Alkali Bulletin May, 2021 - Alkali Manufacturers Association of India
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Alkali Bulletin
(For Restricted Circulation) Volume XLIII No. 5 May, 2021
Alkali Manufacturers Association of India
Dear Reader,
The Finance Minister, presenting the Union Budget for 2021-22 announced a National Hydrogen Energy
Mission (NHM) that will draw a roadmap for using hydrogen as an energy source. It will develop a cleaner
alternate fuel option, having the potential of transforming transportation.
Hydrogen is obtained as a by-product in the production of caustic soda, giving 280 Nm3 or about 25 kg
per metric tonne of caustic production as per stoichiometric ratio. The chlor-alkali industry has found it
advantageous to use this hydrogen as a fuel, that entitled the user to benefits under the PAT Scheme, a
flagship programme of BEE under the National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE). Hydrogen
production by the alkali industry during 2019-20 was a little over 10,000 lakh Nm3, of which nearly 40%
was used as fuel and less than 5% was vented as unutilized hydrogen.
There is a renewed interest in hydrogen as evident from the many seminars organised by the government
and other organisations. The emphasis, though seems to be on green and blue energy which result in no
or low CO2 emissions. One line of thought is to increase the share of hydrogen as an immediate priority
and then shift towards green hydrogen. The estimated annual consumption of hydrogen in India is 6
million metric tonnes which is about 8.5% of the current global demand of 70 million metric tonnes. In
a recent webinar co-organized with the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, experts stressed four key
factors: scale of operations to achieve low production cost, international specification for transportation of
hydrogen, potential for biomass (specially in India), development of wonder storage material that is stable,
less energy intensive, and efficient.
There is a clear shift in treating hydrogen as an energy carrier more than as an industrial gas. Hydrogen
based fuel cell buses are planned to be introduced on an experimental basis in Delhi. The cost of
hydrogen-based Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell buses at Rs.2.5-3.0 crores per bus are much
higher than electric buses but this hasn’t deterred the transport authorities from placing orders. The
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is weighing various options for procuring hydrogen on a
consistent basis, including tying up with chlor-alkali industry for long-term supplies. The discussions are in
the initial stages and offers hope, considering the capacity additions by the chlor-alkali industry expected in
the coming years. Economics and pricing will of course decide whether this fructifies.
This issue carries an article on hydrogen economy and the potential it offers in increasing the green
footprint.
K. Srinivasan
Secretary General
Chlorine Emergency Response Network Toll free no. 1800-11-1735
CONTENTS
I. ARTICLES & FEATURES
Case Studies on Major Accidents due to Corrosion
- Dr. S.K. Chakravorty, Consultant (Plant Engineering) 1
Augmenting Oxygen Output through Distributed Manufacturing
- Ravi Raghavan, Editor, Chemical Weekly 6
Hydrogen Economy for a Healthier Environment
- Nikhaar Gogna, Writer/Editor, Trade Promotion Council of India 8
Researchers find Novel Way to convert Single Use Plastics 10
India-EU Economic Relations: A New Chapter Unfolds
- Sakshi Garg, Researcher 12
Jal Jeevan Mission - An Update 17
Beacon-Messages for Manufacturing Personnel 20
II. NEWS DIGEST
General
Govt expands credit lifeline for MSMEs amid second wave of Covid-19 22
Container shortage, high rates plague exporters 22
Concessional import duty: Prior info of goods a must 23
India’s economy will do well once vaccination reaches critical mass: Ashima Goyal 23
Siddharth Shriram – industrialist, patron of arts no more 23
Govt. may notify export refund rates by May end: DGFT Yadav 24
Liquidity Crunch: New mechanism in the works to aid exporters 24
Annual export target of $400 billion achievable if exporters’ concerns are addressed 25
UN sees India’s GDP growth at 7.5% in 2021 25
Exports rise 80% to $7 bn during May 1-7 26
CBIC eases norm on furnishing bonds for import, export of goods till June 30 26
Government sees limited economic impact of Covid-19 second wave 26
India, UK unveil 10-year road map to elevate bilateral trade partnership 26
India’s slow economic activity in April may hit quarterly GDP 27
Exports jump to USD 30.21 bn in April; trade deficit at USD 15.24 bn 27
Chemicals and Petrochemicals
Producers warn of imminent salt scarcity due to excess rains in T’kudi 28
Vedanta to set up Rs 10,000 cr Aluminium Park in Odisha 28
Ministry of Power to launch biomass mission for coal plants 28
India’s Adani Group plans 2m tonne/year coal-to-PVC plant 29
Hydrogen Electrolysis Capacity to Witness a Huge Jump by 2040 29
Olin announces further chlor alkali capacity reduction 29
University Of Alberta: Some E. Coli Bacteria Not Only Survive But
Thrive In Wastewater Treatment Plants: Study 30
Production of Medical Oxygen from modified Industrial Nitrogen Plants 30
Member Units
DCM Shriram Ltd. sets up oxygen generation plant at ESIC, Ankleshwar 31
Bodal Chemicals forms Indonesia subsidiary 31
Century Textiles & Industries lines up Rs 1,000 cr capex for Birla Estates 31
DCW Q4FY21 PAT at Rs. 6.46 Cr 32
Chemfab Alkalis reports Q4FY21 consolidated loss at Rs. 11.67 Cr 32
Punjab Alkalies and Chemicals posts Rs. 4.57 Cr net profit in Q4 FY2020-21 33
Gujarat Alkalies expects delay of 3 month in completion of its various expansion projects 33
GHCL will invest Rs 400-500 crore in FY22: Ravi S Jalan, MD 33
Nirma Group-backed Nuvoco Vistas files Rs 5,000-cr IPO papers: Details about the IPO 34
Reliance Industries produces over 11pc medical grade liquid oxygen in India 35
Chemplast Sanmar files papers for `3.5k cr IPO 35
III. NOTIFICATIONS/PRESS RELEASES/ MEMORANDA
Anti-Dumping Original Investigation concerning imports of “Soda Ash”
from United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Russia - Initiation Notification - 27/05/2021 38
Alkali Bulletin May, 2021
Amendment in Public Procurement (Preference to Make in India) Order dated 13.05.2021 38
Launch of Online Portal for lodging grievances for alleged violation
of PPP-MII Order, 2017 – 05/05/2021 38
Disclaimer: Information published in this magazine is reproduced from various sources. Every effort is made to minimize errors
while reproducing for publication in Alkali Bulletin. However, readers are requested to verify and make appropriate enquiries
and satisfy themselves about the veracity of information published in this magazine before use. The publisher or AMAI will not be
responsible for decisions taken by readers based on information published in Alkali Bulletin.
Case Studies on Major Accidents due to Corrosion
Dr. S.K. Chakravorty, Consultant (Plant Engineering)
INTRODUCTION its way in and around the shantytowns walled, partly buried stainless steel
located near the plant. Estimates tanks — code named 610, 611 and
While mankind has made remarkable vary on the death toll. However, the 619. While thousands of people slept
progress in the last century, there official record of immediate death toll in their huts around the pesticide
have been some instances in the past was 2,259. The number of people factory on the night of December
where innocent human lives were injured was over 1, 70,000, out of 2/3, a skeleton staff of 120 workers
lost due to some miss-happenings which 12000 people were in critical inside the factory ended its evening
as the unwanted by-product of the condition and had to be immediately shift around 10.45 pm and a new shift
large scale industrialization. Corrosion hospitalized. Figure-1 shows the took over around 11 pm. One of the
by itself is usually an extractive aftermath of the Bhopal Gas Tragedy workers then noticed that the pressure
metallurgy in reverse and bound to where individuals died within hours of in tank 610 — the tank from which
take place sooner or later, but the the leakage of gas and its expansion in all the MIC finally escaped — had
consequences of corrosion failure the atmosphere of Bhopal. risen from two lb per square inch
may well be catastrophic in nature (psi), recorded by the earlier shift, to
and the consequences of corrosion From a corrosion engineer’s point around 10 psi. Corresponding tank
are usually very costly. Therefore, a of view, the Bhopal disaster was temperatures were not available as
substantial engineering effort should the result of a combination of they were not logged normally. The
be directed towards prevention and legal, technological, organizational, five-fold increase in pressure within
control of corrosion. In this article, and human errors. However, the an hour was dismissed in the belief
those events are discussed where immediate cause of the chemical that the pressure recording instrument
corrosion was responsible for taking reaction was the seepage of water could be faulty. Shakil Qureshi,
the lives of hundreds of individuals. (500 litres) into the MIC storage tank. the supervisor on duty, said later,
The four major disasters took place Many investigators and researchers “Instruments often didn’t work as they
due to corrosion of plant components have agreed that corrosion of got corroded.
and their causes are discussed in this pipelines, valves and other safety
article for highlighting the importance equipments was the main culprit How the water entered the pipelines
of corrosion prevention in the for this catastrophe. The following connected to the MIC containing
management of disasters. evidences are presented to support stainless steel tank is altogether a
the argument. different story, but its entry inside
1. BHOPAL GAS TRAGEDY the MIC containing tanks could
MIC was stored in three double- have been averted had the proper
The Bhopal disaster, also referred to as
the Bhopal gas tragedy, was a gas leak
incident in India and is considered
as one of the world's worst industrial
disasters. It occurred on the night of
2–3 December 1984 at the pesticide
plant of Union Carbide India Limited
(UCIL) in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh.
Over 500,000 people were exposed
to about 20,000 Kgs of methyl-iso-
cynate (MIC) gas. MIC is a highly
reactive, flammable and toxic material
and can react with water generating
heat. It boils at 39 deg C and its flash
point is as low as 18 deg C. In view of
its highly toxic properties, threshold
limit value for MIC has been fixed at
0.02 ppm. The toxic substance made
Fig 1 Picture showing the aftermath of Bhopal Gas Tragedy (people died within hours)
Alkali Bulletin May 2021 | 1
excessive heat generated inside the
tank increased the vapour pressure
and let MIC to escape from the tanks
and spread to the atmosphere.
The precise sequence of events still
remains obscure. Carbide’s report
had claimed that it was an unique
combination of large amounts of
water (120 to 240 gallons), higher
than normal amounts of chloroform in
the stored MIC (maximum permissible
amount is 0.5 per cent), and an
iron catalyst, that led to the violent
reaction in MIC, stored at a higher
than specified temperature. The heat
released by the reaction between
the water and MIC raised the
Fig 2 Corroded sections & components of UCIL’s pesticides plant temperature abnormally in the tank.
Simultaneously, MIC got polymerized.
maintenance of the valves connecting slip-blind plates which would have The reaction was catalyzed by iron
the pipelines to the tank being done. prevented the entry of water through present in MIC due to the corrosion
Carbon steel valves were used for the faulty valves were not installed. of the tank walls. Union Carbide
this purpose. Carbon steel valves Once the water entered inside the claimed that the corrosion rate
easily corrode in acidic environment, MIC containing tanks through faulty increased markedly because of the
which was actually happening in valves, the MIC reacted with water presence of an abnormally high level
Union Carbide plant. Moreover, following an exothermic reaction. The of chloroform. The rapid release of
carbon dioxide in large quantities then
helped to build up high pressures,
which forced the foaming mass of
chemicals out of the tank.
The situation became unmanageable
as it was found out that the Flare
Tower could not be used as the
length of piping was corroded and
had not been replaced. The flare
tower was designed to burn off MIC
escaping from the scrubber. The
tower, however, was inadequately
designed for its task, as it was capable
of handling only a quarter of the
volume of gas released. Still the extent
of disaster could have lessened if
corrosion of piping could have been
prevented and the same would have
been replaced in time as a preventive
maintenance activity. Additionally
the MIC storage tanks were provided
with a refrigeration system to keep
the temperature inside the tank at
low temperature (below 39 deg C).
The refrigeration system was put
off deliberately at the time of the
accident due to leakage in the system.
Fig 3 BP Pipeline Failure in Alaska It was found that the leakage was
again due to corrosion.
2 | Alkali Bulletin May 2021
Thus Bhopal gas tragedy took place On investigation, it was found that 2005 caused BP to step up the
basically because of the corroded internal corrosion had caused a one- inspection program on the pipeline.
pipelines and valves associated with quarter-inch hole in the bottom of the The company increased the number
the storage tanks and the refrigeration transit pipeline. The hole had formed of inspection points, increased the
system. Figure-2 shows the file picture in a section of line buried under a frequency of inspections at some
of the plant indicating the corroded caribou crossing (a culvert) designed points and scheduled a smart
sections/components. Many people to allow animals to cross over a pig inspection for the summer of
in India still prefer to ignore the pipeline. The winter snow covered 2006. An inspection of the line
significance and consequences of the leaking oil, so the spill remained after the March 2006 showed leak
corrosion, which is considered to undetected, probably for several days. indicating evidence of high rates of
be a natural part of wear and tear. It It was the odour of oil that ultimately corrosion, even in place that had
is evident that, as a result of UCL’s exposed the leak to a worker. been free of corrosion in the fall 2005
negligence for corrosion control, inspection. Clearly, there had been
so many human lives were lost. In All indications were that the corrosion an exponential growth of corrosion,
addition, the environmental hazard causing a hole in the transit line was culminating in the hole in the pipeline
created by MIC release persisted for biological in origin (microbiological), that caused the oil spill.
many years affecting the health of the caused by sulphate reducing bacteria
entire citizens of Bhopal. The above inside the pipeline. The corrosion BP failure investigation report
disaster analysis proves how much pits confirmed this and also the theorized two main factors that
important is corrosion control for way in which the corrosion in the came together at the same time. The
an industry dealing with hazardous pipeline accelerated over time was first factor was related to corrosion
chemicals not just to avoid its own characteristic of the way in which inhibitors. BP added about 3 million
losses but also the loss of innocent microbiological corrosion develops, as gallons per year of these inhibitors
lives of the people residing around the the bacteria grow and multiply. to Prudhoe Bay production fluids;
vicinity of it. the fluids carried the inhibitors
The bacteria forms in water, so into production facilities such as
that problems associated with
2. PRUDHOE BAY 2006 OIL GC-2. But the corrosion inhibitors
microbiological corrosion were appeared to have been present in
SPILL suspected to be associated with the relatively low concentrations in the
The Prudhoe Bay oil spill was an oil water carrying pipelines, such as the GC-2 production facilities, when
spill that was discovered in March, lines which were used for water flood compared with the other Prudhoe
2006 in a pipeline owned by BP operations. BP had observed that oil Bay facilities. It was thus concluded
Exploration, Alaska (BPXA) in western carrying transit lines, such as the line that the fluids passing down the GC-2
Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. On March from GC-2, is much less susceptible transit line from GC-2 contained
2, 2006 a BP extraction well pad to corrosion than a water bearing line. only small amounts of the inhibitors,
operator discovered a leak in the However, the company had regularly thus providing opportunities for
transit line that delivers oil to the monitored the Prudhoe Bay oil transit corrosion-causing bacteria to grow.
trans-Alaska pipeline from Gathering lines for internal corrosion using two The corrosion inhibitor shortfall may
Centre (GC)-2 in the western techniques: ultrasonic testing and the have occurred because GC-2 was the
operating area of the giant Prudhoe use of corrosion coupons. only facility at Prudhoe Bay which
Bay oil field on Alaska’s North Slope. processed viscous oil. The viscous oil
Ultrasonic testing involves the use of
The leak occurred in the transit line production introduces more solids
an ultrasonic device to measure the
segment between GC-2 and the into the processing facilities than
thickness of the pipeline wall — a
point where the production from traditional production and BP thought
thinning of the wall indicates the
GC-1 enters the line. BP launched that these additional solids may have
presence of corrosion. A corrosion
an immediate response to the event. adsorbed some of the inhibitor. Some
coupon is a small metal plate placed
An estimated volume of around of the bacteria present in the oil
inside the pipeline and inspected for
200,000 gallons leaked from the degrade the aromatic and aliphatic
corrosion rate every 90 days.
pipeline proving to be the largest spill hydrocarbons present in the corrosion
in the history of Prudhoe Bay. The For straight 29 years, BP noted inhibitors reducing the efficiency of
failure led to reduction of total oil “nothing of significance”. It was the corrosion inhibitor leading to
field production by 400,000 barrels/ only in fall of 2005 that evidence of accelerated corrosion rates.
day which was about 8% of US oil increasing corrosion activity started
production. Figure-3 shows the BP to appear. The increasing amount The second possible factor was
pipelines. of corrosion found in the fall of the relatively low flow rate in the
GC-2 transit line, upstream of GC-
Alkali Bulletin May 2021 | 3
material) oxidation in a series of 6
successive reactors. Each reactor,
having a capacity of 45 m³ (5 m high
with a 3.5 m diameter), was made
of a 13-mm soft steel plated on the
inside by stainless steel (3 mm thick)
and featuring a central agitator. The
oxidation process was carried out in
the presence of a catalyst, by means
of injecting compressed air. In order
to allow for gravity transfer, each
reactor was kept at a lower level than
the previous one. The reactors were
connected with 28 in. (700mm) pipe.
On March 27,1974, a cyclohexane
Fig 4 Clean up crews recovering more than 19000 gallons of crude leaked from the pipeline leak was observed on Reactor no.
5 due to a vertical crack within
1. With Prudhoe Bay production in BP should have started pigging of the its sidewall. The facility operator
decline, the transit line was carrying pipeline much before for detecting conducted a thorough inspection by
much smaller volumes of oil than pipe wall defects, weld defects, removing the reactor no.5 and its
the line was designed to handle and cracks so that the catastrophic associated pipes. In order to resume
— the resulting sluggish flow may failure could have been avoided. production as quickly as possible, it
have enabled an increased build up Additionally, DNA probes should was decided to build a bypass pipe
of water in the line and provided have been installed on the pipeline line of 500mm instead of 700mm
an environment conducive to the to identify the dominant bacteria between Reactors 4 and 6. It was
incubation of bacteria. There was responsible for microbial corrosion. decided to use metallic bellows to
much less corrosion downstream from The preventive efforts were very much connect the pipes to the flanges.
GC-1, where the addition of the fluids needed as the consequences of the oil In fact the bellows acted also as
from GC-1 would have increased flow spill caused not only huge production reducers. Experienced maintenance
rates in the line. loss but also polluted the bay and engineers were involved in carrying
needed huge clean-up job as shown out this modification but no one from
There was also a build up of solids in in Figure-4. process safety was involved. This
the GC-2 transit line over a period of
modification worked well for about
several years, as sediment carried by 3. FLIXBOROUGH DISASTER two months but on the fateful day of
the fluids from the GC-2 processing
Built in 1972, the caprolactam unit 1st June, 1974, the connecting pipe
facilities settled in the pipeline.
processed cyclohexane (a flammable gave way, twisted and tore allowing
Bactericide was adhering to the
sediments and grew rapidly. Therefore
it is not possible to discount the
possibility that these solids (sediments)
contributed to the microbial corrosion
leading to rapid thinning of the
pipeline and formation of a hole
through which the oil spilled.
Sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB)
are small anaerobic microorganisms.
When conditions are right they can
multiply to the level of millions of
cells per gram and generate significant
quantities of hydrogen sulphide (H2S).
The H2S together with the stagnant
conditions formed in the pipe wall
lead to enhanced microbial pitting
corrosion rates. Fig 5 File photo of the explosion in Flixborough Plant
4 | Alkali Bulletin May 2021release of huge amount (30-50 tons) From a corrosion engineers standpoint certainly be avoided to a large extent.
of cyclohexane leading to a major the cause of sewer explosion was The timely measures taken on the
explosion consequently causing death traced to the installation of the part of engineers can result not only
of 28 people. Figure-5 shows the file water pipe by a contractor several in cost reduction in the industry or
photo of the explosion site. years before the explosion which organization, but also can become a
leaked water into a gasoline line saving cause for hundreds of valuable
From a corrosion engineers point of lying underneath. The cathodically human lives. History always has its
view the explosion took place due to protected steel gasoline pipeline had way of delivering lessons, time has
the ignition caused in the cyclohexane a hole inside a cavity and an eroded come that a developing country like
which leaked from the bypass joints area, all in longitudinal direction. ours takes steps at every possible level
of rector 4 and 6. At the origin of the The galvanized water pipe had to reduce the risk of any occurrence
accidental sequence, the deficiency suffered stray current corrosion effects of catastrophic failures and disasters
of Reactor no. 5 stemmed from stress (visible as pits of different sizes), due to corrosion and degradation of
corrosion cracking caused by nitrates Refer Figure-7. The corroded water materials.
contained in the water used in the pipelines lead to the leakage of water
past to spray the reactors. This water causing aqueous corrosion of gasoline REFERENCES:
had penetrated into the insulation pipelines leading to leakage of 1. Krishnan, N.V., Safety Management in
and, during evaporation, deposited gasoline into the sewers and initiating Industry, (1993), Jaico Publishing House,
nitrates onto the equipment made of series of explosions. ISBN: 81-7224-029-5, M. G. Road,
steel. The cause of the leak on Reactor Bombay.
no. 5 should have been analyzed CONCLUSION:
prior to any unit modification and the 2. Petrovic, z.c., Catastrophes caused by
While the occurrence of corrosion corrosion, Serbian Armed Forces, AF &
other reactors should also have been
and environmental degradation of AD, 204th Aviation Bridge, Batajaimica,
inspected. Such an approach however Republic of Serbia, 2016, Vol. 64, No. 4.
would have required shutting down the materials seems inevitable, it can
the plant for a few days; the concern
over minimizing plant downtime and
haphazard modification actually led
to the accident. The crack in Reactor
no. 5, which served as the source of
the accidental sequence, stemmed
from corrosion caused by spraying
the reactor with drinking water
(high in nitrates). in order to dilute
cyclohexane discharge and limit the
risk of ignition, water was sprayed on
the reactors. Thus, Nitrate-induced
stress corrosion cracking was held
liable for Flixborough disaster.
4. GUADALAJARA SEWER Fig 6 File photo showing the aftermath of Guadalajara sewer explosions
EXPLOSION
The 1992 Guadalajara explosions
took place on April 22, 1992, in the
downtown district of Analco, Spain.
Numerous gasoline explosions in
the sewer system over four hours
destroyed 8 kilometres of streets.
Officially, by the Lloyd's of London
accounting, 252 people were
reported killed; nearly 1500 injured
and 15,000 were left homeless.
Figure-6 shows the file photo of
the aftermath of Guadalajara sewer
explosion. Fig 7 File photo showing the aftermath of Guadalajara sewer explosions
Alkali Bulletin May 2021 | 5Augmenting Oxygen Output through Distributed Manufacturing
Ravi Raghavan, Editor, Chemical Weekly
COVID-19 has brought forth the Technology in Hyderabad, for (ASUs) that provide much of the gas
vital role of the chemical industry, example, has developed technologies (along with nitrogen and argon), are
and tragically demonstrated that the for the manufacture of the raw very much part of this industry. Most
industry can make all the difference material needed to make an adjuvant ASUs are built to serve the oxygen
between life and death. Since the last for Covaxin – the vaccine developed needs of large industrial consumers,
two weeks, as India’s teeming cities and produced indigenously in a such as oil refineries, steel mills,
and even the hinterlands face the partnership between Bharat Biotech petrochemical plants, etc., and, less
wrath of this virus, oxygen shortages Ltd. and the publicly-funded Indian commonly, the merchant market. At
are all the talk. A clear assessment of Council of Medical Research. But the captive facilities – typically built
mortality may well reveal that a large much more needs to be done to be onsite of the customer – gaseous
number happened due the inability to truly called aatma nirbhar in vaccine oxygen is ferried by pipeline (the
keep oxygen flowing in hospitals. technology! most efficient way) to the point of
use, and some of it is liquefied and
If that was not tragic enough, two This weakness in building capabilities stored as a buffer against planned and
accidents – a leakage of an oxygen across full value chains for meeting unplanned outages or for supplying to
storage tank and an electric short critical needs is evident across the other cylinder-fillers that serve smaller
circuit in an ICU (both in the badly- pharmaceutical industry. As lamented customers (including many hospitals).
affected Maharashtra) – brought home often in this column, several raw In most ASUs, only a small portion of
the fact that even in these challenging materials – active pharmaceutical the total oxygen output is targeted for
times, no one can take eyes of safety ingredients and their starting materials medical use.
and maintenance protocols. (i.e., chemicals) are imported in large
measure by domestic companies. It is this supply that has fallen short
Weak Foundations In most instances, a big chunk of of soaring demand from hospitals,
The chemical industry’s key role imports come from China – an and sent governments scrambling to
in providing the thousands of raw uncomfortable situation prone to mop up all they can get their hands
materials that go to make life-saving disruptions, as amply demonstrated on, even if that requires ordering
drugs and even the vaccines that several times in just the recent past. most industries to curb their captive
producers here are looking to scale up The Indian government is cognisant consumption of oxygen.
several-fold, cannot be overstressed. of this vulnerability and is, at last,
encouraging domestic manufacture But this solves just part of the
There is much talk today on serious problem. Just as challenging is the
shortages of inputs that go to making of some critical drugs and their
starting materials, by providing grants logistics of ferrying the oxygen from
vaccines, and several of them are the production site to where the
chemicals made to highly exacting under a Production Linked Incentive
Scheme, the last tranche of which was hospitals are. Supplies of medical
standards. While India’s competence grade oxygen are typically made
in making vaccines is rightly announced just a couple of weeks
ago. in pressurised gas cylinders or by
recognised world-over, COVID-19 cryogenic tankers that ferry liquefied
has amply demonstrated that this is oxygen to storage tanks installed
Oxygen and the Chemical
built on a somewhatshaky foundation. in the premises of hospitals. The
Industry
Be it adjuvants that improve the unprecedented surge in demand has
efficacy of the vaccines, or the single- One of the realities of the chemical exposed the limitations of this supply
use bioreactors (made of medical industry is that it is an industry largely chain, which requires customised
grade plastics, incidentally), India’s for other industries. The common vehicles.
indigenous capabilities have been man rarely confronts chemicals in its
found wanting. ‘naked’ form. At this critical juncture, it is hence
pertinent to relook current ways of
Some attempts have been made to Few will hence make the connection producing oxygen, and consider
develop technologies for the former; between oxygen and the chemical alternatives, that will serve immediate
the Indian Institute of Chemical industry, but the air separation units and future needs.
6 | Alkali Bulletin May 2021Technology Choices: enriched in oxygen. When the bed at 4-Bar pressure, which is directly
Cryogenic vs Non-Cryogenic reaches the end of its capacity to produced from the PSA generators.
adsorb nitrogen, it can be regenerated The oxygen storage tank can hence
Cryogenic air separation, as practiced by reducing the pressure, releasing the be connected to the hospital oxygen
by the large ASUs, is the most efficient adsorbed nitrogen. It is then ready for pipeline network and even integrated
and cost-effective technology for another cycle of producing oxygen- with a back-up cylinder system to
producing large quantities of oxygen, enriched air. ensure uninterrupted supplies in
nitrogen, and argon as gaseous or the event of outages. Hospitals can
liquid products. In this process, large PSA plants are relatively inexpensive, even set up their own cylinder filling
volumes of air are taken from the and can be quickly scaled up when stations using the PSA units as gas
atmosphere, compressed, cooled, needed. They (and other non- source, freeing them completely from
and liquefied. Through a process of cryogenic sources) are most suitable external cylinder gas supplies.
distillation, the air is then separated when high purity product is not
into its major components. The cost required by the application (as is, Over the last few days, the central and
of electricity is the largest single ironically, the case for medical grade state governments have announced
operating cost incurred in ASUs – oxygen). This is because the physical plans to build hundreds of such PSA
usually between one-third and two- size of the plant can be reduced as systems across the country, in a bid to
thirds of operating costs (remember, required purity is reduced, and the locally produce and consume oxygen.
the raw material, air, is free). power required to operate the unit According to offers received for a first
is reduced as well. They are also round of tendering, a PSA plant that
Unlike cryogenic plants, which use relatively quick and easy to start-up, can supply 24 cylinders worth of gas
the difference between the boiling which is useful when product is not per day, costs about Rs. 3.3-mn, and
points of nitrogen and oxygen to needed full time. can be set up in a couple of weeks.
separate and purify these products, The investments can payback in about
non-cryogenic air separation plants Membrane air separation is based 18 months.
use physical property differences such on the principle that different gases
as molecular structure, size and mass have different permeation rates There will be cases where the
to produce nitrogen and oxygen. The through a polymer film. Oxygen economics make it more attractive to
most common technologies used are: (plus water vapour and carbon source oxygen from ASUs, rather than
dioxide) is considered a "fast gas" produce it captively. In many urban
1. Pressure swing adsorption (PSA)
which diffuses more rapidly through centres, for example, hospitals are
– used to produce nitrogen or
the tube walls than the "slow gases," constrained for space to locate a PSA
oxygen using different adsorbents;
argon and nitrogen. This “fast gas/ unit. Others may be closely located
2. Vacuum swing adsorption (VSA) (a slow gas” diffusion allows dry air to to an ASU or a cylinder filling unit
variant of PSA) – used to produce be converted into a product that that can respond in quick time to a
oxygen; is an inert mix of mostly nitrogen surge in demand. But even in these
3. Membrane separation – used to gas and argon, and a low-pressure instances, there is a case to be made
produce nitrogen; and "permeate" enriched in oxygen. Today, for investing in captive capacity for
4. Ion transport membrane (ITM) (an membranes are widely used for the a critical need as oxygen, if not as a
emerging technology) – which uses production of nitrogen and oxygen- prime supply source, but as a fall-back
a ceramic membrane to deliver enriched air at small scale and for option. These are small investments
high-purity oxygen. mobile applications. These units are that can be easily afforded and/or
economical, compact in size, modular facilitated by forward-thinking policies
PSA processes rely on the fact in configuration and have low specific and initiatives.
that under pressure gases tend to power consumption.
be attracted to solid surfaces or Though the acute phase of this
"adsorbed". The higher the pressure, Relevance of PSA pandemic will abate over time, there
the more gas is adsorbed; when will always be a need for medical
the pressure is reduced, the gas is PSA plants have been used for oxygen across the length and breadth
released, or desorbed. When air is producing medical-grade oxygen since of India. PSA technology offers an
passed under pressure through a the 1970s, and require basic and opportunity to overcome the logistical
vessel containing an adsorbent bed readily available equipment: an air barriers associated with servicing the
that attracts nitrogen more strongly compressor (with refrigeration dryer), needs of a large and populous country
than it does oxygen, part or all of the oxygen generator (with adsorbent, that has a long way to go in creating
controls and oxygen analyser), oxygen quality healthcare infrastructure!
nitrogen will stay in the bed, and the buffer tank, and bacteria filter unit.
gas coming out of the vessel will be In most hospital, oxygen is consumed (Reproduced with permission from
Chemical Weekly, 04th May 2021)
Alkali Bulletin May 2021 | 7Hydrogen Economy for a Healthier Environment
Nikhaar Gogna, Writer/Editor, Trade Promotion Council of India
With appropriate capacity addition and 10 times by 2050. It goes on to any time. Prof. Rangan Banerjee,
to renewable power generation and state: Forbes Marshall Chair Professor
a favourable policy ecosystem, India and Head of the Department of
can catapult itself as a South Asian Given the limits of direct Energy Science and Engineering, IIT
leader in producing affordable green electrification and the potential Bombay, explains:
hydrogen. It can even potentially of hydrogen to overcome some
emerge as a leading exporter of of these barriers, we see it as the Hydrogen is a convenient and
hydrogen like Australia, Netherlands, next clean energy prize under secondary fuel source. Let us take
Canada and USA. the energy transition. A range of the example of obtaining hydrogen
countries, companies and multi- from solar PVs. All the generation
• Hydrogen (particularly ‘green lateral organisations are already which will happen will be during the
hydrogen’ produced from pushing ahead with ambitious plans sunshine hours, and the excess energy
renewable electricity or ‘blue to develop and deploy hydrogen at produced will have to be stored. It
hydrogen’ obtained from fossil scale. is costly to store that energy. The
fuels with carbon capture and advantage of hydrogen is that we can
storage) could be India’s hope for Is it as light as it gets? produce it anytime, store it and use it.
decarbonizing development.
Hydrogen, the lightest element on Given its advantages, many countries
• Hydrogen is a convenient and earth, is estimated to account for
secondary fuel source with in the world are making a transition
90% of all atoms in the universe, and to hydrogen. For example, in June
a versatile set of industrial it is essential to the material world.
applications which can significantly 2018, then-Minister for Ecological
Another advantage of hydrogen is that and Inclusive Transition Nicolas Hulot
help India, the planet’s third-largest it can be obtained from a number of
emitter of carbon dioxide, to vowed to establish France as world
sources. leader in hydrogen. Few months
decarbonize its growth.
‘Grey hydrogen’ is produced from down the line, the country deployed
• However, one of the key
fossil fuels (& is therefore, relatively its first hydrogen-powered passenger
disadvantages of using green and
less eco-friendly), ‘blue hydrogen’ can bus.
blue hydrogen is the high cost of
producing and maintaining it. be manufactured from fossil fuels with Germany has adopted a ` 9 billion
• Yet, its important to recognize carbon capture and storage and ‘green (US$ 10.2 billion) National Hydrogen
that developing economies have hydrogen’ is made from renewable Strategy, with emphasis “green
at least as much to gain from a electricity (& is hence, the most eco- hydrogen” production. It is one of
move towards green hydrogen as friendly fuel). Hydrogen, especially the first countries in the world to do
industrialized ones. the blue/green one, can play an so. Japan has set an ambitious target
integral role in curtailing the country’s of setting up 40,000 fuel cell vehicles
There’s a universal clamor to carbon dioxide emissions and by 2020; 200,000 fuel cell vehicles
decarbonize development in order improving air quality. Consequently, by 2025; and 800,000 by 2030; 320
to cut down greenhouse emissions as people breathe fresh air, diseases hydrogen refuelling stations by 2025;
and check global warming. With the related to air pollution like allergic and 900 by 2030; and. 1,200 fuel
debate intensifying around net zero cough are also likely to drop. cell buses by 2030. South Korea also
carbon emissions, the pressure on
Another major advantage of hydrogen rolled out the Economic Promotion
India, particularly, is mounting as it
is its versatile uses. For example, and Safety Control of Hydrogen Act,
is seen as the planet’s third-largest
liquid hydrogen (LH2) fuel has which deals with three key areas –
emitter of carbon dioxide. Hydrogen
played an important role in space hydrogen vehicles, charging stations
(particularly ‘green hydrogen’
exploration since NASA’s Apollo and fuel cells.
produced from renewable electricity
or ‘blue hydrogen’ obtained from program and can be used in fuel India too has taken a few steps in this
fossil fuels with carbon capture and cells to produce electricity. Apart regard. Lately an alliance of energy
storage) could be key to India’s vision from this, it can be used to make and industrial firms named India H2
for decarbonizing development. steel, aluminium, electronics and in Alliance (IH2A) has come together
A TERI report estimates that the public transportation. Plus, unlike for commercializing hydrogen
potential scale of hydrogen use in some of the other forms of energy technologies and creating a hydrogen
India is likely to increase between 3 like solar power, it can be obtained economy. It will focus on the
8 | Alkali Bulletin May 2021establishment of standards for storage List of assumptions for the techno-economic analysis
and transport hydrogen in pressurized
and liquefied form. Further, Fusion Component Unit 2020 2030 2040
Fuel Green — which has offices in Solar cost US$/kW 405 317 281
Ireland and Portugal —signed an Wind cost US$/kW 848 642 534
agreement with BGR Energy Systems
to collaborate in this field. Alkaline electrolyser cost US$/kW 950 625 (400) 450 (200)
Alkaline electrolyser efficiency % 66.5 68 (71) 75 (80)
Meanwhile, the Government of India Hydrogen storage cost US$/kW 582 345 100 (89)
is working well on its plan to boost
India’s renewable power capacity to Alkaline electrolyser life Years 20 20 20
175 gigawatts (GW) by 2022. It has Alkaline electrolyser operation and % 7 5 5
also given impetus to scaling up the maintenance
gas pipeline infrastructure across the Power converter US$/kW 60 60 60
country and is working to scale up
Solar operation and maintenance % 2.5 2.5 2.5
its power grid system. Further, the
Finance Minister in the Union Budget Wind operation and maintenance % 2.3 2.3 2.3
for 2020-21 formally announced Storage operation and maintenance % 1 1 1
the National Hydrogen Energy Power converter operation and % 2 2 2
Mission (NHM) initiative, which aims maintenance
at the generation of hydrogen from
Demineralised water US$/tonne 1.25 1.25 1.25
green power resources.
Source: CEEW & SHAKTI
Luckily, India’s favorable geographic a big demand from steel industry, but
conditions and presence of abundant A UNEP report justifies the same: India has. Industries will be one of the
natural elements work to its advantage significant drivers down the line, and
Developing economies have at hence, the focus should be on the
and help the nation move one step least as much to gain from a move
closer to achieving this dream. What industrial decarbonization.
towards the hydrogen economy
doesn’t work to the country’s favour, as industrialised ones, since they But the government will also have
however, is the huge cost involved in generally suffer more from urban to create a conducive ecosystem
producing green hydrogen. Currently, pollution and their economies tend to to support the hydrogen economy.
the technology used in production be more energy intensive. This could be in the form of creating
and use of hydrogen like carbon
favorable incentives like tax breaks for
capture and storage (CCS) and This calls for exploring some solutions investors as well as creating suitable
hydrogen fuel cell technology are to make it more commercially viable. infrastructure systems connecting
at a nascent stage and therefore, One thing that can be done is to states with renewable energy (eg
producing it may not be commercially create attractive policies to promote Gujarat) with states having hydrogen
viable. Further, the example of South foreign investments in the sector. Not requirements (eg Odisha). With
Korea highlights that even maintaining only will that align with the objective appropriate capacity addition to
fuel cells is a costly affair. The table of Atma Nirbhar Bharat, foreign renewable power generation, and a
given below gives an insight into this. collaboration will also enhance the favourable policy ecosystem, India
cash crunch faced by the country, can catapult itself as a South Asian
Another disadvantage of hydrogen is promote R&D in India and facilitate
that owing to its low density, it has to leader in producing affordable green
technology transfer and exchange of hydrogen. If all goes well, it can
be converted into a liquid form for ideas.
storage. This reduces its efficiency also emerge a leading exporter of
as a source of energy. It is also tricky Encouraging competition between hydrogen like Australia, Netherlands,
to move around due to its lightness. the players will also reduce the cost. Canada and USA.
Lastly, it is a highly flammable and Mass production of volumes can
volatile substance that cannot be also play a role in this regard. Tirtha
Author
easily detected as it is colourless and Biswas, Program Lead, Council on Ms. Nikhaar Gogna, She is working as
odourless. Energy, Environment and Water, adds: a writer/editor with Trade Promotion
Council of India, an organisation
Winning the clean energy The approach that the hydrogen recognised by the Ministry of
prize economy should take is also a Commerce and Industry
function of how a country’s industrial
While it is true that green hydrogen is structure is currently and what it is (Reproduced with permission from Trade
costly, it is a promising bet to a much likely to be 20 years down the line. Promotion Council of India, 25th May
more sustainable and cleaner future. For example, Europe might not have 2021)
Alkali Bulletin May 2021 | 9Researchers find Novel Way to convert Single Use Plastics
Researchers from the University The work, reported in a paper in “Chemical conversion is the most
of Delaware’s Center for Plastics Science Advances focuses on using a versatile and robust approach to
Innovation (CPI) have developed a novel catalyst and unique process to combat plastics waste,” said Dion
direct method to convert single-use quickly break down these hardest-to- Vlachos, the project principal
plastic waste — plastic bags, yogurt recycle plastics, known as polyolefins. investigator and the Unidel Dan Rich
containers, plastic bottles and bottle Polyolefins account for 60 to 70 Chair in Energy Professor of Chemical
caps, packaging and more — to percent of all plastics made today. and Biomolecular Engineering at UD.
ready-to-use molecules for jet fuels,
diesel and lubricants. Litter, including plastic waste, is a Creating ready-to-use
global and local problem. This bottle molecules
Millions of tons of plastic end up was in the Brandywine Creek in
in landfills every year. It’s a big Delaware. The UD research team used a
societal problem and an even larger chemical process called hydrocracking
environmental threat. The UD-developed process requires to break down the plastic solids into
approximately 50 percent less energy smaller carbon molecules. Catalytic
In the United States, less than 9 than other technologies, and it doesn’t cracking is not new. Refineries have
percent of plastic waste is recycled. involve adding carbon dioxide to the used it to convert heavy crude oil into
Instead, more than 75 percent of atmosphere, an emissions savings over gasoline for years. The research team’s
plastics waste ends up in landfills and other commonly used techniques. It method also converts the material into
up to 16 percent is burned, a process can be done in just a couple hours at branched molecules that allow them
that releases toxic gases into the low temperature, around 250 degrees to be more directly translated into an
atmosphere. Celsius. end product.
10 | Alkali Bulletin May 2021“This makes them ready-to-use in our quest for depolymerization match thanks to researchers at UD’s
molecules for high-value lubricant processes that involve less energy Center for Plastics Innovation. The
or fuel applications,” said Vlachos, intensive pathways and generate UD research team’s method can treat
who also directs the Delaware Energy highly specific breakdown targets, a variety of single-use plastics, even
Institute and the Catalysis Center for said CPI director LaShanda when they are mixed together, a plus
Energy Innovation at UD. Korley, Distinguished Professor of considering the way recyclables are
Materials Science and Engineering managed. Another first step is getting
The catalyst itself is actually a hybrid and Chemical and Biomolecular people not to litter.
material, a combination of zeolites Engineering. “This fundamental
and mixed metal oxides. understanding opens up a new route Next steps in the CPI research include
toward plastics waste valorization.” exploring what other plastics the
Zeolites are known to have properties team’s method can treat and what
that make them good at creating Hard-to-recycle plastics, such as products it can make. Fuels, such as
branched molecules. Mixed metal plastic bags, may have met their diesel and jet fuel, are among the
oxides, meanwhile, are known for match thanks to researchers at UD’s possible end-products enabled by the
their ability to break down large Center for Plastics Innovation. The UD researchers methods.
molecules just the right amount UD research team’s method can treat
without overdoing it. “Alone these a variety of single-use plastics, even “As this circular economy gets going,
two catalysts do poorly. Together, the when they are mixed together. the world will need to make fewer
combination does magic, melting the original plastics because we will be
plastics down and leaving no plastic Andrew Danielson, a UD senior reusing materials made today into the
behind,” Vlachos said. chemical engineering major involved future,” he said.
in the project said, “Plastic waste
The team’s catalyst materials are is a serious environmental issue. I “We want to use green electricity
commonly used and, therefore, fairly believe that this research can help to drive the chemical processing
inexpensive and abundant. lead to better methods of plastic involved in making new things. We
repurposing,” said Danielson, whose are very far away at the moment from
“These are not exotic materials, so seeing this, but that’s where we are
contributions to the work included
we can quickly start thinking about headed over the next 10 to 20 years,”
verifying the data collected during
how to use the technology,” he said. Vlachos said.
the project by reproducing the
He and Liu have filed a provisional
experiments. Co-authors on the paper include
patent on the novel bi-catalyst
and unique method through UD’s Following graduation in May, Sibao Liu, a former UD postdoctoral
Office of Economic Innovation and Danielson will put this research researcher, now an associate
Partnerships. experience to work in the chemical professor of chemical engineering
industry. He’s already landed a and technology at Tianjin University;
Sustainable solutions, circular job in process controls, a part of and CPI researchers Pavel Kots, a UD
economy the manufacturing process that postdoctoral fellow; Brandon Vance,
involves controlling variables, a UD graduate student; and Andrew
Reducing plastic waste by chemically Danielson, a senior majoring in
converting it to fuels can play a such as temperature, pressure and
conductivity, among other things. chemical engineering.
powerful role in driving a circular
economy. “This innovative catalytic (Reproduced with permission from
Hard-to-recycle plastics, such as
approach is a significant advance Chemical Today, 6th May 2021)
plastic bags, may have met their
Alkali Bulletin May 2021 | 11India-EU Economic Relations: A New Chapter Unfolds
Sakshi Garg, Researcher
After an eight-year hiatus, India and
the European Union have relaunched
talks on trade and investment issues.
The scope of India-EU partnership
goes much beyond trade & commerce
to cover digital, energy, transport and
people-to-people connectivity.
• The European Union is India’s
largest trading partner, while India
is its tenth largest trading partner
for merchandise trade. Germany,
Belgium, Netherlands, France and
Italy are India’s top trading partners
in the EU.
• Merchandise trade between
India and the EU has witnessed a
lackluster performance, hovering
around the US$ 90 billion figure
since a decade. Trade in services
between India and the EU, though,
is gaining increasing importance in
their economic ties. India is a net bilateral economic relations. 2019-20, the bilateral trade stood
exporter of services to the EU. at US$ 90 billion, of which India’s
India and EU began negotiations on exports to and imports from EU
• As India and the EU restart a Broad-based Trade and Investment were at US$ 44.9 billion and US$ 45
negotiations on trade, it is hoped Agreement (BTIA) first in 2007. billion, respectively. Trade between
that they will be able to leverage However, the negotiations came India and the EU has witnessed a
their trade potential better. to a halt in 2013 over a number lackluster performance, hovering
• The revitalized partnership could of differences. Although dialogue around the US$ 90 billion figure since
be a driving force for development continued in the subsequent years, a decade (Figure 1).
in the Indo-Pacific. The scope of yet it is only now that India and EU
India-EU partnership goes much have decided to resume negotiations Within the EU, Germany is India’s
beyond trade & commerce to for a balanced, ambitious, most important trade partner,
cover digital, energy, transport and comprehensive and mutually accounting for almost a quarter of
people-to-people connectivity. beneficial trade agreement. They will India’s trade with the grouping. The
also be launching negotiations for two other top trade partners are Belgium
A new chapter is set to unfold in
separate agreements on investment (16%), Netherlands (13%), France
the history of India-European Union
protection and geographical (13%), Italy (11%) and Spain (6%).
economic relations. The adoption of
indications.
the EU Strategy for Cooperation in the Coming to the composition of trade,
Indo-Pacific in April this year implies in 2019-20, product categories
Merchandise trade
deeper engagement between India having the largest share in India’s
and the EU as India is an important The European Union is India’s largest export basket were petroleum oils;
actor in the geopolitical framework. trading partner globally, while India organic chemicals; machinery and
Secondly, the collective decision to is EU’s tenth largest trading partner mechanical appliances; gems and
relaunch trade talks at the recently for merchandise trade. India’s trade jewellery; electrical machinery; and
concluded India-EU Leaders meeting with the EU accounts for about 11% apparels. It is worth noting here that
is expected to give a fillip to the of its total trade with the world. In
12 | Alkali Bulletin May 2021India’s trade with the European Union over the last decade (in US$ billion) 18 billion) worth of services, thereby
running a trade surplus of € 2.9
billion with the grouping.
Similar to the case of merchandise
trade, India’s top trading partners
in the EU in services are Germany,
Netherlands, France, Sweden,
Belgium, Italy, Ireland and Finland.
Globally, Germany was India’s top
destination for exports of transport
and logistics services, Netherlands for
engineering and construction services
and France for maintenance and
repair services.
In 2019, other business services,
Source: Ministry of Commerce and Industry which include research and
development, legal, accounting,
management consulting, technical
Table 1- India’s top trade partners in the EU in 2019-20 (in US$ billion) and trade-related services was the
largest exported service category
Country Exports Share Imports Share Total Share in by India to the EU, running a huge
in total in total trade total trade positive trade balance. The other
exports imports with the top exported categories were
to the EU from the EU telecommunications, computer
EU and information; transport; and
travel. Coming to imports from the
Germany 8.3 18% 13.7 30% 22.0 24%
EU, the top service categories were
Belgium 5.8 13% 8.9 20% 14.7 16% telecommunication, computer and
Netherlands 8.4 19% 3.4 8% 11.8 13% information followed by transport;
France 5.1 11% 6.2 14% 11.3 13% other business services; travel; and
charges for the use of intellectual
Italy 5.0 11% 4.5 10% 9.5 11% property.
Spain 3.9 9% 1.6 4% 5.6 6%
Poland 1.5 3% 0.8 2% 2.4 3% Stumbling Blocks
Sweden 0.7 2% 1.1 2% 1.9 2% A study[3] estimates that a Free Trade
Denmark 0.7 2% 0.6 1% 1.4 2% Agreement between India and EU
in goods and services would lead
Ireland 0.5 1% 0.6 1% 1.1 1% to additional gains in the range of `
Source: Ministry of Commerce and Industry 8 billion (US$9.72 billion) to ` 8.5
billion (US$10.32 billion) for both the
EU and India. So, what has kept India
about 13% of the total exports to the Trade in Services and EU from realising these gains?
EU were of the commodity “other
petroleum oils and oils obtained from Trade in services between India • High tariffs: Around 42% of India’s
bituminous minerals’ (HS 271019) and the EU is gaining increasing exports to the EU enjoy low tariffs
alone. As regards India’s import importance in their economic under EU’s General GSP scheme.
basket from the EU, the top products ties. Particularly for India, EU is India’s highest exports to the EU
are machinery and mechanical an important export destination, under this preferential arrangement
appliances; diamonds; aircrafts; accounting for more than 25% of its are of apparels, machinery and
electrical machinery; and instruments total service exports. India is a net appliances, footwear, articles of
used for optical, photographic, exporter of services to the EU. In leather and plastics.
checking precision, medical and 2019, India exported services worth €
17.7 billion (US$ 21.5 billion) to the This is, however, a temporary
surgical purposes. arrangement as the preferences are
EU and imported € 14.8 billion (US$
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