with the exception of China, where
income, ethnicity, race, sex and geographical location, there is no gender gap, women have far less access
seem to magnify the digital divide. Along with the gaps than men to mobile telephone ownership (figure 1).
that separate segments of society, whole nations can be In Bangladesh, the gap is 33 per cent; in Pakistan it
divided into those who are able to take advantage of is 37 per cent; in India, 26 per cent; in Indonesia, 11
the new ICT opportunities and those who are not. With per cent; and in Myanmar it is 15 per cent (Rowntree,
an increasing amount of information available only for 2019, p. 15).
those able to access ICT tools, being disconnected
could mean the inability to participate in and benefit The gender gap widens further when considering
from the advantages of the modern economy. smartphone ownership and mobile Internet use (figure
2), reaching up to a 71 per cent gap in Pakistan, 58 per
cent in Bangladesh and 56 per cent in India (Rowntree,
2019).
According to an International Telecommunication
Union’s (ITU) 2019 report, while Internet use continues to As figure 3 illustrates, only 27 per cent of women in
increase, the same can be said about the gender digital South Asia, compared with 64 per cent of men, use the
divide. Globally, 48 per cent of women are using the Internet through a mobile telephone (Rowntree, 2019).
Women and the Future of the Digital Economy in AsiaWomen and the future of work: Challenges and opportunities · 7
Figure 1: Gender gap in mobile telephone ownership.
Source: Rowntree, 2019.
The top barriers cited for women’s mobile telephone Moreover, women and girls in the region are often
ownership and Internet use (from a phone) are literacy excluded from the creation of digital tools and platforms,
and skills. In some of the developing countries in the which is exacerbating the existing gender inequalities in
region, such as India, Bangladesh and Pakistan, women the accessibility and services that these tools provide.
and girls are discouraged by their male relatives from
having access to both a mobile phone and the Internet. The overall effect of the gender digital divide is that
Those three countries have the largest gender gap in Asia women have greater difficulty in learning new skills,
when it comes to mobile phone ownership and Internet working remotely in jobs that require Internet access and
accessibility (LIRNEasia, 2019). in accessing lines of credit and additional financial services.
Figure 2: Gender gap in mobile telephone ownership and Figure 3: Gender gap in South Asia in Internet access with
Internet use. mobile telephone.
Source: Rowntree, 2019. Source: Rowntree, 2019.
Women and the Future of the Digital Economy in Asia8 · Women and the future of work: Challenges and opportunities
Figure 4.
Gender
digital divide
Reskilling and upskilling To tackle this issue, labourers must have access to
reskilling and upskilling. Reskilling refers to the process
Digital transformation means that new jobs will be of either learning new skills so that a worker can do a
created while old ones will become obsolete. One different job or of training people to do a different job.
way to respond to the possible danger of technology- Whereas upskilling refers to the process of learning new
induced job losses is to increase the capacity of workers skills that are relevant in the future workplace to avoid
to cope with the transitions through education. being replaced (McKinsey and Company, 2019b).
However, this is everything but self-evident. Advocates
and critics alike agree that reskilling and upskilling Entirely new forms of employment are already a reality—
(female) labourers is of utmost importance to ensure professions such as cloud architecture or social media
that workers do not lag behind. According to a recent management are only a couple of careers that did not exist
estimate, 54 per cent of all employees will require 15 years ago. The occupational mix of most industries
significant reskilling by 2022. As Aneja (2019, p. 5f) is changing to accommodate the new inventions and to
warned, “The dominant policy response points to a race close the gap between the digital skills that employers
between education and technology and emphasizes the require and the skills that workers possess. As a result,
need for reskilling and upskilling as a way to anticipate companies will have to provide their employees at all
technological unemployment. But will people be able to levels with the latest digital skills to thrive and to continue
skill fast enough?” She goes on to question whether the attracting top talent (Tsusaka, 2020).
demand for high-skilled workers has already outgrown
the supply or whether workers will be able to catch up In its 2018 Future of Jobs Report, the World Economic
(Aneja, 2019, p. 6). Forum estimated that around 54 per cent of all employees
Women and the Future of the Digital Economy in AsiaWomen and the future of work: Challenges and opportunities · 9
Figure 5.
Reskilling and
upskilling
54%
of all employees
will require significant
reskilling by 2022.
Women are at
higher risk of
automation induced
job-displacement
than men because of
the type of tasks
they perform.
Women have
less access to
education and
technology.
Women are in a
vicious cycle of being
left behind.
Governments must
ensure that
upskilling and reskilling
reaches marginalized
groups in society.
will require significant reskilling by 2022, with the after a period of inactivity, all women should be given a
percentage being approximately the same for countries chance to reskill and upskill.
in South Asia and East Asia (WEF, 2018, p. ix).
There is a shift in the demand for workers, and women
are finding they have to reskill with skills that are in
demand to remain in the workforce and contribute Reskilling in the private sector
to the economy. Some skills that will be required in
the future of work are digital skills, such as machine United Overseas Bank, a Singaporean multinational
learning and blockchain, but also human and soft skills, banking organization, launched a training programme,
like creativity, emotional intelligence and analytical the Better U, to help staff gain new skills and get back
thinking. to learning while using technology. The underlying aim
is to build successful careers in the digital age. The bank
Contrary to the view of the 2020 Global Gender Gap has partnered with National University of Singapore
Report by the World Economic Forum in which reskilling to create professional and management development
and upskilling efforts for women looking to expand their programmes that support the future learning needs of
skills should focus on those women who already are in its employees.
the labour market or those who are trying to re-enter
Women and the Future of the Digital Economy in Asia10 · Women and the future of work: Challenges and opportunities
Both the private sector and governments must join Women in STEM—Education and employment
forces to make this a reality by increasing their public
spending and investment as well as adapting education All around the world, women are underrepresented in
programmes to the needs of the market (WEF, 2020, science and technology jobs. According to the Institute
p. 42). While policies and initiatives from governments for Statistics of the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and tech companies focus on upskilling and reskilling, and Cultural Organization, only 30 per cent of the world’s
there is also a need to address the root causes that prevent researchers are women. In East Asia and the Pacific,
women and girls from obtaining the necessary skills, such 23 per cent are women, while in Central Asia, women
as lack of access to basic education, infrastructure and account for 48 per cent of researchers (UNESCO Institute
poverty, among others. for Statistics, 2018).
By doing so, companies will be able to fill potential talent Some of the latest available data from the region indicate
shortfalls related to automation and digitalization, and that the Philippines and Thailand have an above-average
governments will be able to sustain a low unemployment proportion of women working as researchers in science,
rate. It is important to emphasize, however, that adapting technology and innovation, at 52 per cent and 51 per
education to the needs of the market will not necessarily cent, respectively. In India, there exists a large share
lead to more decent work. of women in engineering (at 20 per cent) and cloud
Figure 6.
SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
Women and the Future of the Digital Economy in AsiaWomen and the future of work: Challenges and opportunities · 11
computing (at 17 per cent) as well as in Singapore, at 27 To address these issues and to recognize the benefits of
per cent and 19 per cent, respectively (World Economic women’s participation in the STEM fields, the Asia-Pacific
Forum, 2020). Economic Cooperation (APEC) launched in 2019 the Women
in STEM Principles and Actions as part of its Women in STEM
Women’s first interest in science begins in school and Initiative (2016). It focuses on identifying and addressing the
continues into university, where they currently constitute social, cultural and economic barriers that women and girls
the majority of science graduates with bachelor’s and experience in the STEM sectors (APEC, 2019).
master’s degrees, outnumbering men (UNESCO, 2015,
p. 85). But then the gender gap widens. Women’s Other initiatives have looked at encouraging girls into
numbers start to drop at the PhD level, and they decrease STEM courses and fields, which are equipping them with
further at the research and labour force participation the right skills for the future of work, such as Indian
levels (Thornton, 2019). And women are largely absent Girls Code (Robotix, n.d.), a free hands-on coding and
in higher-level managerial and decision-making positions robotics education programme for underprivileged girls.
in STEM-related fields. The Girls2Pioneers programme in Singapore provides day
camps for girls aged 10–15 to “inspire and encourage
Studies show that STEM is a male dominated sector in youth in Singapore, particularly young girls and women,
which women publish less, are paid less for their research to explore and consider careers within STEM fields”
and do not progress as far as men in their careers. In (Girls2Pioneers, n.d.).
addition, there are external factors that influence women’s
labour force participation in STEM fields, such as family With today’s problems requiring innovative and practical
commitments, working environment and conditions and solutions, there is growing awareness of the importance
lack of career growth (UNESCO, 2017, p. 23). Due to of encouraging female education and labour force
insufficient data on the national and regional levels, the participation—and retention—in the STEM fields in all
extent of these disparities remains unknown. countries in the region.
Women and the Future of the Digital Economy in Asia12 · Feminist perspectives on the future of work in Asia
Feminist perspectives on the future of work in Asia
Why is a feminist perspective necessary? see the digitalization of the economy as an instrument
of empowerment and a chance to liberate women
Throughout Asia, research on the current transitions in the throughout Asia, others fear that it will reproduce existing
world of work is flourishing. However, discussions on the obstacles. They believe that the rise of Industry 4.0. will
rise of the digital economy and the spread of automation further exacerbate the socio-cultural exclusion of women.
have almost exclusively focused on technological
changes, with the implications those changes will have
on people have been, by and large, neglected. This is Intersectional feminism
problematic because “[t]ransitions towards [the Fourth
Industrial Revolution] and the future of work are […] Based on her experiences as a woman of colour, the
not merely techno-scientific issues, but are inextricably American lawyer and civil rights advocate Kimberlé
bound up with questions of social arrangements and Crenshaw coined the term “intersectionality” in the
institutions, power and exclusion and normative, societal 1980s. The term gives an analytical perspective to account
preferences (Aneja, 2019, p. 3). Until now, analyses have for the fact that the experiences of women of colour
mostly fallen short to consider the differentiated impact “are frequently the product of intersecting patterns”
the current transitions in the world of work are having (Crenshaw, 1990, p. 1243) of discrimination, which
across social groups. are deeply embedded into belief systems. Intersectional
feminism distances itself from mainstream feminism,
This issue requires extensive investigation. Due to which takes the white, Western woman as the norm
the heterogeneity of the region regarding economic and universalizes her struggles. Instead, intersectional
development, social security provisions and educational feminism acknowledges that the lived realities of women
systems, the chances and risks that the digital economy across the world differ fundamentally. Thereby, it aims to
holds are expected to spread unevenly across Asian unleash social power structures that work “to exclude
societies. or marginalize those who are [considered] different”
(Crenshaw, 1990, p. 1242).
And due to their structural marginalization and
underrepresentation, women are assumed to be Gender, class and race have traditionally been considered
particularly vulnerable. Hence, an intersectional feminist the classical identity categories that serve as a basis for
perspective on the future of work is needed. discrimination (Crenshaw, 1990). In recent years, the
scope of categories that serve as a basis for oppression has
Applying an intersectional feminist perspective allows been expanded to include age, disability, caste, place of
for analysis, discussion and understanding of the future residence, economic background and sexual orientation.
of work and its implications—not as a vehicle for This list is not exhaustive, and a uniform understanding of
economic progress but as a catalyst for social change. which categories need to be considered is lacking (Degele
By focusing on how women are affected, it ensures and Winker, 2007). Critics have noted that it remains
that the current developments leading to the future unclear how the various forms of oppression relate to one
of work do not cement existing inequalities but rather another. Do they overlap or intersect? Are they mutually
that the momentum is used to generate the prospect reinforcing? And are some categories more relevant than
of decent work and ameliorate the quality of life for all. others? (Degele and Winker, 2007; Kerner, 2007).
By making marginalized individuals and their narratives
visible, it allows women and other marginalized groups Despite these valid criticisms, intersectionality offers a
who hitherto have been excluded from the benefits of helpful research paradigm to account for the intersecting
economic progress to become agents of change. layers of discrimination that individuals are exposed to.
Thereby, it enables a more nuanced, differentiated analyses
It is important to acknowledge that there is not one single of the lived experience of individuals within society.
feminist stance on the topic. Whereas some feminists
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