Blurred Lines Cultural Support Teams in Afghanistan
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In addition to their daily duties within
Combat Logistics Battalion 6, Marine
Expeditionary Brigade–Afghanistan,
Marines also serve as FET members
to establish rapport with locals (U.S.
Marine Corps/Justin Shemanski)
Blurred Lines
Cultural Support Teams in Afghanistan
By Megan Katt
llowing women in combat is have conducted counterinsurgency and
A a highly controversial subject.
Yet regardless of their offi-
cial military occupational specialty
stability operations—so-called irregu-
lar warfare activities that lack clearly
defined “frontlines” against enemies
Megan Katt is a Research Analyst in the Center
(MOS), female Servicemembers have who do not wear uniforms. These
for Stability and Development at the Center for often found themselves in combat types of operating environments force-
Naval Analyses. She is a co-author (with Jerry situations—most recently in Iraq and fully negate any biological sex combat
Meyerle and Jim Gavrilis) of the book On the
Ground in Afghanistan: Counterinsurgency in
Afghanistan. In both combat zones, restrictions as the lives of both men and
Practice (Marine Corps University Press, 2012). male and female Servicemembers alike women are at risk.
106 Features / Cultural Support Teams in Afghanistan JFQ 75, 4th Quarter 2014
Along with the highly trained Moving across “Frontlines” To counter this insurgent tactic in
and capable special operations forces Women’s roles in the military have Iraq, the U.S. military developed what
(SOF) operating in remote locations necessarily evolved over the past several became known as the Lioness Program.
throughout Afghanistan, lesser known decades, while still limited by DOD As part of this initiative, the military
teams of female Soldiers, Marines, and restrictions on the types of positions posted female Soldiers and Marines at
Sailors have worked to develop endur- they could fill. In 1988, DOD created control points to interdict and search
ing relationships with Afghan women. the so-called Risk Rule, which excluded women for weapons, explosives, and
These enabling units, which evolved women from units that had a high other contraband. However, these teams
from earlier female engagement ef- probability of engaging in ground were staffed in ad hoc fashion by female
forts and ultimately became known combat, hostile fire, or capture.3 In Servicemembers who were pulled from
as Cultural Support Teams (CSTs), 1994, DOD replaced that regulation their regular duties and who received
have supported SOF units conduct- with the Direct Ground Combat Defi- minimal training for these new responsi-
ing village stability operations (VSO). nition and Assignment Rule, otherwise bilities. In addition, the narrowly focused
While skirting Department of Defense known as the DOD Combat Exclusion program did not provide opportunities
(DOD)-imposed restrictions on women Policy, which restricted the assignment for persistent engagement with the fe-
in combat that had been in place since of women to units below the brigade male population.
1994, the women on CSTs faced sub- level whose primary mission was to In an attempt to develop better rela-
stantial personal and physical risk. By engage in direct ground combat.4 tionships with Iraqi women and identify
stepping “outside the wire” to converse According to the policy, female Ser- sources of instability, the Marines devel-
with locals, they placed themselves in vicemembers were restricted from jobs oped the Iraqi Women’s Engagement
harm’s way,1 engaged in firefights, and, in a primary MOS of ground combat, Program. Unfortunately, not much is
in some cases, were specifically targeted such as in the infantry. Yet with these written about the program—in part pos-
by insurgents. At a time when the U.S. rules in place, women have increasingly sibly due to potential controversy over
military is pulling back from a large-scale been allowed to serve in a wider range women being placed in combat situa-
irregular warfare mission in Afghanistan of combat support roles, including as tions. What little is known is that a group
and trying to rebalance the Armed explosive ordnance disposal technicians, of female Civil Affairs (CA) Marines re-
Forces for more traditional operations, it military police, interpreters, drivers, portedly began the program in Al Anbar
is worth examining whether these types and working dog handlers. In irregular Province in 2006. The uniformed women
of all-female teams will be relevant to warfare, where frontlines are nonexis- aimed to build trust with local women
future operating environments. tent, many of these supporting jobs can by discussing their concerns over cups
Based primarily on author interviews take women into the line of fire, often of tea. Later, these efforts also included
with CST and SOF personnel,2 this with little ground combat training. talking to women during sewing clinics
article describes the CST program; why Counterinsurgency and stability and medical engagements. The indirect
it was created and how it evolved from operations in Iraq and Afghanistan chal- effect of these engagements was a nascent
previous efforts; how some CST mem- lenged U.S. forces to identify friend from dialogue on the factors of instability in
bers were selected and trained; the types foe as they operated among civilians, the area.
of activities that members of these teams including many women and children.
conducted; the challenges that arose; Perceived indiscriminate use of force and Providing Opportunities
and the lessons that can be drawn from culturally prohibited contact between for Engagement
their experiences. While this article does male Servicemembers and local women The Iraq experience, although limited,
provide some background on gender (for instance, during night raids) angered highlighted the positive effects of
policy restrictions, it does not argue local populations and proved counter- female engagement in that type of
either for or against making combat po- productive to the overall mission. In an environment and the need for a similar
sitions available to women. The nature effort to avoid these confrontations and tool in Afghanistan. In a society with
of conflict in these types of environments show more respect for the local culture, limited women’s rights and restrictions
belies the idea that women can simply U.S. forces largely ignored the female on contact between the sexes, Afghan
be kept out of combat. Therefore, this population. Insurgents, in turn, took women were culturally off-limits to
article focuses on what some female advantage of these cultural sensitivities by outside men. Male Servicemembers ran
Servicemembers were able to accomplish disguising themselves in women’s cloth- the risk of showing disrespect to locals
executing population-focused operations ing to avoid detection during searches. if they engaged with women during
under the combat restrictions in place at Men wearing traditional burkas—full patrols, raids, or other operations. As in
the time. It concludes by discussing po- body cloaks worn by some Muslim Iraq, Soldiers and Marines realized there
tential implications of the sexual policy women—could escape the military’s was a need to fill that gap, as well as to
restrictions debate on the future of a grasp by blending in with women. build rapport with the female portion
CST-like capability. of the population. This requirement
JFQ 75, 4th Quarter 2014 Katt 107
FET Team 11 members in Helmand Province listen to other Marines talk about their deployment experiences (U.S. Marine Corps/Katherine Keleher)
resulted in the Female Engagement a female interpreter, provided the same By 2010, the Army and Marine
Team (FET) initiative, which com- search function that the Lioness Program Corps began to send dedicated FETs,
bined the Lioness Program’s efforts to had in Iraq. Yet the team also visited with which ranged from two to five women
search women with the Iraqi Women’s Afghan women in their homes and distrib- per FET, to support battalion and
Engagement Program’s efforts to uted humanitarian supplies in an effort to company commanders across an area of
address underlying causes of instability, develop goodwill. Later that year, a similar operation. The first trained, dedicated,
merging them into even broader opera- FET was established after insurgents were and full-time Marine FETs arrived in
tional roles. able to escape a military cordon by dress- Southwest Afghanistan in the spring of
The Army and Marine Corps as- ing like Afghan women. These early FETs 2010. Depending on the need, FETs,
sembled FETs on an ad hoc basis upon largely conducted short-term search and sometimes augmented by a female inter-
the request of maneuver units. As a engagement missions. preter or medic, accompanied all-male
result, female Servicemembers already In late 2009, the commander of the infantry patrols in Helmand Province.
on the ground were pulled from their International Security Assistance Force Similar to the Afghan women who
regular jobs and had little or no time to (ISAF) institutionalized the FET concept needed to be escorted by a male relative
train for their additional FET responsi- by directing all deploying military units in public, female Servicemembers needed
bilities. Moreover, because these women to create all-female teams to develop to be escorted by their male colleagues
did not have a ground combat MOS or and improve relationships with Afghan outside the wire due to force protec-
any of the training that would accompany women. To quickly fill the requirement, tion restrictions.6 This created resource
it, some have argued that this staffing initial FET training was limited and constraints for units every time they took
put them and the men serving alongside ranged from just a few days to months. FETs outside the wire. While FETs were
them at greater risk.5 Generally speaking, training focused on generally sent to areas that had largely
The first reported FET was assembled combat activities but also included some been cleared of insurgents, they still took
on an ad hoc basis to support a specific instruction on Afghan culture, language a combat-training refresher course and
cordon and search operation in western (Dari or Pashto), use of interpreters, and carried M-4 carbine rifles with the full
Afghanistan in February 2009. The team, other softer skill sets relevant to operating expectation that they would be exposed
which consisted of female Marines and among the population. to combat situations.
108 Features / Cultural Support Teams in Afghanistan JFQ 75, 4th Quarter 2014
Marine FETs conducted a range of Marine officer, two enlisted personnel, Identifying Suitable Candidates
engagements during their 7-month tours. and a Navy corpsman from their day Per USSOCOM’s directive, each of
Generally, after a team arrived in a village, jobs to support a Special Operations the Services began to recruit female
female Marines went door to door to Task Force (SOTF) in this new role.7 Servicemembers to work alongside
engage women and learn about the area Because these women lacked specific the military’s most elite units. Some
and villagers’ concerns. Once inside an training and were pulled from their Services solely recruited volunteers,
Afghan compound, they removed their regular duties, the effort was less than whereas others, which had larger oper-
weapons and body armor as a sign of seamless; however, this did not dissuade ating requirements, reportedly assigned
respect. They also replaced their helmets MARSOC from the concept. Instead, personnel to these teams. Because these
with headscarves to be culturally sensi- MARSOC deployed a female unit with CSTs are designed to support SOF
tive. In many areas, the FETs found that the sole purpose of conducting the teams at the lowest levels, the qualifica-
Afghan men were also willing to engage FET mission in an organic capability to tion requirements and selection process
with them. Yet while the FET members support a SOF unit in June 2010. of these women has been demanding.
could listen to the concerns and issues The SOF female engagement pro- Each Service conducts a thorough
raised by villagers, in many cases they did gram was formally created in 2010 under assessment to locate candidates who are
not have the authority or capability to ad- the direction of the USSOCOM com- both physically and mentally fit. Like
dress them. In addition, some criticized mander. The United States Army Special special operators, the Services look for
the FET program because the teams were Operations Command, Naval Special specific selection criteria in identifying
unable to create lasting effects due to the Warfare Command, and MARSOC ex- suitable candidates. Many women have
episodic and temporary nature of their panded on the FET concept by developing reportedly been turned down during
engagement as coalition forces moved what became known as Cultural Support the assessment process.
through an area, never to return. Teams (CSTs). The term itself took sex out MARSOC evaluators held female
In addition to engagement, each of the equation; however, the teams still candidates to the standards similar to
FET was tasked with a variety of respon- solely comprised female Servicemembers. MARSOC male special operators, known
sibilities—perhaps more than the name The primary difference between the as Critical Skills Operators (CSOs), since
of the program implies. In addition to two was that FETs were used to soften they would be working alongside each
engaging with and gathering information coalition forces’ footprint as they moved other. MARSOC candidates needed top
from Afghan families, they distributed through an area, whereas CSTs were de- physical fitness test and general technical
information, facilitated CA programs (for signed to provide persistent presence and scores. Prior deployment experience was
example, distributed school supplies and engagement—a key tenet of population- also a factor. If women met these criteria,
opened schools or clinics), supported focused operations conducted by SOF. MARSOC psychologists then adminis-
female-focused governance and devel- These two-person CSTs were given tered the same four psychology exams that
opment projects (developing women’s a wider mission set to support SOF potential CSOs receive to ensure that their
centers, providing micro-grants), held conducting “non-direct ground combat personalities and psychological profiles
key leader engagements and women missions,” specifically village stability op- were compatible with the individuals with
only-shuras, conducted medical outreach, erations. As part of VSO, small SOF teams whom they would deploy and that they
assisted with cordon and knock opera- aimed to disrupt the insurgency and foster could make the necessary adjustments to
tions, and searched women. stability in relatively remote villages where keep up with the distributed, fast-paced
the Afghan government was not repre- nature of the Afghanistan mission. Finally,
Developing a SOF-Specific sented by its own security forces. Special MARSOC evaluators conducted an oral
Female Engagement Capability operators engaged influential local leaders interview with eligible candidates to gauge
Meanwhile, similar female engage- in an effort to recruit community defense interest and determine whether they could
ment capabilities were quietly being forces, empower local governance, and “think on their feet” to make quick deci-
developed within the special operations bolster economic development—all in an sions on the ground.
community to fit mission requirements. effort to expand the reach of the Afghan The qualified Marines ultimately
The ISAF commander began to pres- government and disrupt insurgent influ- selected for MARSOC CSTs came from
sure U.S. Special Operations Command ence. The CSTs provided an opportunity a variety of occupational specialties,
(USSOCOM) to develop its own FET- for SOF to communicate with Afghan ranging from judge advocate to military
like capabilities to embed with SOF women, something they had been limited police officer to automotive mainte-
units to assist with engaging Afghan from doing previously due to cultural nance technician. The most common
women in support of direct opera- sensitivities. In short, VSO became a occupational fields included logistics,
tions. Marine Corps Forces Special loophole for female Servicemembers communications, and military police, in-
Operations Command (MARSOC) to operate alongside the most highly vestigations, and corrections. Most were
was one of the first to experiment with trained—and exclusively male—forces on enlisted personnel ranging from sergeant
using an FET in 2010 by pulling one the battlefield. to gunnery sergeant. In addition, Marine
JFQ 75, 4th Quarter 2014 Katt 109teams were also often supplemented students received an additional MOS Finally, MARSOC provided them with
by medically trained Sailors, such as in CA. CMO skills are particularly interactive software and books so that
Independent Duty Corpsmen. useful in an irregular environment they could learn Dari. By August 2013,
and provided CSTs with an addi- a total of 18 Marines and 5 Sailors had
Preparing Women to tional capability they could bring to completed MARSOC’s CST training
Be SOF Enablers their assigned SOF team if CA per- program, which then deployed with even
Subtle differences also existed in how sonnel were unavailable. higher numbers from the other Services.
each Service trained its female candi- •• The fourth block of instruction
dates for the mission. According to consisted of the basic MARSOC Deploying with SOF
many accounts, individual augmentees special operations training course, The first formalized CSTs from the
received varying amounts of training to which all MARSOC enablers attend Army and Marines began to deploy in
fill the emerging requirement. As the in order to prepare for the rigors of a two-woman teams in early 2011. Due
program expanded, the Services slowly combat deployment with a MARSOC to DOD restrictions below the battalion
developed their own formalized train- SOTF, company, or team. There, level, CSTs were formally attached to
ing packages for CSTs. For example, CST candidates received an introduc- larger special operations units—gener-
MARSOC developed a series of training tion to SOF operations and learned ally SOTFs—and then distributed
organized into blocks. For a total of how CSOs operate. In addition, the throughout the battlespace as needed.
109 days, its female volunteers were course provides a basic combat skills Not every VSO site and SOF unit
trained to the same standards as other refresher course (that is, “shoot, received a CST. Instead, attachments
MARSOC enablers: move, and communicate”) to dust off were based on demand. After a special
those skills and add a special opera- operations team secured a VSO site and
•• The first block of instruction began
tions approach. CST candidates were identified a need for a CST, the SOTF
by focusing on engagements and
also trained to master the weapon (an attached one based on the team’s capa-
rapport-building with an Afghan
M-4 rifle and/or a pistol) that they bilities. In addition to initially attaching
focus. MARSOC hired female
were assigned and would carry with them to units, the SOTF could rear-
subject matter experts in negotia-
them during their deployments. Even range CSTs based on mission require-
tions and Afghan culture (tailored
though CSTs have supported nondi- ments and CST members’ individual
to the region in which the women
rect combat missions, they have still skill sets. In many cases, teams have
would deploy) for both discus-
operated in a combat environment. been split—sometimes over different
sion and practical application. CST
As an integrated member of a special districts—to divide responsibilities and
members learned about Afghanistan,
operations team, each CST member leverage particular skill sets based on
Afghan values, and the nuanced roles
had to be prepared to engage in local needs (such as medical care).
of women in that society.
direct combat in case a situation took CSTs have supported a broad spec-
•• The second block of instruction
a kinetic turn. trum of activities across all three lines
taught female Servicemembers the
•• The fifth block of instruction of operations: security, governance, and
basics of how CSTs would fit into
included MARSOC’s full-spectrum development. Special operations teams
the MARSOC intelligence process,
survival, evasion, resistance, and have incorporated CSTs differently into
as well as additional instruction on
escape course, which incorporates their missions depending on the local
combative training, riot control,
field survival basics, including situation. As designed, many have ac-
and increased observation and
hostage and detainee operations. companied special operators into villages
situational awareness. In addition,
In addition to preparing them for on patrols to engage and help build rap-
CST candidates participated in the
survival, it helped prepare them port with local women, much like FETs.
MARSOC intelligence course’s
mentally and physically by gaining There have also been cases in which
culminating exercise, which not only
a better understanding of the other CSTs have effectively engaged women
gave them a chance to practice what
women they would deploy with and and children after alleged civilian casualty
they had learned but also allowed the
their limitations. incidents. By developing relationships
MARSOC students the opportunity
with the local population and sharing the
to leverage every asset available to Additionally, CST candidates received
information (sometimes time-sensitive
them to complete their mission. training in tactical questioning, basic
information) that they gather with their
•• The third block of instruction medical skills, and tactical driving—all
teams, special operators can develop a
focused on civil-military operations of which made them more useful to the
more complete picture of the operating
(CMO). MARSOC sent its can- special operations team to which they
environment than was previously attain-
didates to the Marine Corps Civil would be attached and created additional
able. Like FETs, CST activities include
Military Operations School to receive opportunities to get outside the wire
providing medical support and humani-
CMO training, at the end of which to engage with the local population.
tarian assistance, conducting key leader
110 Features / Cultural Support Teams in Afghanistan JFQ 75, 4th Quarter 2014Afghan children gather around FET member during shura to discuss current local issues (U.S. Marine Corps/Andrea M. Olguin)
engagements, exploring girls’ education western Afghanistan, CST accomplish- enabling capabilities, there has also been
issues, and performing searches on the ments included opening a clinic and a the risk that abilities did not measure
female population. In many cases, CST girls’ school, in addition to organizing a up to expectations or that personalities
members have established rapport with women-only shura. CST members also would clash.
locals, exchanged cell phone numbers, worked with government ministries, such In my discussions with both CST
and been invited to visit women’s homes. as the Department of Women’s Affairs and SOF members, a number of recur-
Their capabilities are also broader than and the Labor Union, in an advising role. ring challenges emerged. CST members
those of FETs. CSTs can follow special Finally, a CST member could also discussed challenges with integrating
operators into areas after they have been provide value to the team by conducting into teams, misperceptions of their ca-
secured, including after raids. In those tasks related to her MOS, such as com- pabilities, and a lack of capable female
situations, CSTs then use search and munications, CA, or driving. interpreters. Special operators identi-
seizure techniques to find hidden items fied additional challenges such as site
on females (for example, weapons or con- Recurring Challenges selection, security limitations and consid-
traband)—and, like FETs, occasionally CSTs, like their predecessors, have erations, and sexual tension between CST
uncover a militant dressed as a woman. received mixed reviews. While their and SOF members.
CST activities can be largely operational impact is difficult to Some CST members indicated that
dependent on location and the permis- measure, many special operations teams it could be difficult to integrate with a
sibility of the environment. In northern have spoken highly of the enabling special operations team as an outsider
Afghanistan, for example, governance capabilities they have provided in the to a “band of brothers”—a concern
and development were primary goals in execution of VSO in persistent situa- similarly raised by members of other en-
2012. At one site, a CST member with tions, particularly in gathering informa- abler units (for instance, CA) as well. In
medical training focused on conduct- tion. In other cases, special operations northern Afghanistan, one CST Soldier
ing medical engagements. At another teams either have not known how to described her team’s integration with an
site, her CST partner worked with the best use their capabilities or have not Army Operational Detachment–Alpha
Ministry of Education to reform educa- been able to due to limitations based (ODA) as a train wreck. The SOF unit
tion syllabi. Around the same time in on the security situation. Like other had misperceptions about the capabilities
JFQ 75, 4th Quarter 2014 Katt 111If a CST member took up a seat, it meant
that she had taken the place of another
operator (with his own supplementary
capabilities). In addition, taking a CST
member anywhere usually required bring-
ing along an interpreter and a security
patrol. As a result, even though two
women were on each CST, often only one
would go out on each mission. That made
it easier for the team to patrol and meant
that they did not need to take additional
operators with them for security purposes,
possibly requiring an additional vehicle.
Finally, operators expressed concerns
about sexual tension and activity im-
pacting unit effectiveness, an argument
frequently cited in studies on women
in combat. Working long hours in close
quarters and in sometimes austere condi-
tions has the potential to bring people
Marines practice speed and tactical reloads while training to become augments for FETs (U.S. Marine
together in any job. Some have suggested
Corps/Ryan Rholes)
that sexual relationships have had the po-
of her team. In situations such as those, indicated that her team’s interpreters tential to impact daily operations and unit
CSTs can run the risk of turning into a could not keep up on long patrols, in ef- cohesion. In addition, there have been
hindrance for the special operations team fect slowing the special operators down. some complaints about a lack of maturity
and can therefore be underutilized. In Therefore, without a good interpreter, the of both men and women. Yet this issue
that case, it took time for the women to CST could not effectively do its job. may have been mitigated at VSO sites
gain the operators’ trust and understand- According to some special operators, that had strong leadership.
ing. That same CST was later moved to security has been a limiting factor in
a different site where the resident ODA assigning CSTs to different sites. Some Implications for the Future
made the team an extension of its own operators suggested that CSTs could The FET and CST programs were
team. She believed that the primary dif- potentially be more useful to gain buy-in emergent mission-specific require-
ference between the two experiences was by engaging with female villagers dur- ments, which the Services met by
that the second ODA was already familiar ing the initial stages of VSO when the initially recruiting female Servicemem-
with the capabilities they could provide area is less permissive. However, due to bers out of hide from other units as
and how best to use them. DOD-imposed restrictions, CSTs were individual augmentees. In particular,
Finding qualified female interpreters instead introduced to the village later CSTs in Afghanistan opened the
was another issue identified by several when the area was relatively secure and door for female troops to operate
interviewed CST members. In some male Servicemembers had already devel- alongside special operations units in
areas, such as western Afghanistan, it may oped local relationships. Similarly, some the battlefield. They were specifically
be culturally acceptable to use a male areas were more receptive to CSTs. At selected and trained to work with SOF
interpreter. However, that is generally some of the locations where CSTs were as part of VSO. The Marine Corps
not the case in ethnically Pashto areas. assigned, Afghan women were either ended its use of CSTs in Afghanistan
And while it can be relatively easy to find uninformed or unwilling to share infor- in 2013 because of the drastic change
male interpreters, there are generally far mation, which hindered a CST’s ability in mission when SOF moved out of
fewer mentally and physically fit female to complete its mission. villages into overwatch positions.
interpreters. One CST started its deploy- Ultimately, in some situations, special However, as the U.S. military contin-
ment with a young female interpreter who operators determined that the costs of ues to withdraw from Afghanistan and
spoke a different dialect from the one spo- using CSTs outweighed the benefits— looks to prepare and posture itself for
ken in their assigned area. That same CST that is, in some cases, CSTs were not the future, it should consider whether
later received a different interpreter with worth the risk for the team due to pro- CSTs are truly an enduring require-
impressive language capabilities; however, tocols and security considerations. One ment for SOF, which will continue
she was older and her physical ability was special operator explained that it could to conduct irregular warfare activities
limited, which in turn limited team mobil- be manpower-intensive to bring CST around the globe and could benefit
ity. At another location, a CST member members out to a shura or on a mission. from this enabling capability.
112 Features / Cultural Support Teams in Afghanistan JFQ 75, 4th Quarter 2014The conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan internal defense. In these population- male Servicemembers may be able to
reflect the likely future of combat—non- centric missions, CSTs can help provide converse freely with female locals without
linear and population-focused—and will access to roughly half of the population the same traditional cultural implica-
increasingly place female Servicemembers through engagement activities. In ad- tions. Yet in any culture, women may
in combat situations. Both men and dition, CSTs could be enormously generally feel more comfortable being
women have fought and died in these beneficial during SOF training missions engaged with—and, when necessary,
combat environments. Partly as a result, with partner nations. In countries that searched by—other women. Even in the
DOD has recently relaxed its restric- have female soldiers or police, the addi- United States, women prefer and often
tions on women in combat. In February tion of women to an otherwise all-male insist on female Transportation Security
2012, DOD modified the 1994 Combat team could give them greater access and Administration staff patting them down
Exclusion Policy to increase the overall placement during a Joint Combined at airports, if necessary. It is not unrea-
number of positions available to women.8 Exchange Training event. sonable to expect similar preferences in
Then, in February 2013, DOD elimi- Looking ahead, the question ulti- other countries. Therefore, the special
nated the exclusion policy and began to mately becomes whether the military operations community should more
allow each Service to determine any believes that this enabling capability is closely examine how it could use or re-
restrictions specific to its members.9 worth keeping at a time when every tool this enabling capability for different
Each Service is now examining potential program is increasingly scrutinized due types of environments. JFQ
roles for women in future operating to ongoing budget cuts. However, if
environments. the program is dissolved now and the
The results of these studies may help capability is needed again in the future, Notes
the Services determine whether FETs it will cost a lot of resources—in both
and CSTs are necessary in future operat- money and manpower—to begin anew.
1
In October 2011, First Lieutenant Ashley
White, USA, became the first Cultural Sup-
ing environments. For example, if the Therefore, by evolving the program to port Team member killed in the line of duty
Services do choose to open all positions provide SOF with this type of enduring when an improvised explosive device (IED)
to women, these all-female teams may enabling capability, it may ultimately save detonated in southern Kandahar Province. See
not be necessary once units are fully resources in the long run. David Zucchino, “A Counterinsurgency Behind
integrated; more trained women will po- As part of this evolution, the SOF the Burka,” Los Angeles Times, December 11,
2011. More recently, First Lieutenant Jennifer
tentially be available on the battlefield to community should ensure that the Moreno, USA, was killed in an IED attack in
regularly engage with female counterparts lessons learned in Afghanistan are insti- October 2013. See Gretel C. Kovach, “Female
during patrols and meetings or after raids. tutionalized. Ultimately, the bulk of the Soldier Killed on SpecOps Mission,” San Diego
If they do choose to leave restrictions in challenges identified herein have little to Union Tribune, October 8, 2013.
place for women in combat, the Army do with gender policy restrictions. Some
2
The author also researched open source
material and the Marine Corps Lessons Learned
and Marine Corps may want to consider of the issues, such as capability misper- System for additional information.
institutionalizing an FET-like capability ceptions and clashing personalities, are 3
David F. Burrelli, Women in Combat:
within each infantry battalion, with spe- similarly faced by other types of (all-male) Issues for Congress, R42075 (Washington, DC:
cial attention to the CA skill sets found enablers and can possibly be resolved as Congressional Research Service, May 9, 2013),
necessary in Afghanistan. The resource the CST program matures. For example, available at .
commitment would be relatively small challenges of CSTs integrating into spe- 4
Department of Defense (DOD) Memo-
and would maximize a unit’s effects in cial operations teams may be overcome randum, “Direct Ground Combat Definition
population-focused operations. Similarly, with additional combined training oppor- and Assignment Rule,” January 13, 1994.
USSOCOM may ultimately decide tunities. In addition, CST assignments 5
See, for example, Lia B. Heeter, “Women
that female Servicemembers should not would need to be monitored by leader- in Combat: Policy Barriers are Being Re-
moved,” Marine Corps Gazette, July 2013.
be allowed to serve in a special opera- ship and adjusted as needed. While the 6
Ann Jones makes this observation in
tions–specific MOS. If that is the case, issue of deploying CSTs in heavy fighting “Woman to Woman in Afghanistan,” The Na-
the potential still exists for SOF to benefit areas may possibly be a result of policy tion, October 27, 2010.
from CSTs in other theaters. restrictions, it may also be a command 7
Trisha Talton, “MARSOC Looks to
Regardless of the policy restrictions decision. With limited numbers of CSTs, Women for New Mission,” Marine Corps
Times, November 14, 2009.
debate and the Services’ findings, the it is practical for a commander to ensure 8
DOD, Report to Congress on the Review of
need for a CST-like capability will endure that they face less risk. Laws, Policies and Regulations Restricting the
as SOF continue to operate in irregular SOF may need to examine the need Service of Female Members in the U.S. Armed
battlefields all over the world. While the for CSTs on a mission-by-mission basis. Forces, February 2012.
VSO mission was designed expressly for Some have argued that the culture in
9
DOD Memorandum, “Elimination of the
1994 Direct Ground Combat Definition and
Afghanistan, its roots are in traditional parts of the Middle East and South Asia Assignment Rule,” January 24, 2013.
SOF missions, such as counterinsur- may be somewhat unique in terms of sex
gency, stability operations, and foreign segregation. In many parts of the world,
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