BACKGROUND IOM Topic A: Standards of Protection for People Displaced by Climate Disasters
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BACKGROUND IOM
GUIDE
Topic A: Standards of Protection
for People Displaced by Climate
Disasters
Topic B: Standards for the Deten-
2 0 2 1 tion of Arriving Immigrants and
Asylum Seekers
Email: info@imuna.org
Phone: +1 (212) 652-9992
Web: www.nhsmun.org
Secretary-General Dear Delegates,
Maura Goss
I am extremely excited to welcome all of you to NHSMUN 2021. My name is Victor Miranda, and
Directors-General
this year I’ll have the honor to be working as your Session I Director at the International Organi-
Rose Blackwell
zation for Migration (IOM). This is my third year as part of the unique NHSMUN staff, having
JJ Packer
served as the Session I Director for UNPBC last year and being an Assistant Director for the same
Conference Services committee the previous year. I also had the privilege of attending NHSMUN as a delegate once, so
Hannah Lilley this is my fourth conference.
Alisa Wong
Delegate Experience Currently, I am entering my fourth year as a Law student at Pontifícia Universidade Católica do
Akanksha Sancheti Rio de Janeiro (PUC-RIO) in my home country of Brazil. Other than NHSMUN, I am also the
John Wood Director-General of my college’s Model UN program. I started to attend Model UN conferences
late in my high school years, but once I had my first experience, it immediately became a passion
Global Partnerships
Sofia Fuentes of mine. Some of my biggest interests, such as international law and politics, came up to me during
Salmaan Rashiq Model UN, and it is safe to say that I would be somewhere completely different had I not chosen
to participate in those conferences. Outside of academics, I am a devoted soccer fan with a hidden
Under-Secretaries-
General interest for water polo, as well as thoroughly enjoying cinema
Jon Basile
As members of the IOM, we are tasked with promoting humane and cooperative migration ten-
Ankita Bhat
dencies, and as migration becomes increasingly common, we must always keep in mind our respon-
Beatriz Circelli
Caitlyn Johnson sibility of protecting an enormous but also vulnerable part of the global population. My amazing
Patrick Leong co-director, Sean Nesmith, and I have chosen two topics for our agenda that discuss ill-protected
Kathy Li segments of this population, being environmental migrants and individuals under immigration
Pablo Maristany de detention. We hope our background guide will allow you all to make the most out of our mandate
las Casas and fully understand these pressing issues.
McCall Olliff
Abolee Raut Lastly, I would like to emphasize that, although a lot of effort and passion was put into the back-
Pranav Reddy ground guide and it is a good foundation for your research, we strongly encourage you to look
Clare Steiner beyond it when preparing for the conference. Sean and I are more than happy to help you with
Ann Williams any questions that you might have about the committee, the topics, NHSMUN, or even ourselves.
Most importantly, don’t forget that you all have an opportunity to learn, explore new people and
cultures, and have fun at this conference! NHSMUN is what we make of it, and I cannot wait to
meet everyone soon.
Best regards,
Victor Miranda
victor.miranda@imuna.org
International Organization for Migration
Session I
Email: info@imuna.org
Phone: +1 (212) 652-9992
Web: www.nhsmun.org
Secretary-General Dear Delegates,
Maura Goss
It is with great honor and pleasure that I am able to welcome you all to the International Organization
Directors-General
for Migration (IOM) at the 2021 National High School Model United Nations Conference (NHSMUN)!
Rose Blackwell
My name is Sean Nesmith, and I am excited to serve as your Director for Session II. This year, I am so
JJ Packer
thankful to be working alongside my co-director, Victor Miranda, to create an engaging debate where
Conference Services we will discuss critical issues regarding international migration while also being able to unlock your inner
Hannah Lilley passions for global change in the process. We truly hope that this background guide serves as a building
Alisa Wong
block for both on your journey not only as delegates but as students and global citizens.
Delegate Experience
Akanksha Sancheti While NHSMUN 2021 marks my debut as a first-time director at NHSMUN, MUN has been a part of
John Wood my life since middle school, starting with the Ron Clark Academy MUN Conference in 2014. For the
past seven years, I have traveled to conferences at both the high school and collegiate level, while also
Global Partnerships
serving as a director for my own university’s high-school and collegiate conferences. Sure, being in MUN
Sofia Fuentes
Salmaan Rashiq for so long has strengthened my public speaking skills and the ability to think on my feet, but in my
opinion, the best keepsakes have been the friends I have made along the way. Had it not been for them,
Under-Secretaries-
General I certainly would not be standing before you to write this letter. Undoubtedly, it is my priority to help
Jon Basile you cultivate life-long friendships and memories during the course of this conference.
Ankita Bhat
Currently, I am a junior at New York University, where I double major in international relations and
Beatriz Circelli
public policy with a minor in peace and conflict studies. When I am not in class, I am an active member
Caitlyn Johnson
Patrick Leong of my university’s Black Student Union, and I also work as an Undergraduate Admissions Ambassador,
Kathy Li where I write articles about my experience and give tours for future violets (hopefully for some of you!).
Pablo Maristany de Outside of school, though, I am a fifth-year volunteer for the Hugh O’ Brian Youth Leadership Pro-
las Casas gram (HOBY), a non-profit organization that inspires and develops leadership skills in high schoolers
McCall Olliff worldwide through service, integrity, diversity, and excellence.
Abolee Raut
Pranav Reddy After an extensive research process, our two topics this year will be “Standards of Protection for People
Clare Steiner Displaced by Climate Disasters” and “Standards for the Detention of Arriving Immigrants and Asylum
Ann Williams Seekers.” As a delegate, you should be thinking about current events and how they pertain to providing
protections for those who are legally uncategorized by domestic and international systems, as a result of
either climatic events or due to detainment at the border. These topics require meticulous preparation
on both the past and future to create solutions for the present. In doing so, Victor and I hope to remind
delegates that behind every moderated debate and every working paper is a population in need.
Best of luck with your research! Please do not hesitate to send either Victor or me an email with any
questions you might have. No matter the capacity, we look forward to meeting everyone.
With light, love, and solidarity,
Sean Nesmith
sean.nesmith@imuna.org
International Organization for Migration
Session II
IOM 4| Table of Contents Table of Contents A Note on the NHSMUN Difference 5 A Note on Research and Preparation 7 Committee History 8 Standards of Protection for People Displaced by Climate Disasters 10 Introduction 11 History and Description of the Issue 12 Current Status 21 Bloc Analysis 27 Committee Mission 29 Standards for the Detention of Arriving Immigrants and Asylum Seekers 30 Introduction 31 History and Description of the Issue 32 Current Status 44 Bloc Analysis 50 Committee Mission 55 Research and Preparation Questions 56 Important Documents 57 Works Cited 60
IOM
A Note on the NHSMUN Difference |5
A Note on the NHSMUN Difference
Esteemed Faculty and Delegates,
Welcome to NHSMUN 2021! Our names are Rose Blackwell and JJ Packer, and we are this year’s Directors-General. Thank
you for choosing to attend NHSMUN, the world’s largest and most diverse Model United Nations conference for secondary
school students. We are thrilled to welcome you to our conference in March!
As a space for collaboration, consensus, and compromise, NHSMUN strives to transform today’s brightest thinkers into tomor-
row’s leaders. Our organization provides a uniquely tailored experience for all in attendance through innovative and accessible
programming. We believe that an emphasis on education through simulation is paramount to the Model UN experience, and this
idea permeates throughout NHSMUN.
Debate founded on strong knowledge: With knowledgeable staff members and delegates from over 70 countries, NHSMUN
can facilitate an enriching experience reliant on substantively rigorous debate. To ensure this high quality of debate, our staff
members produce extremely detailed and comprehensive topic overviews (like the one below) to prepare delegates for the com-
plexities and nuances inherent in global issues. This process takes over six months, during which the Directors who lead our
committees develop their topics with the valuable input of expert contributors. Because these topics are always changing and
evolving, NHSMUN also produces update papers intended to bridge the gap of time between when the background guides are
published and when committee starts in March. As such, this guide is designed to be a launching point from which delegates
should delve further into their topics.
Extremely prepared and engaged staff: The detailed knowledge that our directors provide in this background guide through
diligent research aims to spur critical thought within delegates at NHSMUN. Before the conference, our Directors and Assistant
Directors are trained rigorously through copious hours of exercises and workshops to provide the best conference experience
possible. Beyond this, our Directors and Assistant Directors read every position paper submitted to NHSMUN and provide
thoughtful insight on those submitted by the feedback deadline. Our staff aims not only to tailor the committee experience to
delegates’ reflections and research but also to facilitate an environment where all delegates’ thoughts can be heard.
Emphasis on participation: The UN relies on the voices of all of its Member States to create resolutions most likely to make
a dramatic impact on the world. That is our philosophy at NHSMUN too. We believe that to properly delve into an issue and
produce fruitful debate, it is crucial to focus the entire energy and attention of the room on the topic at hand. Our Rules of
Procedure and our staff focus on making every voice in the committee heard, regardless of each delegate’s country assignment
or skill level. However, unlike many other conferences, we also emphasize delegate participation after the conference. MUN
delegates are well researched and aware of the UN’s priorities, and they can serve as the vanguard for action on the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs). Therefore, we are proud to also connect students with other action-oriented organizations to en-
courage further work on the topics.
Focused committee time: We feel strongly that interpersonal connections during debate are critical to producing superior com-
mittee experiences and allow for the free flow of ideas. Ensuring policies based on equality and inclusion is one way in which
NHSMUN guarantees that every delegate has an equal opportunity to succeed in committee. We staff a very dedicated team
who type up and format draft resolutions and working papers so that committee time can be focused on communication and
collaboration.
Educational emphasis, even for awards: At the heart of NHSMUN lies education and compromise. As such, when NHSMUN
does distribute awards, we de-emphasize their importance in comparison to the educational value of Model UN as an activity.
IOM 6| a nOTe On The nhsMUn DIfferenCe NHSMUN seeks to reward schools whose students excel in the arts of compromise and diplomacy. More importantly, we seek to develop an environment in which delegates can employ their critical thought processes and share ideas with their counterparts from around the world. We always prioritize teamwork and encourage our delegates to engage with others diplomatically and inclusively. In particular, our daises look for and promote constructive leadership that strives towards consensus, as delegates do in the United Nations. Realism and accuracy: Although a perfect simulation of the UN is never possible, we believe that one of the core educational responsibilities of MUN conferences is to educate students about how the UN System works. Each NHSMUN committee is a simulation of a real deliberative body so that delegates can research what their country has said in the committee. Our topics are chosen from the issues currently on the agenda of that committee (except historical committees, which take topics from the appropriate time period. This creates incredible opportunities for our delegates to do first-hand research by reading the actual statements their country has made and the resolutions they have supported. We also incorporate real UN and NGO experts into each committee through our committee speakers program and arrange for meetings between students and the actual UN Permanent Mission of the country they are representing. No other conference goes so far to deeply immerse students into the UN System. As always, we welcome any questions or concerns about the substantive program at NHSMUN 2021 and would be happy to discuss NHSMUN pedagogy with faculty or delegates. Delegates, it is our sincerest hope that your time at NHSMUN will be thought-provoking and stimulating. NHSMUN is an in- credible time to learn, grow, and embrace new opportunities. We look forward to seeing you work both as students and global citizens at the conference. Best, Rose Blackwell and JJ Packer Directors-General
IOM
A Note on Research and Preparation |7
A Note on Research and Preparation
Delegate research and preparation is a critical element of attending NHSMUN and enjoying the conference’s intellectual and
cosmopolitan perspective. We have provided this Background Guide to introduce the topics that will be discussed in your com-
mittee. This document is designed to give you a description of the committee’s mandate and the topics on its agenda. We do not
intend to represent exhaustive research on every facet of the topics. We encourage and expect each of you to critically explore
the selected topics and be able to identify and analyze their intricacies upon arrival to NHSMUN in March. Delegates must be
prepared to intelligently utilize your knowledge and apply it to your country’s unique policy.
The task of preparing for the conference can be challenging, but to assist delegates, we have updated our Beginner Delegate
Guide and Advanced Delegate Guide. In particular, these guides contain more detailed instructions on how to prepare a
position paper and excellent sources that delegates can use for research. Use these resources to your advantage—they can help
transform a sometimes-overwhelming task into what it should be: an engaging, interesting, and rewarding experience.
An essential part of representing a state in an international body is the ability to articulate a given state’s views in writing. Ac-
cordingly, NHSMUN requires each delegation (the one or two delegates representing a country in a committee) to write a posi-
tion paper for both topics on the committee’s agenda. In delegations with two students, we strongly encourage each student to
participate in the research for both topics, to ensure that both students are prepared to debate no matter what topic is selected
first. More information about how to write and format positoin papers can be found in the NHSMUN Research Guide. To sum-
marize, position papers should be structured into three sections, described below.
I: Topic Background – This section should describe the history of the topic as it would be described by the delegate’s coun-
try. Delegates do not need to give an exhaustive account of the topic background, but rather focus on the details that are most
important to the delegation’s policy and proposed solutions.
II: Country Policy – This section should discuss the delegation’s policy regarding the topic. Each paper should state the policy
in plain terms and include the relevant statements, statistics, and research that support the effectiveness of the policy. Compari-
sons with other global issues are also appropriate here.
III. Proposed Solutions – This section should detail the delegation’s proposed solutions to address the topic. Descriptions of
each solution should be thorough. Each idea should clearly connect to the specific problem it aims to solve and identify potential
obstacles to implementation and how they can be avoided. The solution should be a natural extension of the country’s policy.
Each topic’s position paper should be no more than 10 pages long double-spaced with standard mar-gins and font size. We
recommend 2-4 pages per topic as a suitable length. The paper must be written from the perspective of the country you are
representing at NHSMUN 2021 and should articulate the policies you will espouse at the conference.
Each delegation is responsible for sending a copy of its papers to their committee Directors via myDais on or before 19 Febru-
ary 2021. If a delegate wishes to receive detailed feedback from the committee’s dais, a position must be submitted on or before
29 January 2021. The papers received by this earlier deadline will be reviewed by the dais of each committee and returned prior
to your arrival at the conference.
Complete instructions for how to submit position papers will be sent to faculty advisers via the email submitted at registration.
If delegations are unable to submit their position papers on time, they should contact us at info@imuna.org as soon as possible.
Delegations that do not submit position papers to directors will be ineligible for awards.
IOM 8| Committee History Committee History The International Organization for Migration (IOM) was established in 1951 at the International Migration Conference in Brus- sels, Belgium.1 Originally known as the Provisional Intergovernmental Committee for the Movement of Migrants from Europe (PICMME), the organization’s first mandate was to identify resettlement countries for the displaced populations uprooted by the Second World War. After successfully organizing the transportation of up to one million migrants during the 1950s,2 the organization expanded, and it now serves by managing outflows of citizens in the wake of disasters all around the world such as the coup d’état in Chile in 1973, Pakistan’s earthquake in 2005, and the Hungarian Revolution of 19563 which marked the organization’s transition from a simple, operational logistics’ agency, to a reference in international migration. To reflect the or- ganization’s new, international-humanitarian direction, the committee’s name then changed to the International Committee for Migration (ICM) in 1980 until it finally became the International Organization for Migration in 1989.4 The IOM is a Related Organization5 of the UN General Assemblies made up of 173 member states and 8 observer states.6 Its status as a Related Organization means that it is more independent than Specialized Agencies, being able to deliberate over its own rules, protocols, and founding documents.7 As a Permanent Observer and Related Organization to the United Nations General Assembly, the IOM has historically formed close relationships with other UN bodies such as the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, the United Nations Development Programme, and the International Labor Organization, in most cases based on related field missions.8 Also, IOM is a founding member of the Global Migration Group, a wider inter-agency group that promotes the implementation of global migration norms and facilitates further collaboration.9 The IOM consists of two main organs: The Council and The Administration. The Council is comprised of one representative from each of the 173 member states. Its duties cover determining, examining, and reviewing the IOM’s policies and activities. In contrast, the Administration, including the Director General, Deputy Director General, and other staff, is responsible for its executive and managerial functions per its constitution.10 Article 2, Chapter II of the Constitution outlines the membership’s criteria of being a demonstrated interest in upholding the principle of the free movement of persons who are willing to make a financial contribution to the organization and take on the responsibilities determined by the constitution. 11 Substantially, the Standing Committee of the IOM meets annually according to the body’s constitution.12 In committee, the IOM follows stan- dard United Nations debate procedures with the end goal of passing resolutions after a period of moderated and unmoderated discussion. It is worth noting that there is also a Standing Committee on Programs and Finances with open membership that essentially controls the IOM’s policies.13 While the physical IOM headquarters are based in Grand-Saconnex, Switzerland, the IOM has main satellite offices in Berlin, 1 “1950s,” IOM, accessed September 9, 2020, https://www.iom.int/1950s. 2 “IOM History,” IOM, accessed September 9, 2020, https://www.iom.int/iom-history. 3 “IOM History,” IOM, accessed September 9, 2020, https://www.iom.int/iom-history. 4 “IOM History,” IOM, accessed September 9, 2020, https://www.iom.int/iom-history. 5 “The IOM becomes a Related Organization to the UN,” IOM, accessed September 9, 2020, https://www.iom.int/news/iom-becomes- related-organization-un. 6 “Members and Observers,” IOM, accessed September 9, 2020, https://www.iom.int/members-and-observers. 7 “UN Related Organizations: Globalization101,” Suny Levin Institute, accessed September 9, 2020, http://www.globalization101.org/un- related-organizations/. 8 “Civil Society & NGOs,” IOM, accessed September 9, 2020, https://www.iom.int/civil-society-ngos. 9 “Global Migration Group,” Global Migration Group, accessed September 15, 2020, https://globalmigrationgr oup.org/. 10 “Constitution and Basic Texts of the Governing Bodies,” IOM, accessed September 9, 2020, https://www.iom.int/constitution-and- basic-texts-governing-bodies. 11 “Constitution,” IOM, accessed September 9, 2020, https://www.iom.int/constitution#ch2. 12 “Constitution and Basic Texts of the Governing Bodies,” IOM, accessed September 9, 2020, https://ww w.iom.int/ constitution-and- basic-texts-governing-bodies. 13 “Constitution and Basic Texts of the Governing Bodies.”
IOM
Committee History |9
Helsinki, Tokyo, and Washington, D.C.14 Beyond these, there are also country offices in Kazakhstan, Australia, Italy, and Guyana,
as well as an African Capacity Building Centre.15 Aside from regional fieldwork, the IOM also does important work with migra-
tion data analysis, compiling hard data into deliverables such as its annual World Migration Reports to understand patterns and
trends and better aid migrants in the future.16 Additionally, the IOM has been responsible for the reintegration of 752 child traf-
ficking victims since 2002, working on the capacity building of up to 150 government officials and NGO partners in regards to
human trafficking, as well as establishing standards and facilitating child protection education for up to 1000 individuals across
the globe.17 Many non-governmental organizations have developed working relationships with the IOM. In fact, more than sixty
NGOs have observer status in the IOM, including organizations such as Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and Save
the Children.18
Considering the dynamic history of the IOM and its recent addition as an official UN body, this committee’s history is very rel-
evant and informs the way issues are debated. From the transportation of up to one million refugees from Europe to delivering
aid to the victims of the Indian Ocean Tsunami overseas in 2004, the IOM has proven to consistently be the main guarantee for
safety for migrants across the globe. In an increasingly globalized world, international migration policies affect a larger percent-
age of the population, and the IOM’s work plays a part in determining those policies.
14 “Country Offices,” IOM, accessed September 9, 2020, https://www.iom.int/country-offices.
15 “Country Offices.”
16 “World Migration Report,” IOM, accessed September 9, 2020, https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/wmr_2 020.pdf.
17 “Accomplishments,” IOM, accessed September 9, 2020, https://www.iom.int/accomplishments.
18 “With Observer Status,” IOM, accessed September 9, 2020, https://www.iom.int/observer-status-0.
IOM
NHSMUN 2021
Topic A:
Standards of Protection for People Displaced by Climate Disasters
Photo Credit: Water and Sanitation Collaborative CouncilTopic A: Standards of Protection for People Displaced by Climate Disasters
Committee History |11
Introduction
Every second, one person is displaced by a climate disaster.1 The United Nations University Insti-
tute for Environment and Human Security reports that 200 million people could be displaced due
to climate disasters by 2050.2 Similar to war, conflict, and poverty, climate change continues to bring
destruction and devastation to the world’s most vulnerable populations, often requiring them to flee
their homes.3 To a certain extent, disasters are inevitable; while events such as firestorms and hur-
ricanes are scientifically proven to be unavoidable, the excess amount of greenhouse gas emissions
has accelerated the global average temperature, making climate events more intense and irregular, and
in turn, harder to manage.4
For example, Southern Africa was hit by two cyclones in Fiji, and Papua New Guinea are set to become uninhabitable
2019. Tropical Cyclone Idai and Tropical Cyclone Kenneth in the next decade due to rising sea levels and land degrada-
had winds of up to 220km/h, making them the strongest tion caused by erosion and natural disasters.9 These climatic
storms to have ever hit the African continent.5 As a result conditions create a similar fate for Pacific Islanders, causing
of the ensuing flash flooding, extensive damage to infrastruc- them to be uprooted on short notice, stemming from the de-
ture, and a loss of electricity, the two cyclones left close to 2.2 struction of agricultural systems, freshwater shortages, and
million people displaced and in need of humanitarian assis- eroding damage to infrastructure.10
tance.6 One year later, Australia experienced severe bushfires
in January, engulfing over six million hectares of native land 79.5 million people have been forcibly displaced worldwide.11
and displacing over 90,000 people due to destroyed homes Of those, 17.2 million displacements were associated with di-
and poor air quality.7 On the other side of the world, sea-level sasters, spanning 148 countries.12 However, despite this, con-
rise continues to pose a unique threat to human security for temporary international law is limited in its ability to protect
Pacific Island states, with global warming effects contributing the environmentally-displaced. There are no legal mandates
to increased drought durations, frequent tropical storms, and, that are currently set to govern the migratory effects of cli-
most notably, ocean acidification and sea-level rise.8 Reports mate disasters, and as a result, this rapidly growing population
have shown that small island countries such as Micronesia, fails to receive any adequate humanitarian protection, even on
1 Baher Kamal, “Climate Victims - Every Second, One Person Is Displaced by Disaster,” Inter Press Service New Agency, July 27, 2016, http://
www.ipsnews.net/2016/07/climate-victims-every-second-one-person-is-displaced-by-disaster/.
2 Oli Brown, “Migration and Climate Change,” International Organization for Migration, no. 31 (2008), https://www.ipcc.ch/apps/njlite/srex/
njlite_download.php?id=5866
3 “5 Natural Disasters That Beg for Climate Action,” Oxfam International, accessed April 7, 2020, https://www.oxfam.org/en/5-natural-
disasters-beg-climate-action.
4 Jennifer Scroggins, “Climate Change is Making Natural Disasters Worse, and More Likely. How Do We Protect the Most Vulnerable?”
Public Health Institute, November 15, 2017, https://www.phi.org/press/climate-change-is-making-natural-disasters-worse-and-more-likely-
how-do-we-protect-the-most-vulnerable/.
5 “Cyclones Idai and Kenneth,” United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, accessed July 20, 2020, https://www.unocha.
org/southern-and-eastern-africa-rosea/cyclones-idai-and-kenneth.
6 “Cyclones Idai and Kenneth,” United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs.
7 Emily Cassidy, et al, “Wildfires Are Making Australia’s Air Toxic and Have Displaced About 90,000 People,” Resource Watch, January 9,
2020, https://blog.resourcewatch.org/2020/01/09/wildfires-are-making-australias-air-toxic-and-have-displaced-more-than-18000-people/
8 John Campbell and Olivia Warrick, “Climate Change and Migration Issues in the Pacific,” United Nations Economic and Social Commission for
Asia and the Pacific, August 2014, last accessed July 22, 2020. https://www.ilo.org/dyn/migpractice/docs/261/Pacific.pdf
9 Carly Cassella, “There’s a Climate Threat Facing Pacific Islands That’s More Dire Than Losing Land,” Science Alert, September 19, 2019,
https://www.sciencealert.com/pacific-islanders-are-in-a-climate-crisis-as-rising-sea-levels-threaten-water.
10 William C. G. Burns, “Pacific Island Developing Country Water Resources and Climate Change,” The World’s Water 2002-2003, 118,
https://pacinst.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/worlds_water_2002_chapter53.pdf
11 “Figures at a Glance,” United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, accessed July 30, 2020, https://www.unhcr.org/figures-at-a-glance.
html.
12 Dina Ionesco, “Let’s Talk About Climate Migrants, Not Climate Refugees,” United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, June 6, 2019,
https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2019/06/lets-talk-about-climate-migrants-not-climate-refugees/12|TH opic A: Standards of Protection for
istory and Description of the Issue
People Displaced by Climate Disasters
A child stands outside of his damaged residence, overlooking the destruction caused by Typhoon Maysak, the most powerful tropical cyclone that hit the Philippines in 2015
a national level.13 As countries struggle to develop an interna- tion Relating to the Status of Refugees and the subsequent
tionally recognized resolution, immigration systems continue 1967 Protocol, defining responsibilities for the protection of,
to deny asylum for those who escape from severe climatic and assistance to, refugees and migrants worldwide.16 These
conditions.14 In 2019, IOM Director General António Vitori- internationally recognized legal documents were adopted and
no spoke at the UN Climate Summit in New York about these ratified by 145 member states with the intention of protect-
challenges, highlighting the need to integrate environmental ing refugees on a universal scale.17 Since then, refugees have
and climatic factors into migration and disaster management always been understood to be only those seeking political ref-
policies.15 Yet, they continue to remain invisible. uge, and this narrow distinction has been the basis of allowing
individuals to receive humanitarian assistance and apply for
History and Description of the Issue asylum.
While the definition of a “refugee’’ was explicitly outlined in
Defining “Refugee” and “Migrant”
Article One of the 1951 Convention, there are still disputable
Following the aftermath of World War II that resulted in the arguments concerning which refugees fall under the protec-
forced displacement of millions of Europeans in the 1950s, tion of the international community, often requiring careful
the United Nations created two treaties, the 1951 Conven- examination by legal experts. Both the 1951 Convention and
13 Sumudu Atapattu, ““Climate Refugees” and the Role of International Law,” Oxford Research Group, September 12, 2018, https://www.
oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/blog/climate-refugees-and-the-role-of-international-law.
14 Alice Tidey, “Germany says it will not grant asylum to ‘climate refugees,’” Euronews, February 13, 2020, https://www.euronews.
com/2020/02/13/germany-says-it-will-not-grant-asylum-to-climate-refugees.
15 António Vitorino, “Finding Our Way in the Age of Climate Change and Migration,” International Organization for Migration, September 26,
2019, https://www.iom.int/news/finding-our-way-age-climate-change-and-migration.
16 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 189, “Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees,” UN General Assembly (July 28, 1951), https://
www.refworld.org/docid/3be01b964.html.
17 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 189, “Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees.”Topic A: Standards of Protection for People Displaced by Climate Disasters
History and Description of the Issue |13
the 1967 Protocol state that the term “refugee” shall apply to In 1985, United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP)
any person who is unable to return to their “country of for- researcher Essam El-Hinnawi sought to categorize those who
mer habitual residence” due to a “well-founded fear of being migrated due to environmental factors. He argued that pro-
persecuted” as a result of their race, religion, nationality or tecting “those people who have been forced to leave their
affiliation with political organizations.18 This definition sought traditional habitat, temporarily or permanently, because of a
to ensure that individuals would be internationally protected marked environmental disruption that jeopardized their exis-
when their native government intentionally neglected their ba- tence” is within the scope of a state’s obligation to protecting
sic rights due to these identities. However, this definition ex- refugees.22 Particularly within the international community,
cluded climate refugees, since it is legally difficult to prove that there has been contested debate on whether or not move-
the government enables persecution when someone is fleeing ment based on environmental and climate factors constitutes
from abstract, undefined structures, such as the climate. That refugee status under these treaties, creating different schools
said, regional conventions continued to contextualize and re- of thought regarding the causal links between climate change
draft the Convention’s definition after its publication, ensuring and climate migration.23 On the one hand, some environmen-
that the scope of protection and, thus, obligation to provide tal scholars believe that changes in the physical environment
protection standards, remained narrow. The Organization of and environmental stressors to be a direct link on human mi-
African Unity (OAU) Refugee Convention in 1969 included gration as El-Hinnawi posited.24 However, some consider cli-
any events under the purview of “external aggression, occu- mate change to be another global developmental inequity that
pation, foreign domination” and any other events from their all countries experience, and whether or not these individuals
country of origin that resulted in a compulsion to seek refuge are exacerbated by climate change, they should be regarded
elsewhere. At the time, this was a response to the displacement solely as environmental migrants.25 To understand the stance
caused by instability in South Africa.19 Later, Latin American of the latter half of environmental scholars, it is important to
countries ratified the 1984 Cartagena Declaration on Refugees understand the fact that conventionally a migrant chooses to
and took this definition further, including any “massive vio- move while a refugee has been forced from their home.26 This
lation of human rights” to represent the mass displacement expanded defintion of a refugee would again be discounted
caused by intrastate conflict in Central America.20 However, two years later by Sadako Ogata, the head of the UNHCR.27
these definitions and, by extension, the protections afforded During a press conference at the Swiss Peace Foundation in
to those involved fail to incorporate environmental concerns 1992, Ogata was specifically invited to speak on the UNHCR’s
as a reason to flee the country.21 work with environmental refugees. However, on behalf of the
18 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 606, “Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees,” UN General Assembly (January 31, 1967), https://
www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3ae4.html
19 J.O. Moses Okello, “The 1969 OAU Convention and the continuing challenge for the African Union,” Forced Migration Review no. 48 (No-
vember 2014), https://www.fmreview.org/sites/fmr/files/FMRdownloads/en/faith/okello.pdf.
20 Liliana Lyra Jubilut, Marcia Vera Espinoza, and Gabriela Mezzanotti, “The Cartagena Declaration at 35 and Refugee Protection in Latin
America,” E-International Relations (November 22, 2019), https://www.e-ir.info/pdf/80667
21 Isabelle R. Gunning, “Expanding the International Definition of Refugee: A Multicultural View,” Fordham International Law Journal 13, no.
1 (1989): 38. https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1231&context=ilj
22 Stijin Neuteleers, “Environmental Refugees: A Misleading Notion for a Genuine Problem,” Ethical Perspectives 18, no. 2 (2011): 232,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282156981_Environmental_Refugees_A_Misleading_Notion_for_a_Genuine_Problem/
link/560593ab08ae8e08c08c6df9/download.
23 Marie Frances Piscano, “Rethinking the Relationship of Migration, Environment, and Peace and Security,” The United Nations University
Graduate Student Journal, accessed July 20, 2020, https://postgraduate.ias.unu.edu/upp/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/2_Piscano_article.pdf
24 James Morrissey, “Rethinking the ‘debate on environmental refugees’: from ‘maximalists and minimalists’ to ‘proponents and critics,’”
Journal of Political Ecology 19, no. 1 (2012), https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/JPE/article/view/21712/21263.
25 Morrissey, “Rethinking the ‘debate on environmental refugees.’”
26 Alison Eldridge, “What’s the Difference Between a Migrant and a Refugee?,” Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed August 9, 2020, https://
www.britannica.com/story/whats-the-difference-between-a-migrant-and-a-refugee.
27 Sadako Ogata, “Statement by Mrs. Sadako Ogata, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, at the Swiss Peace Founda-
tion, Geneva, 30 October 1992,” United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, October 30, 1992, https://www.unhcr.org/en-us/admin/
hcspeeches/3ae68fad20/statement-mrs-sadako-ogata-united-nations-high-commissioner-refugees-swiss.html14|TH opic A: Standards of Protection for
istory and Description of the Issue
People Displaced by Climate Disasters
entire organization, she declared their refugee status to be a on how environmental and socioeconomic factors contribute
misnomer.28 Her failure to qualify the experiences of millions as driving forces for migration.31 On the international stage,
of migrants and refugees set a precedent for the lack of pro- climate change was linked as a determinant for human mo-
tection standards for communities globally affected by climate bility with the introduction of the Intergovernmental Panel
displacement. on Climate Change (IPCC), a joint initiative between the
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the
The refugee and migrant paradox continues to be one of the
World Meteorological Organization (WMO).32 Since its cre-
many barriers that distract the international community from
ation, IPCC has created five assessment reports that outline
adequate protection measures for climate-related displace-
scientific developments in climate change. In 2010, the Fourth
ment. The act of categorizing a group as refugees incites legal
IPCC Assessment Report affirmed that the most detrimental
ramifications that the international community continues to
consequence of anthropogenic climate change in the future
avoid by blurring the distinction between those involuntarily
will be mass human migration.33 At the time, the doubling of
forced to leave and those who are not. They may not be per-
CO2 emissions and global mean temperature impacted three
secuted for their identity, but their reasons for migration are
sectors: agriculture and forestry, natural terrestrial ecosystems,
not necessarily voluntary.29 This gray area creates issues when
and water resources, each contributing to social instability in
attempting to distinguish seeking refuge due to environmental
different ways.34 Therefore, global migration can be environ-
disasters, environmental destruction, or environmental dete-
mentally related to several byproducts of climate change, cat-
rioration, all resulting in one shared outcome: an urgent need
egorized by gradual and sudden events.
to relocate.30
The environmental situation in the Lake Chad region is a
Climate Change as a Driver of Human Migra- prime example of how water shortages can gradually cause
tion
millions of people to be displaced and in need of humanitar-
The relationship between human migration and climate mi- ian assistance.35 Since the 1960s, overuse and global tempera-
gration is a novel issue. Before the appearance of the term ture increases have resulted in a 90 percent decrease in the
“environmental refugee” from El-Hinnawi in the 1980s, mi- amount of water the lake holds, resulting in dramatic increases
gration solutions failed to consider environmental factors. in water scarcity, health issues, food insecurity, and poverty.36
Therefore, to understand the entire scope of climate displace- As a result, over 2.3 million people across the surrounding re-
ment and the situations surrounding these populations, one gion were reported to have been displaced both internally and
must also understand the root of their displacement. Climate across borders in 2019, creating nearly 200,000 internation-
change was vaguely mentioned at the UN Conference on En- ally recognized refugees in those four countries.37 However,
vironment and Development in 1992, with an agenda item these statistics do not entirely reflect environmentally induced
recognizing the need for more research from member states displacement. According to a study conducted by the IOM in
28 “Statement by Mrs. Sadako Ogata,” United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
29 Neuteleers, “Environmental Refugees,” 233.
30 Bates, Diane C., “Environmental Refugees? Classifying Human Migrations Caused by Environmental Change,” Population and Environment
23, no. 5 (May 2002): 467, https://www.jstor.org/stable/27503806.
31 United Nations Conference on Environment & Development Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, “Agenda 21,” United Nations Sustainable Development
(3-4 June, 1992), https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/Agenda21.pdf.
32 “Memorandum of Understanding Between the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Orga-
nization (WMO) on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),” UN General Assembly, accessed July 26, 2020, https://archive.
ipcc.ch/docs/MOU_between_UNEP_and_WMO_on_IPCC-1989.pdf
33 J.T. Houghton, G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums, Climate Change: The IPCC Scientific Assessment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1990), https://www.nrel.colostate.edu/assets/nrel_files/labs/ryan-lab/pubs/Melillo_et_al_1990_IPCC1_WG1.PDF
34 Houghton, Climate Change: The IPCC Scientific Assessment.
35 Amali Tower, “Shrinking Options: The Nexus Between Climate Change, Displacement and Security in the Lake Chad Basin,” Climate
Refugees no. 1 (September 2017), https://indd.adobe.com/view/bf1670bb-4562-402e-a6c2-ebb3298cf8e5.
36 Tower, “Shrinking Options.”
37 Tower, “Shrinking Options.”Topic A: Standards of Protection for People Displaced by Climate Disasters
History and Description of the Issue |15
increasing rates of natural disasters, the soil is being destroyed
between 10–100 times faster than it is being created.41 Addi-
tionally, higher average temperatures and increased amounts
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere have been shown to
reduce the nutritional quality of crops.42 Studies have also
shown that for every incremental increase in the global aver-
age temperature by one degree celsius, the average net yield
for essential crops such as corn, wheat, and rice decline by
7.4 percent, 6 percent, and 3.2 percent, respectively.43 These
problems are all driving conditions for famine, creating a mas-
sive pressure for vulnerable communities to migrate as they
cope with food insecurity. Countries are already recognizing
an agricultural crisis due to extended periods without rain. In
2011, the United Nations declared that drought-induced food
insecurity contributed to the famine of 3.1 million people in
Somalia.44
Three women taking action against food insecurity in Zimbabwe, planting trees
in deforested areas.
Deforestation suddenly forces rural communities out of their
2018, the majority of subjects that were interviewed acknowl-
homes, particularly in Latin American countries and Brazil.45
edged that climate change was a secondary driver in their dis-
For example, the Amazon rainforest, rich in natural resourc-
placement, citing the availability of resources and proximity
es that contribute to resident communities and the Brazilian
to violence to be the main causes.38 While climate change has
economy, occupies over 40 percent of the South American
contributed to a stressed need to migrate, this allows insurgent
continent and houses nearly 12 percent of the Brazilian popu-
groups to capitalize on the government’s inability to protect
lation.46 However, between 2006 and 2017, over 6,000 square
its citizens.39
miles of the Amazon were converted into land to grow soy,
Another gradual disaster-related complication that induces mi- representing Brazil’s push into the agribusiness industry.47
gration is the destruction of agriculture and forestry. Changes Land scarcity, combined with the overexploitation of soil,
in the climate significantly decrease the ability to produce and significantly impacts rural communities as it forces migrant
consume food, testing the functionality of a society and its farmers to search for livable land not only to support the lo-
ability to provide for citizens.40 Nearly half a billion people cal economy but also so that they can support their families.
live in areas that are unsuitable for growing crops, and due to Additionally, scientists at Brazil’s National Institute for Space
38 “IOM Conducts First Climate Data Tracking in Lake Chad Basin,” International Organization for Migration, September 18, 2018, https://
www.iom.int/news/iom-conducts-first-climate-data-tracking-lake-chad-basin.
39 Tower, “Shrinking Options.”
40 Frederick Hewett, “The Scariest Thing About Climate Change: What Happens To Our Food Supply,” WBUR, June 5, 2019, https://
www.wbur.org/cognoscenti/2019/06/05/climate-change-food-frederick-hewett.
41 Christopher Flavelle, “Climate Change Threatens the World’s Food Supply, United Nations Warns,” The New York Times, August 8, 2019,
https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/08/climate/climate-change-food-supply.html.
42 Flavelle, “Climate Change Threatens the World’s Food Supply.”
43 Georgina Gustin, “How Deeply Will Rising Temperatures Cut into Crop Yields?” Insidecilmate News, August 21, 2017, https://insidecli-
matenews.org/news/21082017/rising-temperature-agriculture-crop-yields-climate-change-impact.
44 Daniel Maxwell and Merry Fitzpatrick, “The 2011 Somalia famine: Context, causes, and complications,” Global Food Security 1, no. 1 (Au-
gust 28, 2012) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2012.07.002.
45 David López-Carr and Jason Burgdorfer, “Deforestation Drivers: Population, Migration, and Tropical Land Use,” Environment 55, no. 1
(January/February 2013) https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00139157.2013.748385
46 Rhett A. Butler, “The Amazon Rainforest: The World’s Largest Rainforest,” Mongabay, last modified June 4, 2020. https://rainforests.
mongabay.com/amazon/
47 Claire Asher, “Brazil soy trade linked to wide-spread deforestation, carbon emissions,” Mongabay, April 3, 2019, https://news.mongabay.
com/2019/04/brazil-soy-trade-linked-to-widespread-deforestation-carbon-emissions.16|TH opic A: Standards of Protection for
istory and Description of the Issue
People Displaced by Climate Disasters
Research reported over 74,000 fires occurring around the is important to recognize the depth in which climate change
Amazon in 2019 due to drought and illegal deforestation.48 accelerates the need for migratory movement, often against
Considering that there are over 400 indigenous groups across an individual’s will.
the Amazon, these communities are at a disproportionate risk
for land invasion, illegal logging, and illegal mining.49 Indirect Displacement Trends Caused by Cli-
mate Change
Regardless of location, the adverse effects of climate change
disproportionately impact indigenous communities, as they Indirectly, the effects of climate change have been a mecha-
traditionally have a strong connection to and direct reliance on nism to exacerbate political conflict and pre-existing insta-
the environment. Making up nearly 15 percent of the world’s bilities within a country’s infrastructure, further driving the
poorest population, indigenous people are typically the first urgency to relocate.53 In some cases, climate change has been
to experience the devastating effects of climate change due regarded as a ‘threat multiplier,’ putting it at the nexus be-
to their close relationships and dependency on the environ- tween conflict, disaster, and displacement.54
ment’s natural resources.50 These communities already prac-
For example, Syria has been experiencing civilian revolt since
tice nomadic lifestyles, but they are often the least protected
2011 as a response to several interrelated factors, including
and recognized by governments, especially in disaster and mi-
the presidency of Bashar al-Assad and economic tensions be-
gration support. Due to climate change, they experience extra
pressure to relocate when natural resource extraction and deg- tween farmers and the government.55 These events have led
radation occur, which is further evidence to show how envi- to the displacement of 11 million Syrians seeking humanitar-
ronmental refuge and political refuge are inextricably linked. ian assistance in Syria and in neighboring countries.56 While
For example, the Arctic Circle is home to four million indig- political and economic instability is ostensible drivers of dis-
enous people, including the Saami people of northwest Rus- placement, some overlooked factors that have undoubtedly
sia and the Kalaallit in Greenland.51 These populations face contributed to the mass displacement are drought and water
threats to their health and food security, with studies showing scarcity.57 Syria makes up part of the Fertile Crescent, a region
that over 95 percent of the ice in Greenland to have thawed of the Middle East that has been known for its fertile soil for
in 2019 alone.52 As rising temperatures in the Arctic threaten thousands of years.58 Environmentalists reported that only
their ability to hunt for animals who live in colder climates, it ten percent of the Crescent’s fertile areas remain today due
48 Roberto Molar Candanosa, “The Amazon Rainforest has been burning for weeks. Here’s why that matters,” Northeastern University
College of Science, August 27, 2019, https://cos.northeastern.edu/news/the-amazon-rainforest-has-been-burning-for-weeks-heres-why-that-
matters/.
49 Sophie Hirsh, “The Amazon Fires Are Destroying Indigenous People’s Homes - We Interviewed an Amazon Watch Director to Learn
More,” Green Matters, last modified August 18, 2020. https://www.greenmatters.com/p/amazon-rainforest-fires-indigenous-tribes
50 “Climate Change: The effects of climate change on indigenous peoples.” United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, accessed
July 29, 2020, https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/climate-change.htm.
51 Eleonora Milazzo, “The Arctic: the role of indigenous peoples,” The Arctic Climate Change Emerging Leaders Program, accessed July 29, 2020,
https://accelfellowship.wordpress.com/the-arctic-the-role-of-indigenous-peoples/.
52 Kendra Pierre-Louis, “Climate Change is Ravaging the Arctic, Report Finds,” The New York Times, December 10, 2019, https://www.
nytimes.com/2019/12/10/climate/climate-change-arctic-warming.html.
53 Lauren Parater, Annie Neimand, and Ann Christiano, “Communicating the Complexity of Displacement in a Changing Climate,”
UNHCR Innovation Service, March 27, 2019, https://medium.com/bending-the-arc/communicating-the-complexity-of-displacement-in-a-
changing-climate-9c1ac0bf5e42.
54 “Climate change recognized as ‘threat multiplier’, UN Security Council debates its impact on peace,” UN News, January 25, 2019, https://
news.un.org/en/story/2019/01/1031322.
55 “Syria’s war explained from the beginning,” Al Jazeera, April 14, 2018, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/05/syria-civil-war-ex-
plained-160505084119966.html.
56 “Syria’s war explained from the beginning,” Al Jazeera.
57 Levi J. Cramer, “The Effects of Climate Change on the Syrian Uprising,” in Environmental ScienceBites, Ohio State Pressbooks (2015): accessed
July 25, 2020, https://ohiostate.pressbooks.pub/sciencebites/chapter/the-effects-of-climate-change-on-the-syrian-uprising/.
58 Christpher Shea, “Why Isn’t the “Fertile Crescent” More Fertile?” Slate Magazine, April 7, 2003, https://slate.com/news-and-poli-
tics/2003/04/why-isn-t-the-fertile-crescent-more-fertile.html.Topic A: Standards of Protection for People Displaced by Climate Disasters
History and Description of the Issue |17
to global warming; surrounding rivers have decreased in size, ram, a militant Islamist group, has consistently been a threat
and marshlands have disappeared altogether.59 Droughts have to Sub-Saharan Africa since 2009, as it is responsible for the
led to a significant decline in the agricultural industry and the displacement of more than two million Africans over the past
availability of water in rural areas, requiring Syrians to relocate 11 years.66 Economic deprivation from the Lake Chad basin
to nearby cities.60 Politicized by the privatization of agricul- fuels recruitment into Boko Haram’s insurgency network, and
tural lands where water was plentiful, the government’s failure their regional proximity to water resources have allowed them
to properly respond to rural water management became the to poison nearby rivers, using potable water as currency for
root cause of violence as communities began to fight over the recruitment and political dominance.67 The scarcity of water,
unjust protection of hydroelectric dams and water resources.61 either because of natural or human-made events, is at the in-
tersection between climate change and national security, un-
Considering this, climatic events create a politically motivated
dermining basic livelihoods and creating social tensions that
snowball effect. Two examples of this intersection between
lead to instability and violence when left unaddressed by state
climate and politics are in Afghanistan and Guatemala, which
governments.68 Unable to rely on the state for assistance and
are among two of the 10 countries most affected by both
protection, migrants and refugees either have to flee from the
extreme weather events and transnational violence.62 Both
violence or turn to it in exchange for basic needs.
governments lack the capacity to respond to infrastructure re-
construction and food aid, providing non-state armed groups An additional consideration is that climate-induced vulner-
with gateways to erode their legitimacy. Second, militant abilities are not equal in nature; the effects and outcomes of
groups have overthrown their agricultural sectors, convert- displacement are heavily differentiated by gender.69 Natural
ing arable land into poppy and coca fields to increase opium disasters, in their chaotic movement of populations and the
production.63 The over-cultivation of coca, the crop required immediate destruction of infrastructure, expose women and
to make cocaine, makes up over 30 percent of annual defor- young girls to a variety of issues that are gender-unique, in-
estation in Guatemala and causes the land to be unable to cluding the collapse of traditional societal support, job op-
sustain crops used for the livelihood of local farmers, who portunities, and health facilities.70 Many governments provide
used to grow coffee beans and corn in those same areas to greater protection for men than women, making it difficult to
survive.64 Therefore, climate change creates the perfect for- access relief support from legal and social networks.71 Patriar-
mula for terrorist groups to capitalize on the vulnerability of chal institutions, including labor markets and land ownership,
civilians and governments, turning these groups into migrants have historically made relocation and disaster risk measures
and refugees as they flee to safety.65 For instance, Boko Ha- more difficult for women.72 They are often left out of emer-
59 Peter H. Gleick, “Water, Drought, Climate Change, and Conflict in Syria,” American Meteorological Society 6, no. 3 (July 2014): 332, https://
www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24907379.pdf.
60 Cramer, “The Effects of Climate Change on the Syrian Uprising.”
61 Katharina Nett and Lukas Rüttinger, “Insurgency, Terrorism and Organised Crime in a Warming Climate,” Climate Diplomacy (October
2016), https://www.climate-diplomacy.org/file/2988/download?token=NKBhgKxo.
62 Nett, “Insurgency,” 35.
63 Nett, “Insurgency,” 38.
64 Vanessa Romo, “Cocaine blamed for rising deforestation in Peru’s Bahuaja-Sonene National Park,” Mongabay Environmental News, De-
cember 30, 2018, https://news.mongabay.com/2018/12/cocaine-blamed-for-rising-deforestation-in-perus-bahuaja-sonene-national-park/.
65 “Climate change and terrorist groups - explaining the links,” Climate Diplomacy, accessed July 25, 2020, https://www.climate-diplomacy.
org/videos/climate-change-and-terrorist-groups-explaining-links.
66 Nett, “Insurgency,” 13.
67 Nett, “Insurgency,” 19.
68 Carolyn Kenney, “How Climate Change and Water and Food Insecurity Drive Instability,” Center for American Progress, November 30, 2017,
https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/security/reports/2017/11/30/443465/climate-change-water-food-insecurity-drive-instability/.
69 “Women on the Move in a Changing Climate,” Sierra Club and UN Women, accessed July 25, 2020, https://www.sierraclub.org/sites/www.
sierraclub.org/files/program/documents/Women-Climate-Report.pdf.
70 Taylor Evensen, “Typhoon Haiyan: Women in the Wake of Natural Disasters,” Penn Political Review, March 18, 2014, https://pennpoliti-
calreview.org/2014/03/typhoon-haiyan-women-in-the-wake-of-natural-disasters/.
71 “Women and Disaster Relief,” Humanitarian Coalition, accessed July 25, 2020, https://www.humanitariancoalition.ca/women-and-disas-
ter-relief.
72 “Achieving Gender Equality, Women’s Empowerment and Strengthening Development Cooperation Dialogues at the Economic andYou can also read
