Accountability in the Education Section of South Africa - unesdoc
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ED/GEMR/MRT/2017/C1/7
Country case study prepared for the 2017/8 Global Education Monitoring Report
Accountability in education: Meeting our commitments
Accountability in the
Education Section of South Africa
This paper was commissioned by the Global Education Monitoring Report as background information
to assist in drafting the 2017/8 GEM Report, Accountability in education: Meeting our commitments.
It has not been edited by the team. The views and opinions expressed in this paper are those of the
author(s) and should not be attributed to the Global Education Monitoring Report or to UNESCO. The
papers can be cited with the following reference: “Paper commissioned for the 2017/8 Global
Education Monitoring Report, Accountability in education: Meeting our commitments”. For further
information, please contact gemreport@unesco.org.
Remigius Chidozie Nnadozie 2017
1. Defining accountability
The Zulu language defines the word accountability in the following expression “ukumela amazwi akho” – being
a person of his/her words. In isiZulu this expression means that one must ensure that he/she is answerable to
the promises that he/she has made. On a broader context, the African philosophy of Ubuntu to an extent
encapsulates the Africa perception of accountability. Basically, the concept Ubuntu is taken from the Zulu
expression – umuntu ungumuntu ngabantu, meaning, I am because you are. unoBuntu is a Zulu way of saying
that someone has Ubuntu which presupposes that one is living a life that shows his/her concern about the
wellbeing of other people. Therefore, accountability from this perspective promotes a sense of love, charity and
community and discourages the desire for diverting communal wealth for personal gains. Instead it advocates
for the unity of humans towards a united South Africa where all citizens will have access to education regardless
of their respective backgrounds.
2. Introduction and country profile
Introduction:
Education, according to Nelson Mandela, is the most powerful weapon with which you can change your world.
This in essence means that education is a great ‘equalizer’ which closes the gaps that exist between people in
order to build a more virile and understanding world order where unemployment, hunger, corruption, nepotism,
prejudice and stereotypes are annihilated.
At the heart of education is accountability. Accountability and good governance are expected to go in
consonance. According to Malena and McNeil (2010, p.1):
“Accountability is the cornerstone of good governance. Unless public officials can be held to account, critical
benefits associated with good governance such as social justice, poverty reduction, and development remain
elusive”.
Accountability is not domiciled only in the realm of public service but also in private entrepreneurial endeavour,
in schools, churches, mosques and everywhere humans groups interact either for social, spiritual, academic or
economic purpose. The product of accountability then is not just building of honest relationships and peaceful
co-existence but also for education in responsibility (Lonsdale, 1986).
Accountability on educational outcomes is very critical for the South Africa context where social justice demands
equitable assess to education and improved educational outcomes particularly for the previously marginalised
people of South Africa.
Country Profile:
South Africa is located at the southernmost slant of the African continent and the 9th largest country in Africa
by land area. The Country has land area of 1.2 million square kilometres (Statistics South Africa, 2012). The 2011
national census indicated a total population of 51.7 million and increase from the 40.5 million headcount from
1996 census. The 1996 census was first inclusive census in the democratic era. The population of South Africa is
comprised majorly of Black Africans (79.2%), the second largest population groups are coloureds and Whites
with each representing 8.9% of the population, while the Indian (Asian) population group account for 2.5% of
the population (Statistics South Africa, 2012).
2South Africa is referred as the “Rainbow Nation” due to the nation’s very diverse and rich cultural heritage
brought about by variety of cultures from the European and Asia settlers as well as indigenous African people of
South Africa. The South Africa constitution makes provision for 11 official languages, according to the
constitution everyone has the right to receive education in the official language or languages of their choice in
public educational institutions where that education is reasonably practicable (Republic of South Africa, 1996).
2011 Census data show that the dominant languages in the country are Zulu, Xhosa, Afrikaans and English.
South Africa is a middle income country (2015 GDP- $312.8 billion) and second largest economy in Africa after
Nigeria. The country has well developed (relative to the African context) mining, agro-processing, banking and
manufacturing sectors. The country is endowed with vast array of natural resources including solid minerals such
as diamond, gold, and platinum. The relative wealth of the country is not equitably distributed. With a Gini
coefficient ranging between 0.6 and 0.7, South Africa is regarded as one of the most unequal societies in the
world. According to the World Bank “the top decile of the population accounts for 58% of the country’s income,
while the bottom decile accounts for 0.5% and the bottom half less than 8%” (World Bank, 2016).
Access to basic services has improved over the period in the democratic era.
Table 1: Access to Water & Housing, Sources: Statistics South Africa, 2011 Census
Indicator 1996 Census 2011 Census
Access to Piped Water in the house/Yard 60.8% 73.4%
Access to Formal Dwelling 65.1% 77.6%
Table 1 shows that access to piped water in the house or yard increased from 60.8% to 73.4% between 1996 and
2011. Access to formal housing also improved from 65.1% in 1996 to 77.6% in 2011. In spite of the efforts of the
government for the expansion of access to basic services, these efforts have not met the expectations of certain
sectors of the society. Jain (2010) reported an increasing trend in service delivery related social unrest as a result
of dissatisfaction of sectors of the society where expectations are not matched with level of service delivery.
South Africa is a constitutional democracy with a three-tier system of government and an independent judiciary.
The national, provincial and local levels of government all have legislative and executive authority in their own
spheres, and are defined in the Constitution as "distinctive, interdependent and interrelated". The apartheid
policy of 1948 restricted the indigenous African people of South Africa to less than 15% of the land area. One of
the devastating attributes of the apartheid era in the education sector was the introduction of the Bantu
Education Act of 1953 (Clark & Worger, 2004). The act provided for the enforcement of racial segregation of
education systems including resources and curricula. Schools in the Black African communities were severely
under-resourced, the remnants of this Act are still observable till date. In the midst of world-class schools in rich
suburban areas, severely under-resourced schools exist a few kilometres apart in the so-called townships
(underdeveloped living areas for Blacks).
The societal segregation and dominance of the European settlers brought about political and arms struggle for
the liberation of the people and end of apartheid. The release of political prisoners and subsequent inclusive
elections saw Mr Nelson Mandela of the African National Congress (ANC) as the first democratically elected
president of the Republic of South Africa in 1994.
In the democratic dispensation, the ANC have been the party in power with majority representation in national
parliament, the major opposition political party is the Democratic Alliance (DA). The newly formed Economic
Freedom Fighters (EFF) is also gaining remarkable inroads into the national polity as the second strongest
opposition political apart. Altogether there are 13 political parties that are represented in the parliament of
South Africa.
3The South African constitution was adopted in 1996, the constitution is adjudged as one of the most
transformative and liberal constitutions in modern history. The right to education is provided in the constitution.
Chapter 2 of the constitution (the bill of rights) specifies that:
“everyone has the right - (a) to a basic education, including adult basic education; and (b) to further education,
which the state, through reasonable measures, must make progressively available and accessible” (Republic of
South Africa, 1996).
The implementation of the right to education in South Africa has been reinforced with some notable court
judgements. Murungi (2015) observes that cases such as the Western Cape Forum for Intellectual Disability
versus Government of the Republic of South Africa provided clearer interpretative guidance for the
implementation of right to basic education. In this case, the Western Cape high court ruled that the State has a
duty to provide equally for the education of all children, including those with various forms of disabilities
(Murungi, 2015).
Another high profile case of implementation of right to basic education involved the highest court in South Africa
(the constitutional court), the case of the Governing Body of the Juma Musjid Primary School versus Essay and
others. This case is instrumental in shaping the understanding of the right to basic education. The constitutional
court passed the judgment unequivocally that the right to a basic education is an unqualified right. The courts
also affirmed that access to a school as a necessity for achieving the right to basic education. McConnachie and
McConnachie (2012).
The South African constitution makes adequate provision for accountability contrivances by providing
constitutional powers in Chapter 9 to various state institutions supporting constitutional democracy. Among
these are the offices of the Public Protector and the Auditor General. The constitution clearly stipulates that:
“these institutions are independent, and subject only to the Constitution and the law, and they must be impartial
and must exercise their powers and perform their functions without fear, favour or prejudice” (Republic of South
Africa, 1996).
In 2015, the constitutional court of South Africa upheld the recommendation of the Office of the Public Protector
for the incumbent President to refund the state on aspects of non-security upgrades to his private residence.
This landmark judgement is seen of one the litmus tests of accountability, independence and strength of
democratic institutions in South Africa.
3. Actors, Factors and accountability
South Africa follows a consultative process in coming about development policies, programmes and projects.
The processes are designed to ensure public participation and consensus. The various policies and plans of
government in the democratic era have centred on economic growth and redress of the legacies of apartheid.
South Africa follows a systemic approach to development planning and accountability. The national development
goals and objectives are actually mostly operationalized at the lower tiers of government, the provincial and
municipal governments. Figure 1 summarises the systemic planning framework in South Africa. The national
development priorities are determined through consultative processes, these form the basis for the national
development goals including education related development goals.
Provincial governments in South Africa are required as an operational principle to be guided by their provincial
growth and development strategies for their development operations. The provincial development and growth
strategy (PGDS) is in a nutshell the provincial development plan that is aligned to the national goals. The
4municipal tier of government are also required to be guided by their provincial aligned integrated development
plan (IDPs). Public participation through ward committees and IMBIZOs (community meetings) is an important
feature of community development particularly at the municipal tier of government.
Figure 1: Integrated Planning Framework in South Africa
•National Development
National Goals Plan (NDP)
Provincial Goals
•Provincial Growth
Aligned to National & Development
Goals Strategy (PGDSs)
Municipal Goals •Municipal Integrated
Aligned to Development Plan
Provincial Goals (IDPs)
Public
Participation:
Ward Commitees,
Imbizo
All tiers of government and public institutions in South Africa are required to comply with public accountability
mechanisms of the government-wide monitoring and evaluation system (GWMES). GWMES was approved by
the government of South Africa in 2005 to provide harmonized framework for monitoring and evaluation in the
public sector in South Africa. All government departments and public institutions are required to conform to the
principles of the GWMES as one of the mechanisms for management of development and public accountability
(Republic of South Africa, 2007). Monitoring and evaluation therefore happens at the various tiers of government
with respect to development targets as stipulated in the various levels of plans. In addition to the GWMES, all
public institutions are required to comply with the prescripts of the Public Finance and Management Act (PFMA).
The (PFMA) stipulates procedures for efficient and effective management of all revenue, expenditure, assets and
liabilities of public institutions. PFMA is aimed at improving transparency, accountability and sound financial
management in government and public institutions (Republic of South Africa, 1999).
These accountability mechanisms of government apply to various institutions and actors in the education sector.
The educational sector is seen as one of the anchor points of the envisaged socioeconomic transformation of
South Africa. The sector has undergone remarkable changes in terms of curriculum, policies, integration of the
then fragmented education departments and attempts towards improving quality and outcomes especially
among the formally disadvantaged communities and schools.
In spite of the strides towards improvement of the school system in current era, many schools in South Africa do
not have the required resources for effective teaching and learning. In terms of infrastructure and staffing,
majority of schools in the townships and rural areas are still regarded as under resourced. More so, the school
system is increasingly being confronted with social problems; poverty, unemployment, violence, child abuse and
5HIV AIDS amongst others. The results of the survey of ordinary schools by The Department of Basic Education
(DBE) in 2011 reveals that in 2009 about 2.1 million learners in South Africa have parent/s that are deceased, the
same report shows that in 2008 there were about 50 thousand pregnant learners in South African schools
(Department of Basic Education, 2011). However, despite the infrastructural and staffing limitations and social
challenges, some schools have managed to function commendably both in terms of the social role of schooling
and the educational achievement of learners (Christie, 2001).
The National Development Plan 2030 (NDP) is the current strategic roadmap for all sectors of development in
South Africa. The NDP offers a long-term perspective with the aim of eliminating poverty and reduction of
inequality by 2030. In the education sector, there are key objectives that are linked to actions for the
achievement of the functional education system. The Government of South Africa realises the importance
functional education system for human capacity development in order to ensure better individuals and society
and for economic growth. Each year Ministers of government departments respectively sign performance
agreements with the President on NDP-linked annual performance targets.
Table 2 provides a summary of the development targets of the NDP-2030 in the education sector.
Early Childhood Development Schooling Targets Higher Education and Training
Targets Targets
Eradicate vitamin A deficiency About 80% of schools and Increase graduation rate of further
among children learners achieve 50% and education and training colleges to
above in literacy, 75%
mathematics and science
grades in grades 3, 6, 9.
Universal access to two years of Increase the number of Produce 30 000 artisans per year
early childhood development students eligible to study
maths and science and
science at university to
450 000 per year
South Africa improves its Increase participation rates in
position in international further education and training
education rankings colleges to 25%
About 80 percent of every An additional 1 million learning
cohort of learners opportunities per year
successfully completes
the full 12 years of
schooling
Increase university science and
mathematics entrants to 450 000
Increase graduation rates to more
than 25% by 2030
Increase participation rates for
university enrolment to more than
30%
Produce more than 100 doctoral
graduates per million per year by
2030
Table 2: Education Sector NDP Targets
Table 2 indicates that the government of South Africa has ambitious targets for the education sector in the NDP-
2030. These targets are in a nutshell geared towards provision of wider access to education, improvement in
6quality of education and the production of the optimal number of graduates with the needed skills for economic
growth.
The Government of South Africa recognises that these ambitious development targets in the education are not
achievable without a reinvigoration of systemic accountability mechanisms in the education value chain, from
learner assessment practices to delivery educational materials. To this, one of the action plans in the NDP is the
establishment of an education accountability chain to strengthen accountability in the education sector (Spaull,
2015).
The following sections provides summary of key actors in the broad education landscape of South Africa.
3.1 Basic Education Landscape
Basic education in South Africa is structured along two main strands; General Education and Training (GET) and
Further Education and Training (FET). The GET strand has three phases Foundation Phase (grade 0 to 3), the
Intermediate Phase (grades 4 to 6), and the Senior Phase (grades 7 to 9). The FET strand has grades 10 to 12.
Learners exist the basic system in grade 12 after taking The National Senior Certificate (NSC) examinations
commonly denoted as “MATRIC”. Government realises the importance of basic education outcomes which
cumulates in learners’ achievements in MATRIC examinations as the backbone of skills and human capacity
development in the country. Every year government, parents and civil society observe keenly as the Minister of
Basic Education publishes MATRIC results for respective cohort of learners. There are a number of governmental
and non-governmental institutions/agencies who are saddled with the responsibility of provision of effective
teaching and learning at the level of basic education in South Africa.
3.2.1 Department of Basic Education
The DBE is the Department of State saddled with the responsibility of managing and upholding not only content
but also values, techniques and curriculum for all schools in South Africa from Grade R to Grade 12, including
adult literacy programme.
DBE is led by the Minister of basic education who provides political leadership necessary for the attainment of
the national development objectives for education in the basic education sector.
The Department works to entrench a South Africa in which all Africans will have access to lifelong learning,
education and training opportunities, which will, in turn, contribute towards improving the quality of life and
building a peaceful, prosperous and democratic South Africa (Department of Basic Education, 2016). As at 2014,
South Africa had 30,500 public and registered independent education institutions. Out of the public schools,
25,741 of these schools were ordinary schools and 4,759 were other education institutions such as early
childhood development centres and special schools (Department of Basic Education, 2016).
The figure of 25 741 for ordinary schools comprised the following:
• 14 927 primary schools, with 6 655 171 learners and 201 673 educators;
• 6 068 secondary schools, with 3 910 643 learners and 143 990 educators; and
• 4 746 combined and intermediate schools, with 2 089 622 learners and 79 427 educators
Overall, there are about 12.6 million learners and 425 000 educators at ordinary schools in the basic education
sector in South Africa. This implies learner to educator ratio of about 30:1 (Department of Basic Education, 2016).
In 2015, the department of basic education published the action plan to 2019 towards the realisation of schooling
objectives of the NDP-2030. The action plan has 27 goals which are driven mainly by the quest to increase
enrolments and quality of schooling outcomes (Department of Basic Education, 2015). In line with the integrated
development planning approach in South Africa, the action plans are rolled out proportionately at the levels of
7provincial/municipal/district departments of education. The actualization of the goals of the action plan happens
at the various schools in educational districts.
3.2.2 Curriculum Reforms
The first attempt at curriculum reforms in the post-apartheid era was intended to get rid of racially divisive and
offensive content from the curriculum. The second attempt brought in the practice of continuous assessment
into the school system. The third was the introduction of the controversial curriculum 2005 (Jansen, 1998). The
curriculum 2005 is based on the principles of outcomes based education (OBE). The OBE principle is basically on
the premise of outlining expected goals or outcomes for learners in the different levels of the school system and
invigorating a commitment to ensuring that every learner achieves at least those minimum proficiencies at the
end of the leaning period. In this system the emphasis is on outcome rather than input and the target outcomes
are empirically measured at the end to assess the learners’ readiness to put to practice the knowledge that
he/she has gained as opposed to the traditional education system (chalk and talk). The OBE learning objectives
were sought to be achieved in South Africa through the following thematic philosophies upon which the
curriculum 2005 was designed; outcomes based, value oriented, learner centred, relevance, non-discriminatory,
integration, acknowledgment of individual differences, and authentic and continuous assessment of learners.
The OBE-based curriculum in the contest of South Africa has received more criticisms against the system than in
favour of the system, prominent on these criticism is the critique by Jansen (1997), he argues that the language
of the OBE principle was too complex, too confusing and could be contradictory. Jansen views OBE as unduly
focusing on instrumentalism and running short of dealing with the key issues of values. He goes further to argue
that OBE centres on practical competences while overlooking power of abstract knowledge.
In South Africa the wide inequality in socioeconomic situations of different demographic segments of the society
is quite obvious. OBE has compelled schools from different historical backgrounds, teachers and learners,
irrespective of their history, resources or capacity to attain the same levels of achievement. This is practically
impossible as there is clear evidence of inequalities in the standard of these different schools and socio-economic
backgrounds of learners and teachers in these schools as well. In the typical South African society and situation,
a white urban school with middle-class parents, an established school infrastructure, and an elite group of well
advantaged students, is measured on exactly the same basis as a black rural school serving the children of very
poor families in a dilapidated buildings where there is also poor culture of teaching and learning (Jansen, 2001).
OBE can only be effectively implemented where there is equity in resource distribution and availability which is
not the case in the South African situation. For instance majority of schools in the townships and rural South
Africa are still struggling with providing basic classroom accommodation for the learners, classrooms are
crowded making it difficult to form learner groups which is one of the key methods of teaching in the OBE system.
OBE requires that both teachers and learners should competent users of the English language. This is far from
being the true situation especially in rural schools where teachers and learners struggle with English as a second
language. With this great gap in English Language competency on the side of most teachers and learners, the
successful and effective implementation of OBE is quite impossible (Brown, 1998).
The OBE system requires that educators and school management in South Africa be trained and equipped for
proper implementation. Jansen (1997) opines that in order for the curriculum 2005 to succeed, the entire
educational system need to be reengineered which is quite an uphill task that requires time, political and
economic commitment. To this effect majority of teachers in South Africa do not know what OBE is all about and
are unable to interpret and implement it in the classroom because the grounds where well prepared before the
implementation.
Failed curriculum experimentations and under-resource of schools have led to diminishing learner competencies
over the years. International benchmark assessments such as The Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for
8Monitoring Educational Quality (SACMEQ) tests show that South Africa performed below the average of the
other participating African countries in Grade 6 mathematics and reading (Spaull, 2015). More so, intake from
the school systems through to the higher education sector are increasingly manifesting worrying levels of under-
preparedness.
3.2.3 Teachers and South African Democratic Teachers Union (SADTU)
SADTU is the largest teachers’ union in South Africa. It is a union of organising teachers irrespective of race,
creed, or gender. SADTU provides a powerful voice of advocacy for accountability in the basic education sector
in South Africa. It ranks amongst the largest unions affiliated to the Congress of South African Trades Unions
(COSATU); and is also a member of the Education International, an international trade’s union coordinating body
organising workers in the educational sector with over 23 million members. SADTU advocates for better
resources in schools and protects the interest members in terms of working conditions and employee rights.
SADTU also lends a powerful voice around education policy formulation debates. Currently SADTU has about
240,000 members spread across the 9 provinces in South Africa (SADTU, 2016).
3.2 Higher Education Landscape
Before 1994, the South African education system was structured on apartheid policies with separate institutions
for different race, ethnic and language groups. Bantustans/Homelands had separate Education Departments.
The 1996 report of National Commission on Higher Education recommended a centrally coordinated education
system. The 1997 White Paper on higher education and the 2001 National Plan for Higher Education provided
the way forward for advancement of higher education in South Africa. In line with the general development
direction of the democratic era, the National Plan for Higher education sought to redress past inequalities and
to transform the higher education system. A single qualifications framework was recommended for all higher
education institutions to allow mobility, progression and collaboration in the sector. The plan provided for
increased access to higher education particularly for formerly marginalised population groups. The 2001
National Plan for Higher Education also recognised the need for production of graduates with the necessary skills
for the 21st century and to build high-level research capacity to address the research and knowledge needs of
South Africa.
In 2001, the Minister of education approved the implementation of merger of higher education institutions in
South Africa as recommended by the National Plan for Higher Education. The mergers were intended to bring
about harmony in the sector and break the divisive legacies of apartheid. The mergers were also found to be
necessary for optimal management of the system in-order to achieve enrolments targets (Ministry of Education,
2001). The mergers saw the reduction of public higher education intuitions from 36 to 23. Universities in South
Africa are classified into 3 classes; traditional universities, universities of technology and comprehensive
universities. Eleven institutions are classified as traditional universities, these are degree offering established
institutions with strong focus on research. Six universities are classified as universities of technology (previously
known as technikons), this class of universities are expected to focus on production of graduates with technical
expertise in the areas of science, engineering and technology. Most of the programmes at Universities of
technology are at the levels of diploma, higher certificates and certificates. The six comprehensive universities
offer both university and technikon-type programmes. In 2013, the President announced the establishment of 3
additional Universities to the system, this brings the total number of Universities in South Africa to 26.
Table 3: University Students by Race, Sources: 2000 & 2015 HEMIS Data
Race 2000 2015
African 58.9% 70.7%
Coloured 5.3% 6.3%
Indian 6.8% 5.4%
White 28.2% 16.4%
9Other 0.8% 1.2%
Total University Students 578 000 985 000
There are currently close to a million registered university students in the sector, this is a substantial increase
from about 578 000 in 2000 as shown in Table 3. This implies that access to higher education is expanding
particularly so for Black African students who accounted for under 60% of total headcount enrolment in 2000. In
2015 the percentage representation for Black African student rose slightly above 70%. In terms of numbers, an
additional 355 00 Black African students have gained access to higher education between 2000 and 2015.
Table 4: Higher Education Participation Rate by Race, Source: CHE 2013
Population Registered in PHEI Participation Rate
Black African 4 128 451 662 123 16.0%
Coloured 412 243 58 692 14.2%
Indian 110 337 52 296 47.4%
White 315 660 172 654 54.7%
South Africa 4 966 691 953 373 19.2%
Even though access to higher education for Black African and Coloured students shows remarkable increasing
trend, the participation rates of the age group 20 – 24 with respect to the total population remains low. For
Blacks, the participation is found to be about 16% and 14% for Coloureds, while their White and Indian
counterparts recorded 54.7% and 47.4% respectively. The overall participation rate is about 19.2%. This implies
that the 20% overall participation target of The National Plan for Higher Education in 2001 has not been achieved
(Council on Higher Education, 2013).
In addition to the Universities, there are 50 recognised public Technical and Vocational Education and Training
(TVET) colleges and well as 21 Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs). TVET colleges provide post-
school education that comprises vocational, occupational and artisan education and training. Currently there are
about 700 000 students in public TVET Colleges across South Africa (TVET Colleges South, 2016).
The major challenges in the higher education sector are the issues of institutional transformation at public higher
education institutions, student funding as well as student underperformance.
Social histories and social experiences of both learners and teachers come into play in defining learner
attainment levels and preparedness for higher education. The inefficiencies of the basic education sector are
transferred to higher education. The higher education sector is being increasingly confronted with intake of
students who are not academically and financially prepared for the demands of higher education. The system is
saddled with high dropout rates, longer completion time and low participation rates.
In terms of students’ academic performance, only about 25% students in contact institutions graduate in
regulation time. It is estimated that about 55% of each cohort of intake will never graduate (Council on Higher
Education, 2013). Regarding equity of outcomes in the production of graduates, Black African students’
completion rate generally less than half the completion rate of White students (Council on Higher Education,
2013). This phenomena neutralizes gains made by expansion of access to Black African students.
In terms of staffing of higher education institutions, transformation is slow. There is the problem of aging
instruction and research staff which is not marched with development of new generation of possible
replacements. Skills are also lacking in the scarce skills areas of science, engineering and technology.
Table 5: Permanent Academic by Race, Sources: 2000 & 2015 HEMIS Data
10Race 2000 2015
African 19.3% 44.6%
Coloured 3.9% 8.4%
Indian 6.6% 10.9%
White 70.1% 61.1%
Other 0.2% 1.0%
Total Permanent Academic Staff 14 600 18 400
Table 5 shows that after about two decades in the democratic era, the staffing of South Africa universities is still
overwhelmingly dominated by Whites. Albeit, the representation of Black African race rose from 19.3% in 2000
to 44.6% in 2015, this remain major underrepresentation given that Black Africans comprise about 80% of the
population. White represent under 10% of the population but accounted for above 60% of academic staff of
universities in 2015.
According the latest publication of Times Higher Education’s World University Rankings data, Universities in
South Africa accounts for 4 out of the 5 best universities in Africa 2016-2017 (Times Higher Education, 2016).
South Africa’s University of Cape Town is ranked the best in Africa and among the top Universities in the world
on various ranking systems.
In addition to world class universities, South Africa has well-resourced independent science councils such as the
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), the Medical Research Council (MRC), Agricultural Research
Council (ARC), Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) and Council for Geosciences (CG). These institutions
work closely with the Universities for production of knowledge and innovation. According to the 2014 report of
the South Africa survey of research and experimental development, South Africa spent R23.871 billion ($1.7
billion) on research and development in 2012/2013 (HSRC, 2014). This level of investment in research and
development is remarkable for a developing country. This indicates substantial investment in high level
knowledge production in South Africa. The 2010 report on the most prolific African nations in knowledge
production indicated that South Africa ranked number one in the African continent in most scientific fields ahead
of Nigeria, Kenya, Tunisia and Egypt (Adam, King & Hook, 2010).
3.3.1 Department of Higher Education and Training
The Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) was instituted in 2009 following the splitting of the
former Department of Education into two departments; Basic Education and Higher Education and Training. The
government realised the need for a government department that is solely mandated with the task of post-school
skills and human capacity development in order to achieve the desired economic growth and social goals of
inclusive participation of all the people of South Africa for their personal development and the development of
the South African society.
The DHET is led by the a Cabinet minister whose duty is in summary to provide the political leadership that is
required for the achievement of the targets of the national government for the post-school school human
capacity development.
Institutional academic programme structures for public higher education institutions are approved by the
Minister of Higher Education and Training. Each programme is required to be accredited by the Council for Higher
Education (CHE) and registered by South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA). Institutional academic
programmes should be consistent with National academic policies approved by the Minister of Higher Education
and Training and the human capacity development objectives of the NDP. Each public institution has institutional
mandate with the Minister of DHET in terms of enrolment shape and size.
11Public higher education institutions in South Africa receive income from three main streams; income from
government grant/subsidy, Student tuition fees and donations/entrepreneurial activities. Government grants
are based on a funding formula that factors in student numbers, graduate numbers, and research output. The
funding formula also provides for allocation of institutional factor grants to institutions with high proportion of
students from previously disadvantaged backgrounds. A good number of Universities in South Africa particularly
historically disadvantaged ones rely heavily on funding from government subsidy for their operations while
majority of indigent students rely on funding from the National Students Financial Aid Scheme (NSFAS).
Each year the minister of DHET publishes ministerial statement for funding allocation to the public higher
education institutions. The funding allocations include unrestricted block grants and earmarked funding
allocations for specific programmes such as; teaching development, research development and infrastructure
development. In 2016, the minister of DHET disbursed about R26.7 billion ($1.9 billion) as block grants to the 26
public Universities in South Africa (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015).
Public higher education institutions through the councils of various universities provide accountability reports to
the minister of DHET on various aspects of operations of the Universities. In 2014, the Minister of the (DHET)
published new reporting regulations for public higher education institutions in terms of Higher Education Act,
1997. Public Universities are required to prepare and submit annual and mid-year performance assessment
reports. The mid-year report is expected indicate progress up to 30th June of the reporting year on enrolment
targets as well as progress on financials with respect to budget with reference to the annual financial plan. The
annual report provides complete assessment of predetermined enrolment objectives as well as financials for the
full reporting year. Additional reporting requirements include: council statement on sustainability, report of audit
committee, and report on transformation, report of independent auditor on annual report, list of council
members and constituencies and finally, list of office bearers of council, the remuneration of council members
and executive management of universities. These reports must be approved by council and signed by chairperson
of council and the vice chancellor (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2014).
Universities also provide annual Higher Education Management Information Systems (HEMIS) reports to DHET.
It is on the basis of the HEMIS submissions that each universities share of the subsidy grant from the minister of
DHET is determined. The HEMIS reports also provide important monitoring and evaluation data for overall
enrolment and student performance metrics in the sector. The HEMIS data for each university undergo stringent
external audit before they are accepted by the minister.
The higher education system in South Africa has functional accountability mechanisms that has evolved over
time.
4. In-depth analysis of an issue: Students’ Activism and Voice
(#FEESMUSTFALL)
South Africa has a rich history of youth and student activism. In the political front, some of the prominent leaders
(Mandela, Ashby Mda, Walter Sisulu and Oliver Tambo) of the most confrontational struggle movement the ANC
rose from the ranks of the ANC youth league which was formed in 1944 by Anton Lambede.
Steve Biko’s black consciousness movement of the 1960s added to the forces of opposition to the apartheid
system particularly the Bantu education policy. Biko sold his black consciousness philosophy through organised
student formations. The students’ uprising of June 1976 is seen as one of the stoutest confrontations of the
apartheid regime.
12There are various organised student formations at South African higher education institutions aligned to
respective socio-political organizations. The student representative councils (SRC) at higher education
institutions provide a united front for various student interests. In the recent past, students have put forward a
united front in making a number of demands including the removal of colonial statues and symbols from
campuses (#Rhodes must fall etc), an end to outsourcing of certain services, decolonization of curricula and free
higher education for all.
Paying through tertiary education for students remains a daunting task for many parents in South Africa and over
the years, lack of payment has led to withdrawal from university and or students’ performing abysmally in their
academic work. In South Africa, annual tuition fees for undergraduate programme range between R30 000 to
R60 000 ($2 000 - $4 000). According to KPMG South Africa (2016) the average household in South Africa income
after tax is about R145 000 ($10 740). This implies that tuition fees alone per dependant would account for 20%
to 40% of average household income. When accommodation, books and subsistence are added to the cost the
burden of university cost per dependant is estimated at over 80% of average household income.
The National Student Financial Aid Scheme (NSFAS) was established in 1999 to provide financial assistance to
academically qualifying and financially deserving students at public higher education institutions in South Africa.
Using a set of stringent socioeconomic stratification criteria NSFAS selects deserving students from list of
applicants. Students from households with an annual income of R160 000 ($11 851) or less are qualified to apply
for a NSFAS loan. Loans and bursaries are provided to successful students that cover tuition, accommodation
and subsistence. NSFAS beneficiaries are expected to make loan repayments to replenish the funds available for
future generations of students. NSFAS encourages academic excellence, 40% loans for student beneficiaries is
convertible to bursaries upon remarkable academic performance. According 2014/15 annual report of NSFAS, a
total of R9 billion ($666.7 million) was disbursed in 2014/15 which is an increase of R200 million from the
previous year. In the reporting year, about 414 802 students were assisted. Altogether, NSFAS has disbursed
about R50 billion ($3.7 billion) providing financial aid to over 1.5 million deserving students since its
establishment (National Student Financial Aid Scheme, 2015). A challenge though is that repayment of the loans
by previous beneficiaries has been problematic, this may affect sustainability of the scheme into the future. It is
estimated that 20% of previous NSFAS recipients owed R15.6 billion ($1.15 billion) in unpaid loans in 2013 (KPMG
South Africa, 2016).
In 2014/15 academic year, 186 150 out of 414 802 students supported by NSFAS were registered at various
universities, the rest of 228 642 were registered at TVET colleagues (National Student Financial Aid Scheme,
2015). This implies that only 19% of 969,154 university students where supported by NSFAS during the 2014/15
academic year. This is obviously a drop in the ocean relative to the growing number of students in need of
financial aid and possibly financially excluded from the system. The challenge is that NSFAS covers the poorest
households and the wealthy households can afford to pay fees for their children, this creates a vacuum in the
middle, thereby resulting in the so-called “missing middle”. The missing middle students are students from
working class (civil servants etc) households whose annual income may be above the NSFAS threshold of R160
000 but may not be able to afford university fees for their dependants. This implies that students have to come
from poorest or wealthy households in order to financially access higher education in South Africa.
In 2015, South Africa witnessed a wave of #FEESMUSTFALL protests across university campuses in the country.
The campaign was so intense that it is adjudged as the strongest students upraising after the June 1976 upraising.
The protests were calmed with the announcement 0% fees increase for 2016 by the president of South Africa. In
January 2016 president also established the fees commission. The fees commission is tasked to consult and
engage stakeholders on the issue of higher education funding and come up with feasible recommendations to
government on the way forward. There has been nationwide engagement with management of universities,
13student formations, parents and civil society. The fees commission is expected to present final report to
government by June 2017.
As the nation await the recommendations of the fees commission, in 2016, the #FEES MUST FALL campaign
intensified with reported incidences of violence and destruction of properties are various universities across the
country. Important university properties such as libraries and lecture theatres were burnt by demonstrating
students at certain campuses. According to the minister of DHET (Nzimande, 2016), the cost of destruction to
property as a result of #FEES MUST FALL student protestations is estimated to be about R600 million ($44.4
million). In reaction to the increasing violent nature of students’ demonstration, the president commissioned a
ministerial task team to restore normality at university campuses in the country. The task team comprise of the
minister of DHET and other security cluster cabinet ministers.
According to Habib (2016) the cost of free higher education (tuition, accommodation, books and subsistence) for
about a million university students and the 700 000 students at TVET colleges would amount to about R80 billion
($5, 9 billion) per annum. The position of government so far is that free higher education for all is not financially
viable at the moment especially in consideration of competing needs such as healthcare, social welfare and
infrastructural development. Some analyst are of the opinion that free higher education for all is possible and
the money could be raised through a number of measures including tax increases and education levies on
pension funds (Shivambu, 2016). According to KPMG (2016) large corporations could be required to pay an
additional education-related tax to fund free education. Young graduates could also be initially be taxed at a
higher personal income tax rate to compensate the state for free education. Habib (2016) is of the opinion that
the personal income tax payers’ base in South Africa is low due to low proportion of economic participation of
the population, therefore substantial tax increase will bring about tax overburden to tax payers. This may have
adverse economic consequences. Already, South Africa’s top personal income tax rate is 41% (KPMG, 2016).
Government is of the view that students from wealthy households can afford to pay and that NSFAS could
possibly be expanded to include students from the so-called missing middle households. In the interim, the
minster of DHET announced in September 2016 that fees adjustments for 2017 may not be higher than 8%.
Furthermore, in consideration to the “missing middle” the minister announced that students from households
earning less than R600 000 per annum will receive 0% fees adjustments in 2017. The minster made commitment
that government will provide the funding gap to higher education institutions, the funding gap is estimated at
R2.5 billion.
Even with the announcement of the minister on the interim relief measures, students are adamant with their
demand for free higher education for all. Government and civil society are calling for calm while the report of
the presidential fees commission is awaited to provide lasting recommendations.
5. Policy Recommendations
There are systemic interdependencies in terms of educational outcomes and accountability in relation to the
general socio-political and economic state of affairs in any country. Effective teaching and learning is supported
by adequate social amenities, healthcare and social welfare. Therefore accountability in education also
necessitates an all-inclusive system of social accountability in the any state.
The 2016 auditor general report on local government audit outcomes for the 2014/15 financial year showed
some good aspects of improved public accountability in terms of management of public finances at South African
municipalities. The number of municipalities with unqualified audits increased in the last financial year.
However, the auditor reported notable instances of irregular expenditure, fruitless/wasteful expenditure and
unauthorised expenditure. According to the 2016 audit report (Auditor General, 2016), these incidences
14amounted to about R31.4 billion ($2.3 billion). The lost revenue through corruption and mismanagement affects
all aspects of service delivery including education outcomes.
The report of the auditor general’s recommendations following the audits should be bidding. At the moment,
these are mere recommendations without consequences. The accountability value chain in South Africa should
be supported by policies that provide support for the enforcement of remedial actions for improvement of
accountability.
The education sector in post-apartheid South Africa has undergone positive transformations. There has be gains
in expansion of access, particularly access to tertiary education. There are still areas that require further
transformation urgently, particularly staffing of universities.
On the big issue at hand, #FEES MUST FALL, firstly, peace must be given a chance. There is need for an all-inclusive
dialogue where all the parties involved are listened to and asked to proffer solution at the end. There should be
continued dialogue between; government, organised student formations, parents, employers, faith-based
organizations and civil society. Therefore, the fees commission should be allowed to continue the dialogue and
come up with lasting recommendations.
It may be helpful to consider curriculum reforms that would explore the huge potential in eLearning. This will go
a long way into the reduction of cost of providing education and also widen access possibilities. More so, the
curriculum reform also should seek better ways of bringing about synergy between, basic and higher education
sub-sectors in light of reported under-preparedness of intakes from the school system into higher education
institutions. The curriculum reform should also include compulsory citizenship education for all students at
higher education institutions. The content of which should provide students with the awareness in terms of civic
responsibilities. This awareness is important in the light to the increasing trend of violent protestations where
universities properties were burnt. There is for example no justification for burning a library no matter the level
of provocation. Such attitudes undermine the legitimate campaigns of students.
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