COMMEMORATING THE BICENTENNIAL OF THE YEAR THAT FLORIDA BECAME A UNITED STATES TERRITORY - ORANGE COUNTY REGIONAL ...
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THE MAGAZINE OF THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF CENTRAL FLORIDA
ISSN 1543-5423
1821 Commemorating the bicentennial of the year
that Florida became a United States territory
SPRING 2021
VOL. 19 NO. 1
Welcome to our new executive director,
Pamela Schwartz!
P
lease join us in congratulating Pamela Schwartz, the new executive director of the
History Center and Historical Society of Central Florida! Orange County’s Board of
County Commissioners announced Pam’s appointment in late February, following the
January retirement of Michael Perkins.
Pam has worked in museums since 2002 and joined the History Center in 2016 as its
chief curator and senior program manager. In her role as chief curator, she helped increase
diversity and inclusion, leading our talented exhibitions and collections staff as they created
The Historical Society’s regional and national award-winning exhibitions.
mission is to serve as the
She received a master of arts in Museum Professions from Seton Hall University in New
gateway for community
engagement, education, and Jersey and a bachelor of arts in Public Relations from the University of Northern Iowa.
inspiration by preserving and
sharing Central Florida’s This year also brings other important
continually unfolding story. markers in Central Florida’s history.
June 12, 2021, will be five years since the
Pulse nightclub tragedy, an event that
Board of Directors
forever changed our community and this
Lenny Bendo, President
institution. The impacts of that day continue
Shanon Larimer, Vice President
to ripple across space and time, and we
William “John” Slot, Treasurer continue to be committed to serving as a
Lauren Bloom, Secretary resource for healing, understanding, and
Thomas A. Cloud, Legal Counsel conversation in its aftermath.
Colin Baker FROM Further back in time, 1821 marks the
Adele Burney THE year the Spanish ceded control of Florida to
Jody Burttram
Frank H. Cover, Jr.
DIRECTOR the United States, making it an American
territory through the final ratification of the
Adams-Onís treaty. That moment in time
D. Michael Driscoll
RIPPLES THROUGH TIME also had a profound effect on the people
Walter Hawkins
H
living here – from our native cultures to
Phil Hoffman istory doesn’t happen in the blink the enslaved individuals who had for a time
Brandi Markiewicz of an eye. It feels like I’ve seen found freedom in Florida under Spain, as
Hilary Marx the word “historic” used more well as the American settlers coming to
Deborah Prosser by the media in the past two years than I claim this land as their own.
Carter Schultz have in my lifetime. What is it that makes A direct and painful line can be drawn
Greg Thompson an event historic? Often, we don’t know from the establishment of slavery on
Suzanne Weinstein until much later. Time elapses, giving us Florida’s coast in the 1500s through the
greater perspective about what does, or events of 1821, Florida’s 1861 entrance
does not, rise to the occasion of becoming into the Civil War as a Confederate state,
Pamela Schwartz
Executive Director history. Events linger; even those that only the Ocoee Massacre in 1920, and on up
last a moment cause ripples that continue through today.
Unless otherwise noted, all archival
images in this issue are from the in often unrealized ways. We take the 2021 bicentennial of
Historical Society’s collection at the Certain events, such as great wars Florida’s American era as an opportunity to
History Center. or movements of people, become raise up the narratives of people who lived
monumental markers in this passage here before 1821, from the indigenous
of time that serve as reference points people who carefully buried their deceased
for measuring both progress and, at Windover thousands of years ago to the
unfortunately, regress. November 2020 Seminoles, an American Indian tribe of
marked the 100th-year remembrance of varied individuals who came together to face
the Ocoee Massacre of 1920, and our challenging circumstances. Our history is
institution responded with our most long, it is fraught, and the ripples continue
significant research endeavor to date, in a series of peaks and valleys representing
Sponsored in part by the State of culminating in a landmark exhibition. moments of profound trauma – but also
Florida, Department of State, Division We were able to increase awareness of a ample reasons for celebration. n
of Cultural Affairs and the Florida significant event in our own region’s past
Council on Arts and Culture.
and to share context for how such events – Pamela Schwartz, Executive Director,
happen and what legacies they leave behind Orange County Regional History Center
The History Center is accessible with for those of us living here today.
elevators on every floor.
2 REFLECTIONS
UPCOMING EVENTS
VIRTUAL EDITION
HISTORY
On the first Friday of each month at noon, History
IN A GLASS
Center staff lead an interesting virtual program about Each month our friends at The Woods craft-cocktail bar will
the museum, Central Florida history, and more. create a special libation based on a story from Orlando’s past.
Members free; non-members $5. Our online gathering will feature a demo about how to make
the drink, plus a dive into the history that inspired it! We’ll
• Friday, April 2 – Collecting a Pandemic send you the recipe, so you can create your craft cocktail
• Friday, May 7 – W orld World II Through Its beforehand to enjoy with the presentation, or follow along at
home! Attendees to this virtual event receive $2 off admission
Witnesses to the History Center and a 25 percent discount at The
• Friday, June 4 – P ulse: Looking Back Over the Past Woods, in the heart of downtown Orlando.
Five Years
• Tuesday, March 23 – Rosy Orlando
• Friday, July 2 – Significant Florida Artists
• Tuesday, April 27 – To Pajama or Not to Pajama?
and Why They’re Important
• Tuesday, May 25 – The Queen Kumquat Sashay
FOR MORE EVENTS, VISIT THEHISTORYCENTER.ORG • Tuesday, June 22 – Bootlegger’s Paradise
(All events are subject to change.)
Florida Highwaymen Don't Miss Family Days
Fun, family activities, and free admission
Meet and Greet from 10 a.m. – 2 p.m.
• Saturday, April 17 –
Saturday, June 5
10 a.m. - 4 p.m History on the High Seas
• Saturday, August 7 – Community
IN THIS ISSUE
FROM THE COLLECTION/CONTRIBUTORS.................... 4 TROUBLE IN THE TROPICS: DR. ANDREW TURNBULL’S
FEUD WITH GOV. PATRICK TONYN
FIVE YEARS SINCE PULSE: 2021 REMEMBRANCE GEORGE KOTLIK............................................................. 13
EXHIBITION FOCUSES ON COMMUNITY
JEREMY HILEMAN........................................................... 5 ORLOZOO: DELMAR NICHOLSON’S WILD JOURNEY
TO CREATE THE ORLANDO MUNICIPAL ZOO
THROUGH THE CAMERA LENS....................................... 6 LESLEYANNE DRAKE..................................................... 16
WE SALUTE TWENTY-SIX YEARS MABEL NORRIS REESE: FEARLESS VOICE FOR TRUTH
OF MUSEUM SERVICE..................................................... 7 TANA MOSIER PORTER................................................. 21
A WORLD APART: TWO BLACK COMMUNITIES HISTORIC HAPPENINGS................................................ 23
IN CENTRAL FLORIDA
WHITNEY BARRETT......................................................... 8
SPRING 2021 3
CONTRIBUTORS
The Magazine of the
Historical Society Whitney Barrett
of Central Florida, Inc. Whitney Barrett, a native of Alberta, Canada, has a master’s in Library Science from Florida
State University. She worked in Bethune-Cookman University’s archives and the Mary McLeod
SPRING 2021 Bethune Foundation House before becoming the History Center’s archivist.
VOL. 19, NO. 1
central flori
om da
fr
Publisher
Lesleyanne Drake
Historical Society L esleyanne Drake is a Clearwater native and Florida Gator. She holds an M.A. in museum
of Central Florida anthropology and worked in the archives of The Revs Institute for Automotive Research in
Naples before becoming the History Center’s curator of collections.
Editor-in-Chief
Pamela Schwartz
Managing Editor
Jeremy Hileman
Rick Kilby Jeremy Hileman is a native of Dayton, Ohio and an alumni of Florida State University. He
worked as a volunteer in the History Center’s Collections Department before becoming the
Senior Editor
One Orlando registrar in 2018.
Joy Wallace Dickinson
Associate Editor
Whitney Broadaway George Kotlik
Contributing Editors George Kotlik studied British Colonial North American History at Oxford University. His
interests include loyalists, the eighteenth-century North American frontier, the Great War
Curator of Education
for Empire, the Imperial Crisis, and the American Revolutionary War.
Amanda Parish Walters
Curator of Collections
Lesleyanne Drake Tana Mosier Porter
To receive the latest Reflections by mail, Orlando historian Tana Mosier Porter believes history matters because the present can be
email Amanda.Henry@ocfl.net to become understood only in the context of the past. The beginning is the best place to start.
a member. To contribute an article, email
kilbycreative@cfl.rr.com.
Reflections from Central Florida
FROM THE COLLECTION
The magazine of the Historical Society of
Central Florida Inc. focuses on the Florida
counties included within the History
Center’s mission: Orange, Osceola, Seminole,
Volusia, Lake, Brevard, and Polk. The
History Center is located at 65 East Central
Boulevard, Orlando, FL 32801. Visit our
website at TheHistoryCenter.org
Design by Kilby Creative. Printing by Curtis
1000. Copyright © 2021 Historical Society
of Central Florida, Inc. ISSN 1543-5423
The Orange County Regional History
Center is financed in part by Orange County
through its Community and Family Services
Department under Mayor Jerry L. Demings
and the Board of County Commissioners. The
contents, views, and opinions of contributors
do not necessarily reflect those of the publishers
and editors, county or state officials, or any
other agency. No part of this publication
may be reproduced or distributed without
permission in writing.
The Joseph L. Brechner Research Center
The Brechner Research Center houses the
special collections of the Historical Society
of Central Florida, documenting 14,000
years of Central Florida history. The center
includes a research library, an archive,
and space for researching items from the
collection. The Research Center was created
through a donation from the late Marion
Brody Brechner in honor of her husband,
Joseph (1915-1990), an award-winning
journalist, community leader, and freedom-of-
These Orange County vehicle-registration tags from 1915 and 1916 are the oldest
information advocate.
license plates in the History Center’s collection. Do you have a license plate that’s
older? Send a snapshot to Whitney.Broadaway@ocfl.net, and we’ll share it on social
media!
4 REFLECTIONS
Five Years Since Pulse 2021 Remembrance Exhibition Focuses on Community
by Jeremy Hileman, One Orlando registrar
E
ach summer since 2017, the effects, both locally and globally – so area have vivid memories from the
Orange County Regional many groups that intersect and relate weekend of the Pulse shooting, much
History Center has created an to one another in beautiful and can change over the course of five
exhibition for the annual remembrance compelling ways. years. Those who have recently moved
of the Pulse nightclub shooting. As The exhibition will feature material to town, or children too young at the
we approach five years since the event, selected from the One Orlando time (or perhaps not even born), may
the museum is designing our latest Collection, which consists of more not yet have any strong connection to
exhibition, Community: Five Years than 12,500 physical artifacts, archives, the tragedy. Additionally, those who
After the Pulse Tragedy, in an effort photographs, and oral histories remember far too well may only
to memorialize the victims and shine preserved by the History Center. Many just now be able to revisit that time
a light on the immense outpouring of of the items that will be on display emotionally, having been absent for
love following the events of June 12, were collected from memorial sites in the various tributes and memorials in
2016. the years since. The History Center
With the strives to preserve this story for these
concept of individuals, and for future generations,
community as through projects like this one.
the underlying Community is scheduled to open
theme of the on May 29, 2021. Pulse remembrance
exhibition, exhibitions from previous years,
it must be including The Stories They Could Tell
remembered (2020), Love Speaks (2019), and
that this word Another Year Passes (2018), can each
means many be viewed virtually at the museum’s
things to many website, TheHistoryCenter.org. The
History Center staff
people. We website also features information
often imagine to help you plan your trip to the
community museum, as well as details on special
to mean those programming that will accompany
closest to us this year’s
geographically, the people we see exhibition. We
at work or school or the grocery hope you will
store. The sense of community felt make the time
in Orlando and the greater Central to visit, as we
Florida region after Pulse is a vital come together
component to this story, with residents once again as
coming together in an overwhelming a community
show of support and unity. We’ll to mark
explore what the club represented the somber
to our local community before the occasion and
shooting and how its influence is still remember the
felt today. lives of the 49
Michael Maguire
But community can mean more who are no
than just where you live. The LGBTQ longer with
and Latinx communities beyond us. n
Central Florida were profoundly
affected by the tragedy, because the the weeks and months following Pulse,
majority of victims belonged to one or the tangible representation of the local
both of these groups. The close-knit community’s response. Additional
community that surrounded Pulse pieces have been obtained in the
itself was also forever changed, as both ensuing years, with collecting efforts
employees and patrons faced the loss still active to this very day. Some of the
of a cherished safe space in addition to items shown in the exhibition will be
grieving the death of loved ones. Other on display for the very first time.
communities, too, would also feel the Though many who live in the
SPRING 2021 5
If you have photos you would like to donate to our
collection, please contact our collections manager and
photo archivist, Whitney Broadaway, at 407-836-8587
or Whitney.Broadaway@ocfl.net.
From the photo archives of the Historical Society of Central Florida
Crowdsourced Care in the 1950s
O
n October 11, 1951, 18-month-old Rodney Lynn bleeding even from minor injuries. By November 1, three
Berkheimer slid off his tricycle and cut his lip. This weeks and several transfusions later, the child was still bleeding
typical toddler injury revealed a case of hemophilia, at Orange Memorial Hospital.
a rare blood disease and a parent’s nightmare. Hemophilia To save Rodney’s life, doctors sought to transfer him to
prevents blood from clotting normally, causing excessive the nationally recognized hematologist Dr. Carl Smith at New
York City Hospital, but the
Berkheimer family was still
financially crippled after the
father’s motorcycle accident
the previous year.
A trip to New York
seemed out of the question
until an Orlando radio
station, WORZ, began a
campaign to raise funds for
Rodney’s treatment. By
the time Rodney and his
parents boarded a plane,
as seen on the left, the
effort had raised $2,956,
and contributions were
still flowing in, including
donations of blood for
transfusions.
Rodney and his parents
returned to Orlando after
three weeks of treatment in
New York. The following
year Rodney had to make
another emergency trip
to the New York hospital,
and again WORZ sent out
a call for help. Rodney’s
childhood was full of
blood transfusions at
Orange Memorial, but
thanks to many generous
Orlandoans, his hemophilia
did not stop him from
having a happy childhood
and a family of his own as
an adult. n
6 REFLECTIONS
We Salute Twenty-Six Years of Museum Service
An Homage to Our Former Director, Michael Perkins
In the midst of the pandemic, museum staff, volunteers, and friends weren’t
able to give Michael Perkins the heartfelt huzzahs and hugs we would like
to have bestowed on him when he retired as executive director in January.
Mike worked hard to build the History Center for 26 years, including
leading the museum for six years during challenging times. Here’s a look
back at many memories made with Mike, with many thanks! n
DISCOVERING THE PEOPLE
OF OUR STATE’S PAST
T
he year 2021 will mark 200
years since Florida’s American
era began. Join us as we
explore the histories of the people who
inhabited Florida before it became a
United States territory.
People likely first arrived in what
is now known as Florida more than
14,000 years ago. Native people
hunted, fished, and developed
communities. By the time of the
Spaniard Ponce de León’s arrival in
1513, Florida was home to numerous
indigenous groups, each with their
own culture and way of life.
BECOMING FLORIDA PROGRAMS
LIFE AND DEATH AT WINDOVER
Above and left: Michael Perkins through the years. View on our website
Below: On January 15, 2021, Pam Schwartz presents
Perkins with a gift from staff members as Lenny THE HISPANIC HERITAGE OF FLORIDA
Bendo, president of the Historical Society Board, View on our website
looks on. THE BRITISH ERA IN FLORIDA HISTORY
View on our website
SEMINOLE FLORIDA
Sunday, April 18, 2 p.m.
AFRICAN AMERICAN FLORIDA
Sunday, May 30, 2 p.m.
TERRITORIAL FLORIDA
Sunday, July 11, 2 p.m.
SPRING 2021 7
A World
Apart
Two Black Communities
in Central Florida
by Whitney Barrett, Archivist
In Eatonville and Goldsboro,
Black residents chose voluntary
segregation so that they could
control their own fate.
8 REFLECTIONS
A
s the Reconstruction era came to
an end in the South in 1877, the “Five and ten acre tracts can be bought for five and ten
Jim Crow era was ushered in. This dollars per acre, according to location and improvements.”
period of legalized segregation would
soon impact the lives of almost all Eatonville Speaker, June 22, 1889
Americans, whether they realized it or
not.
In Central Florida during these
years, the growth of the railroad,
citrus, turpentine, and celery industries
attracted more Black residents in
their quest for jobs and opportunity.
In 1870, the Black population in
Orange County was 198. By 1880,
it had risen to 1,023 and by 1890,
to 3,545, out of a total of 12,584.
Orange County then was much larger
than it is today – several surrounding
counties were yet to be carved from it,
including Seminole, Central Florida’s
youngest county, created in 1913.
As their numbers continued to rise,
Black residents worked to increase A Black field worker in 1893.
their social and economic power while
also resisting the oppression of white chosen by white people as places Eatonville: The Town That Freedom Built
supremacy. of residence for Black people. This Located six miles north of Orlando,
Although the Supreme Court’s type of planned segregation could Eatonville has the distinct honor of
“separate but equal” ruling in Plessy be seen in the Black communities being the first all-Black municipality
v. Ferguson would not occur until of Georgetown and Tuckertown in to be incorporated in the United
1896, residents of Central Florida Sanford, Mead’s Bottom and Johnson States (not to be mistaken for Fort
were already creating separate Town in Apopka, and Hannibal Square Mose, near St. Augustine, which is
communities based on race. In some in Winter Park, as well as others. In the first free Black settlement in the
instances, forced segregation was the two instances, however, local Black United States). The founding of
main factor, as white employers who residents chose voluntary segregation Eatonville is closely tied to the small
relied on Black laborers had to find so that they could control their own neighboring city of Maitland, which
a place for their employees to live fate. Their bold actions enabled them was incorporated in 1884.
that was close by. Such decisions led to incorporate their own towns, where Although the Black residents of
to the creation of communities and they were able to live and govern Maitland had experienced success
neighborhoods that were specifically themselves. in the community as leaders,
businessmen, and elected officials,
they soon wanted a town for
themselves. However, they faced
a major obstacle: finding a white
landowner who would sell land to
Black residents for the purpose of
creating their own community. They
had tried about 10 years earlier but
could find no one who was willing
to sell them land. Joseph Clark,
who is known as the founder of
Eatonville, soon found a solution to
the problem. A white philanthropist
named Lewis Lawrence, who had
moved to Maitland from Utica, New
York, agreed to purchase land from
Josiah Eaton, another white Maitland
Tuckertown and Georgetown Survey Area. A 1939 Florida map added the designation
“Negro” under the label for Eatonville (at resident, and then deed the land to
center). Clark.
SPRING 2021 9
Goldsboro: A Stolen Town
On December 1, 1891, a group of
19 Black men gathered in William
Clark’s store in Goldsboro to hold
a vote on incorporating the town.
(Clark was a brother of Eatonville
leader Joseph Clark.) Walter Williams
was soon elected as the first mayor.
Like Eatonville, Goldsboro was a fully
functioning town with elected officials,
businesses, and churches. Residents
were able to own their own houses and
land and took great pride in what they
had been able to create for themselves.
New York Public Library
This town, founded by Black citizens
for Black citizens, had almost reached
its 20th anniversary when the
neighboring city of Sanford decided to
seize an opportunity.
On August 15, 1887, a group of the Eatonville Speaker newspaper, Seeking to expand Sanford’s city
of 27 Black men voted in favor of wanting to attract new residents, limits, its leaders decided that two
incorporating the newly acquired 112 described Eatonville as, “a full-fledged smaller towns, Sanford Heights and
acres of land to create the town of city, all colored, and NOT A WHITE Goldsboro, were in the way. Due to
Eatonville. It was proposed that the FAMILY in the whole city.” In 1900, an error in the original incorporation
town should be named after Josiah Eatonville’s population was 125; in document of Sanford Heights,
Eaton. Columbus H. Boger was 2020 it was about 2,300. Its most dissolution was achievable without
elected as the first mayor. Within a few famous former resident, the author issue. However, the Goldsboro town
years, Eatonville had an established Zora Neale Hurston, is celebrated charter, which had existed without
newspaper and several churches, as well annually at the Zora Neale Hurston any problem for years, was perfectly
as the Robert Hungerford Normal and Festival of the Arts and Humanities, an legal, and despite urgings from
Industrial School. In 1889, the editors event with an international reach. Sanford, Goldsboro refused to give
New York Public Library
Library of Congress
Top of page: Eatonville City Council members in 1907, at the city’s jail. Above, top left, Mayor S.M. Mosley’s residence in Eatonville, 1907;
bottom left, Zora Neale Hurston, Rochelle French, and Gabriel Brown in Eatonville, 1935. Above, right: Goldsboro Survey Area.
10 REFLECTIONSup its charter voluntarily. Forrest 1911, in the Sanford Herald, reads, the streets of Goldsboro were renamed
Lake, former mayor of Sanford and “We are proud of the prosperity and to reflect the numerical system already
then state senator for Orange County, development of your city, but it is no implemented in Sanford. Clark Street
introduced the legislation that allowed good reason that because you are big, – named for William Clark, who had
for the town’s charter to be revoked. you should swallow up our town just lived in Goldsboro since 1866 when it
The residents of Goldsboro were because we are little. There can be no was just a village – was renamed Lake
staunchly against being forcibly charge brought against us to justify Avenue after Forrest Lake, the man
annexed into Sanford. An excerpt from the abolishment or overthrow of our who brought about the end of the
a letter by Goldsboro officials to the corporate existence. If it done in the second incorporated Black town in
people of Sanford, published April 14, way proposed it will be an instance of Florida. It wasn’t until 2012 that this
the tyrannical use of might, of power, wrong was rectified when Lake Avenue
and because we are few and feeble. was renamed Clark Avenue.
Surely you will not justify and uphold While Eatonville and Goldsboro
such a proceeding?” had very similar beginnings, Goldsboro
Despite this plea, repeatedly printed was unfortunately unable to maintain
in the Sanford Herald, state officials its independence. However, it was not
in Tallahassee elected to abolish both Goldsboro’s lack of determination to
the towns of Goldsboro and Sanford survive, but the power of white greed,
Heights so that they could be included that caused the town to be stolen from
in the newly incorporated City of its Black residents. Goldsboro survives
Sanford. This was made official on as a historic Black community, located
April 26, 1911. To add further insult, on the west side of Sanford. n
“We feel pride in our town organization
and earnestly wish to preserve it. To
swallow us up in the corporate limits of
Sanford will add very little to Sanford
and take a great deal from us.”
Sanford Herald,
April 14, 1911
Florida Historical Society
Sanford History Museum
Sanford Herald
Left: Clipping from Sanford Herald, April 14, 1911. Above, top: Goldboro street scene, circa
1930. Above, bottom: Goldsboro postmaster William Boykin with his wife, Rosa. He was the
fourth and last postmaster of the town.
SPRING 2021 11Early Roots of Oppression declared that slaves who escaped to France, Great Britain, and the United
S
ince the first day people of African Florida were to be given asylum as long States, and the freedoms and status
descent arrived in Florida, more as they converted to Roman Catholicism of its Black population shifted with it.
than 500 years ago, they have and pledged allegiance to Spain. Florida With just the stroke of a quill in 1821,
significantly shaped its history. From became a sanctuary for free Black the Adams-Onís Treaty was signed,
1513 to 1865, freedom for these people and those who had escaped and Spain ceded control of Florida
individuals varied as control over Florida slavery, and news of this spread to the to the United States. Its inhabitants
changed among the French, Spanish, southern British colonies. became subject to American law and
British, and American governments. By In 1784, Florida’s newly appointed white southern attitudes on race. Some
the early 1800s, most Black people in Spanish governor, Vicente Manuel free Black people remained, but under
Florida were held in bondage as part de Zéspedes y Velasco, ordered a heavy restriction. Between the time
of an economic system that relied on survey of its Black inhabitants, which Florida became a territory and its official
slavery. was approximately one-third of its statehood, in 1845, lawmakers passed
In 1513, free Africans joined explorer population. Over time, the freedoms additional limitations for Black people,
Ponce de León and helped establish of the Black population were cut away, both free and enslaved.
Florida as a Spanish colony. The earliest and “no free black [was] permitted to Florida was declared the 27th
known record of enslaved Africans in cultivate lands, or live in the country side state on March 3, 1845. In 1857,
the United States was during the 1526 [sic], unless it is with a white man, and the U.S. Supreme Court case Dred
expedition of Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón with a formal contract and my approval Scott v. Sandford ruled that Black
to Florida. By 1565, Africans enslaved by of the conditions.” By the spring of 1790, people were not and could not be
the Spanish would begin to build Florida’s Spanish government decided to citizens. This fateful ruling defined
St. Augustine, the first permanent return enslaved people who had escaped enslaved individuals as property and
European settlement in North America. back to their holders. But people fleeing disenfranchised Black people in Florida
For the next 300 years, millions of bondage in other states continued to and across the country. At the time this
people of African descent lived under the come to Florida. ruling was handed down, 44 percent
violence and oppression of slavery. Between 1513 and 1821, control of of Florida’s 140,400 residents were
In 1693, King Charles II of Spain Florida was contested among Spain, enslaved. n
Left: James Bullock portrays Capt. Francisco Menendez at Fort Mose State
Park near St. Augustine. Fort Mose was the first legally sanctioned free Black
community in what is now the United States. Founded by free Black people as
Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose in 1739, the settlement containing Fort
Mose was an important part of the fortifications of the Spanish capital of Florida.
After the Treaty of Paris transferred Florida from the Spanish to the British in
1763, most of the residents of Fort Mose fled to Cuba rather than return to
slavery. Below: Map of Port St. Augustine, 1783, showing Fort Mose, described
on the map as “Fuerte Negro.”
State Archives of Florida
Rick Kilby
12 REFLECTIONSq
Trouble
in the Tropics
Dr. Andrew
Turnbull’s Feud with
Gov. Patrick Tonyn
For the New Smyrna colony’s founder,
the going was tough under British colonial rule.
State Archives of Florida
by George Kotlik
Dr. Andrew Turnbull, left, and Gov. Patrick Tonyn, right.
E ast Florida was established in
1763 after the British acquired
La Florida from the Spanish at
the conclusion of the Seven Years’ War.
It would be turned back over to Spain
Despite New Smyrna’s troubles,
during its years under Gov. James
Grant’s governorship, Turnbull’s
settlement experienced good relations
with East Florida’s administration. But
Gubernatorial squabbles
Drayton just so happened to be a
good friend of New Smyrna’s founder,
Turnbull, and the two men bonded
over their dislike of Gov. Moultrie,
in 1783 after the American Revolution. after Grant departed in 1771, relations whose job Turnbull had wanted. In
During East Florida’s British colonial deteriorated between Turnbull and time, Drayton’s protests grew, and his
period, Dr. Andrew Turnbull founded the newly appointed governor, John relationship with Moultrie crumbled,
the settlement of New Smyrna in 1768 Moultrie, and New Smyrna’s downfall setting off explosive disagreements
in the southeastern section of mod- began. between the men. The situation grew
ern-day Volusia County. Made up of It all started when wealthy even worse in March 1774, when
transplanted indentured settlers, mostly landowners in East Florida sought to Moultrie was replaced by a military
from Minorca, New Smyrna became the establish an elected assembly made man, Col. Patrick Tonyn, who was
home of roughly 1,200 to 1,400 people up of men like themselves. They had instructed to stamp out any resistance
who carved out a plantation on the begun the push, without success, when to British control in East Florida.
Florida frontier. Grant was governor. Under Tonyn’s leadership,
Because of anti-British tensions erupted between Turnbull
Hard times in New Smyrna demonstrations in the northern North and Drayton and East Florida’s
Life in New Smyrna was hard for Turn- American colonies, British leaders administrators over private land deals
bull’s settlers. More than half of them discouraged a representative form of the two men were making with Native
died from disease, malnutrition, and government in East Florida so that the Americans. For the British, land deals
poor treatment at the hands of the plan- Crown could exercise greater control were solidified by treaties with Native
tation’s overseers, some of whom were over the region. When Moultrie Americans and had to be approved
former noncommissioned officers in the continued to refuse to establish a by government officials. Drayton and
British army. Conditions became so bad lower house, like Grant before him, Turnbull both wanted to seek treaty
that an unsuccessful revolt took place at landowners protested, including the approval from the home government in
New Smyrna in 1768 – an episode that chief justice of East Florida, William London and chose not to report their
resulted in the execution of two men. Drayton. deals to the colonial authorities. When
SPRING 2021 13deliver that copy, Tonyn was told,
to His Majesty’s representatives in
London. Offended, Tonyn drafted his
own address of loyalty to the king and
got his friends to sign it, too. After this
encounter, letters between Tonyn and
Turnbull became quite heated.
Escape to England
Tonyn was so mad that he decided to
imprison both Turnbull and Drayton
on vague charges. Fearful of rotting
in a damp prison cell, the two men
escaped to England, further enraging
Tonyn because they had fled without
receiving written permission. In
response, he suspended Turnbull from
his position as secretary of the province
and clerk of the council, but not
before submitting complaints about
Turnbull’s behavior to Lord George
Germain, the British secretary of state
for the colonies.
Upon Turnbull and Drayton’s
arrival in England, they secured an
audience with Germain and offered
their own assessment of the dissolving
situation between them and Tonyn in
East Florida. Germain ordered Tonyn
to bury the hatchet, reinstate Turnbull
and Drayton to their former posts, and
continue to do everything in his power
to promote the growth and prosperity
of Turnbull’s New Smyrna settlement.
Tonyn was livid but adhered to
Germain’s orders.
After the meeting with Germain,
Drayton and Turnbull remained in
State Archives of Florida
England, and Turnbull filed various
charges against Tonyn that culminated
in a request to remove Tonyn
from office. It fell upon deaf ears,
however – the Board of Trade was
A 1770 map of East Florida, based on a survey by John Gerard William De Brahm, shows so preoccupied with the worsening
Florida’s east coast from the Georgia border to Cape Canaveral.
situation in the rebelling colonies that
it did not have the time or resources
their pending treaty was discovered Turnbull and Drayton called a meeting to look into Turnbull’s charges. From
before anyone had been made aware of at Woods Tavern in St. Augustine on their perspective, a royal governor’s
it, they and their deal fell on ill favor Feb. 27, 1776, at which they prepared small-scale squabbles were of little
with the colonial governments. Tonyn a written address to the king, affirming consequence if he managed to hold
moved to punish Drayton, eventually their loyalty. They had it signed by 78 his post and keep Florida a British
suspending him from his office in men and attached a pledge of loyalty province. The American Revolution,
1776. Turnbull was firmly in Drayton’s from 200 New Smyrna families that after all, drove many royal governors
camp and quickly defended his friend. was signed by Turnbull, who delivered out of office.
Tonyn believed that Turnbull, the address to Tonyn the next day – During the remainder of their stay
Drayton, and their allies were not although the governor’s copy did not in England, Drayton and Turnbull
loyal subjects of the British Crown. In include the names of the men who were exonerated for their part in
response to this startling accusation, signed it. Turnbull would personally the Native American land dealings.
14 REFLECTIONSDetermined to get rid of the whole decided to take up his now reinstated He also accused Turnbull of disloyalty;
situation between Tonyn and the East post as East Florida’s secretary and when the Americans had attempted to
Florida landowners, Germain told clerk of the council. Tonyn informed invade East Florida, he wrote, Turnbull
Turnbull it was his duty as a Crown him, however, that he could enjoy had not offered to help defend the
subject to cooperate with the royal the position’s salary but could not colony.
governor. He persuaded Turnbull to carry out the duties of its office. The
withdraw his formal complaint against governor had barred Turnbull’s ability
Tonyn and, at the same time, also took to perform his job, rationalizing this Powerful friends
Luckily, Turnbull had powerful friends
the liberty of withdrawing Tonyn’s decision on Turnbull’s conduct prior to
in the British government. He asked
charges against Turnbull. He wanted leaving for England.
Lord Shelburne to write to Lord
the two men to settle their differences Turnbull also faced challenges from
Cornwallis on his behalf, informing the
and work together to better East the British heirs of two partners who
British general of Turnbull’s sufferings
Florida. As Turnbull and Drayton left had shared stakes in the New Smyrna
and mistreatment by Tonyn. In the
to return to East Florida, they were settlement and had died. With the
end, British leaders paid little heed to
satisfied that their quarrels would plantation now abandoned, the heirs
Tonyn’s allegations against Turnbull’s
produce no ill effects for their estates. wanted to divvy up their portion of
character.
the property, and Tonyn was placed
When Turnbull reached Charleston
in charge of managing a division of
Vanished the land – a decision Turnbull found
on May 13, 1782, his Florida
When Turnbull arrived, though, adventure was at an end. After the
infuriating. When he expressed his
he found New Smyrna virtually American Revolution, he secured
displeasure to Germain, though, once
unpopulated. While he was away, some permission from South Carolina’s
again, Britain’s leaders did nothing to
Minorcans had fled to St. Augustine leaders to remain in the state as a
resolve a dispute in East Florida – they
and confessed to Tonyn the struggles British subject. They obliged him,
were far too preoccupied with the
they had endured under Turnbull’s and he remained there for the rest of
American Revolution.
overseers (including deaths at the his life – another 10 years. When the
Taking aim at Turnbull’s friend
hands of New Smyrna’s neglectful British government offered former
Drayton, Tonyn removed him from
managers). Worried about the Florida landowners compensation for
office for “negligence of his duties,”
possibility of an invasion against East their losses after East Florida was given
and Drayton moved to Charleston,
Florida, Tonyn seized the opportunity back to Spain, Turnbull received 916
South Carolina. Tonyn suspected that
to bolster his loyalist militia ranks by pounds. He died on March 13, 1792.
Turnbull, too, would flee East Florida
persuading many of Turnbull’s settlers As for Tonyn, he left East Florida
and avoid paying debts on his estate,
to abandon their posts and come to at the end of the American Revolution.
so he arrested Turnbull and locked him
St. Augustine, where he promised to Loyalists, including some of Turnbull’s
up in jail. Incarcerated for a year and
protect them from Turnbull. And just colonists, went with him. Life for New
seven months, Turnbull was finally let
like that, New Smyrna was abandoned. Smyrna’s former settlers improved.
go after legal settlements were reached,
When Germain learned of New Some of them resettled in Europe,
and his estate was divvied up. In the
Smyrna’s collapse, he did nothing to the Bahamas, and Dominica. The
end, he was left with little to show
indict Tonyn. Adding insult to injury, rest remained behind, converted to
for his efforts in New Smyrna. Tonyn
Turnbull learned that Tonyn had Catholicism, and became Spanish
robbed what was left of his Florida land
allegedly sent his wife threats while subjects. Minorcan descendants of
by refusing to release Turnbull until he
Turnbull was away and had encouraged New Smyrna still live in Florida to this
surrendered claims to the remainder his
her to leave. After all that, Turnbull’s day. As for the plantation, remnants of
Florida estate. Turnbull conceded and
relations with Tonyn did not improve. Turnbull’s ill-fated settlement can be
was finally released.
Finding his settlement in disorder found in New Smyrna Beach, where
Relieved he was no longer tied to
and its former workers living in St. the memory of this small episode in
New Smyrna, a now almost penniless
Augustine, Turnbull publicly accused North American history lives on. n
Turnbull planned to follow Drayton’s
Tonyn of causing New Smyrna’s ruin. example and move to Charleston. He
He also expressed his displeasure at
Tonyn’s attempt to undermine New
did not depart without harassment. Selected Sources
Tonyn tried persuading the captain of Kenneth H. Beeson Jr. Fromajadas
Smyrna for the purpose of bolstering Turnbull’s vessel not to take the doctor and Indigo: The Minorcan Colony in
the ranks of his loyalist militia. Tonyn and his family to Charleston. Failing Florida. Charleston: The History Press,
reported Turnbull’s emotionally that end, the governor wrote to Sir 2006.
charged accusation to Germain and Henry Clinton, who was stationed in
accused Turnbull of disloyalty to the Charleston, warning him of Turnbull Carita Doggett Corse. Dr. Andrew
Crown. Germain did nothing. and Drayton’s plans to secure jobs with Turnbull and The New Smyrna Colony
the army departments there. Desperate of Florida. Florida: The Drew Press,
Troubles for Turnbull men like Drayton and Turnbull should 1919.
His settlement in ruins, Turnbull not be hired, Tonyn warned.
SPRING 2021 15Orlozoo:
Delmar Nicholson’s
Wild Journey to Create
the Orlando Municipal Zoo
by Lesleyanne Drake,
Curator of Collections
Above: Delmar Nicholson feeds bread to his pet sandhill crane, Jim (a female). Opposite: A page from Nicholson’s scrapbook.
T
he first modern zoos in the grassroots movement, the quest for a acquired an appreciation for nature and
United States opened in zoo in the City Beautiful was fraught a lifelong love of animals. Even as he
the 1870s. Unlike private with challenges from the beginning. pursued a career in radio engineering,
menageries, modern zoological parks earning the moniker “Radio Nick,” he
were intended to educate the public Radio Nick Leads the Charge advocated for wildlife conservation,
about the natural world and also to Although the first reported discussions educated others about Florida animals,
provide a source of entertainment. about an Orlando zoo came from the and became widely respected as a
Like museums and botanical gardens, Junior Chamber of Commerce, the herpetologist, despite a lack of formal
zoos became symbols of civic pride as most vocal supporter quickly became education in the subject. He wrote
well as regional attractions. Delmar “Radio Nick” Nicholson. educational articles, gave wildly
By 1932, there was serious Born in 1899 to Augustus and Alice popular presentations featuring live
discussion in Orlando about creating Nicholson, he and his four siblings snakes, and helped spearhead local
a city zoo, which residents believed grew up surrounded by animals. Their conservation initiatives.
would attract thousands of families and father was a taxidermist who frequently In 1933, Nicholson began
tourists. Both Sanford and Kissimmee brought home wild animals, turning advocating for a zoo, calling it a
already had successful zoos; why the Nicholson household into its own “necessity . . . for a city of Orlando’s
shouldn’t their city have one, too? kind of zoo. According to one family caliber” (Orlando Sentinel, June 30,
By attracting visitors, a zoo would story, visiting relatives were surprised 1933). The project couldn’t have had
also spur business development for to discover an alligator living in the a better spokesperson. Not only was he
Orlando, supporters maintained. bathtub! passionate about animals, but he was
But despite inspiring a passionate From his father, Delmar Nicholson also well known and well liked in the
16 REFLECTIONScommunity, partly through his business the City Council, which designated as quickly as the outpouring of
selling and repairing radios. Every $1,500 to build it and $1,000 more community support.
Christmas Eve he would fill a large for ongoing maintenance (Sentinel,
porcelain duck with whiskey and pour Nov. 15, 1934). So Many Animals, Too Little Time
drinks for folks on Orange Avenue, Nicholson and others immediately The first challenge was finding an
wishing them a Merry Christmas. He began hosting fundraisers and appropriate location. The proposed
seemed to know everyone and had a collecting donations, including site was tiny – about 300 by 290 feet
voice that could rally people to a cause. construction materials from Orlando on West Livingston Avenue, between
With Nicholson as its champion, business owners. In December Garland Street and the railroad tracks
it wasn’t long before Orlando’s zoo 1934, the Lions Club incorporated – and members of the Greater Orlando
started to become a reality. In October the Orlando Zoological Society Chamber of Commerce argued against
1934, the Orlando Lions Club and as a nonprofit to manage the zoo, it before the City Council, proposing
City Commissioner Jack Sparling with Nicholson as its curator and a move to the spacious Loch Haven
agreed to sponsor the project. With president, and Orlandoans from exposition grounds (now Loch Haven
their backing, Nicholson presented politicians to high schoolers voiced Park).
architect Maurice Kressly’s concept eager anticipation for the opening of The Livingston location would be
sketch of a “flower-bedecked aviary, the city’s new attraction. However, “obnoxious” to winter visitors, the
monkey house, and lion cage” to concerns about the zoo aroseOrlando Lawn Bowling Club declared let loose in the courthouse “to
in a news report on Nov. 21, 1934, play around” for exercise and bit
and Harry P. Leu, whose business Hand’s secretary, Ruth Wyrick, on
was across the street, warned that the leg (Sentinel, Sept. 4, 1935).
Orlandoans would undoubtedly be Wyrick’s wound became infected,
annoyed by insects, animal cries, and requiring medical attention, and
foul smells. Hand announced that his pet was
In contrast, Nicholson and other destined for the zoo.
advocates envisioned a beautiful By February 1935, so many
park and gardens that could be seen animals were being offered that
by passengers on the Atlantic Coast Nicholson was running short
Line railroad. If the zoo outgrew on cages in the still-under-
its compact home, they would then construction zoo. He housed
consider a move. Except for a lion and animals anywhere he could
monkeys, the zoo wouldn’t have exotic – including in the Violet Dell
animals that needed more space and Florist shop in the San Juan Hotel
more money to acquire and maintain, building and at a local animal
they argued. hospital. By late 1935, “scores of
Instead, Nicholson was preparing animals” were temporary residents at Even so, Nicholson
to capture Florida wildlife, including a the Kissimmee Municipal Zoo while believed that donations and fundraisers
bear, to fill the zoo even before it was waiting for their new home at the would get the zoo to the finish line. He
funded, the Sentinel reported. He also Orlozoo, as some members of the press announced that it would open June 1,
planned to collect more than a dozen dubbed it (Sentinel, Sept. 25, 1935). 1935, with Dr. Raymond L. Ditmars,
species of birds at his own expense, as curator of the Bronx Zoo in New
well as deer, otters, and other animals, More Zoo Than the City Can Chew? York City, presiding over the opening
and both the Sanford and Kissimmee The zoo turned out to be more of ceremony, which would include
zoos had promised him animals. an undertaking than anyone had welcoming a lion into its new home.
Orlando residents also donated anticipated. At first, as donations Thousands of Orlandoans
creatures they had caught (snakes, came flooding in, Nicholson thought contributed their time and resources
alligators, wild hogs, armadillos, it would be ready in a mere 90 days. to the zoo – but it was not enough.
birds, bullfrogs, wildcats, foxes, and However, his vision of a modern zoo In May, Nicholdson reported that
more), raised (chickens and ducks), – with lush grounds, natural-looking $18,000 had been spent, including
or kept as pets until they became too enclosures, and an assembly room both monetary and material donations,
much to handle (monkeys, skunks, for classes – cost much more than he but that $10,000 more was needed.
and raccoons). “Somebody is always initially estimated. By February 1935, Although dozens of truckloads of rock
trapping a wildcat or taming a raccoon just months after getting started, the had been hauled from neighboring
and, growing tired of them, looking for Zoological Society sought approval counties, he also estimated that 75
an avenue of escape,” a Sentinel article to dip into the maintenance funds, more truckloads would be needed to
noted on Nov. 15, 1934. with warnings from the City Council complete the enclosures. Still, he felt
One notable example was Sheriff that no additional money would be sure sufficient funds could be raised
Harry Hand’s pet monkey, which was forthcoming. and the zoo would open by October 1.
Below: The Orlando municipal zoo under construction, February 23, 1935.
18 REFLECTIONSAn open house in June drew about a storm of conflict that would spell the the WPA workers had nothing to
400 people. The turnout reassured beginning of the end for Orlozoo. do and were forced to leave the zoo
Nicholson he was on the way to unfinished.
producing “the finest little zoo in Trouble in Paradise In an attempt to inspire support,
America” (Sentinel, June 17, 1935). Mayor V. W. Estes and the city Nicholson put on a snake show at
Over the next months, the Lions Club commissioners, initially supportive of Tinker Field. Several hundred people
divided into teams and competed to the zoo, were hesitant to commit more watched him lecture about 35 snakes
bring in donations, staged a circus, funds. Nicholson’s requested $3,000 he had captured in Florida swamps as
and held benefit shows including would not complete the project – more well as how to administer first aid for
wrestling and boxing matches, money would have to be raised, and, on a snake bite. In the show’s highlight,
auctions, and special screenings at the top of that, funds would still be needed he extracted venom from a large
Beacham Theater. Meanwhile, the for ongoing maintenance. diamondback rattler and then injected
grand opening was postponed another One commissioner cited a laundry the venom into a king snake to
month, to November 3. list of city projects that needed funding, demonstrate its immunity. However,
Despite the delays, community including more police officers, another the fact that two live guinea pigs were
members were excited about having garbage truck, street widening and fed to the rattlers drew criticism,
beautification, and welfare programs. and some even called for a new zoo
Mayor Estes suggested raising taxes. manager who demonstrated greater
Although Nicholson was firmly compassion for animals.
against a tax increase, the mere idea As soon as negotiations with the
seemed to derail negotiations. city were finalized, Nicholson did
Despite public concern over resign as the zoo’s curator, because he
the possibility of higher taxes, could no longer afford to volunteer
the zoo still had many ardent all his time and money. Less than two
supporters. Orlando Senior High weeks later, he took a
job as a car salesman at
J. C. Milligan Motors. He
did promise to continue
as president of the
Zoological Society.
Enough enclosures
were completed to have
some animals on display,
and the zoo continued
Central Florida news media found Delmar to operate, but it never
Nicholson a great source of copy and photos had its grand opening
in the 1930s, from the papayas he examined
while wearing a pith helmet (facing page, or fulfilled Nicholson’s
top) to his bottle-feeding of a fawn, above. vision. Still, he returned
Right: In a shot probably taken at the to run the zoo in June
Orlando municipal zoo, he calmly holds a 1936, and it remained
wildcat on a leash.
a popular attraction
throughout the year. A
12-foot alligator lassoed
their own zoo. In September, another School students wrote that the zoo by Mayor Estes and four other men
preview reportedly drew over 2,000 must be completed “to instill in drew record crowds.
people. The star of the show was a students of all ages a knowledge,
fawn Nicholson had raised. respect and love for all wild life in our The End Is Nigh
The crowds of visitors probably state” (Sentinel, Nov. 10, 1935). A Orlozoo struggled through the first
had no idea that work on the project winter visitor chastised the city for not half of 1937, but by September, a
had nearly crept to a halt. Laborers having finished the zoo, saying that newspaper report described it as
provided by the Works Progress it was a “disgrace” to leave it looking looking “seedy,” with an “air of
Administration (WPA) at no cost “like the ruins of Pompeii” (Sentinel, deterioration, of neglect” (Orlando
to the Zoological Society were Nov. 2, 1935). Evening Star, Sept. 29, 1937). There
perpetually low on materials. By this By the end of November, a plan were few animals, and the enclosures
time, Nicholson had quit his radio had been reached to eke out another appeared to be falling apart, with
business and was working full time on $1,500 from the city through the weeds, foul water, and debris. In
the zoo. With only a month until the collection of back taxes. Meanwhile, October 1937, the president of the
opening, he asked the City Council work on the zoo stopped. The lack of Lions Club appeared before the City
for an additional $3,000, touching off funds for construction materials meant Council and stated that the group
SPRING 2021 19could no longer operate the zoo. be too expensive. Instead, the rock City Council and was a founder of
A months-long argument ensued, would be sold and most of the animals Goodwill Industries of Central Florida.
but everyone seemed to agree that would be “sold or otherwise disposed He later bought a small island on Bay
the zoo had to be either refurbished of” (Evening Star, April 27, 1938). Lake, where he raised award-winning
or demolished. Nicholson, who had However, the remaining birds and bird orchids, a variety of seedless lime,
once again stepped away from day-to- enclosures would be maintained as an and other plants. The property would
day management of the zoo, believed aviary, with pathways and shrubs added eventually be purchased by Walt Disney
that demolishing it would be a deep to create a simple park. World and turned into Treasure Island
insult to the hundreds of residents, (later renamed Discovery Island).
businesses, and schoolchildren who The Hidden Story Nicholson passed away in 1978,
had donated to the project (more than Little is known about what happened at the age of 79, never having seen
$19,000 in cash, materials, and labor). to the animals that lived in the his dream of a free public zoo in
He acknowledged that thousands Orlozoo. Some may have been Orlando come true. Despite his initial
more would be needed to complete transferred to other zoos, and some idea of having a lion and potentially
and maintain the project. released into the wild. The bird one or two other exotic animals, he
It did not help that animals kept enclosures remained as the “City maintained that the primary purpose of
escaping. A young buck reportedly Aviary” into the 1940s, even as the the zoo had always been to educate the
chased two women down the street property was leased from the city for public about Florida’s native wildlife,
before being tackled and returned a pet shop and then used by the parks a goal that may have been in conflict
to its paddock. Later, another buck department to house plants. According with others’ desire for the zoo to be an
(or perhaps the same one) jumped to Eve Bacon’s Orlando: A Centennial exciting tourist attraction. n
through a fence when the Wilson and History, the remaining birds were
Toomer Fertilizer company across the transferred to Mead Botanical Gardens If you know more about the short-lived
street went up in flames. Then two at some point before the sale of the Orlando zoo or have any photos you’d
monkeys and a 30-pound racoon made property in 1945. like to share, we’d love to hear from you.
a jailbreak. Nicholson went on to a successful Contact Lesleyanne Drake at Lesleyanne.
The tipping point came when four career as a salesman and radio store Drake@ocfl.net.
monkeys escaped through a rusted owner. He also served on the Orlando
hole in the roof of their enclosure. The
city’s investigation into the incident
threw the zoo’s problems into
even sharper relief. Not only
were the metal enclosures
rusting, but floorboards were
deteriorating, and there was a
foul odor from excess food left
to rot. With funds from the city
doled out in “dribbles,” the
zoo operated “hand to mouth”
(Evening Star, Dec. 22, 1937).
Editorials appeared asking
the City Council to save the zoo,
and hundreds of schoolchildren
participated in a letter-writing
campaign. It wasn’t enough. In
April 1938, it was decided that
rehabilitating the zoo would
The backlash to Delmar Nicholson’s
November 1935 show was not new;
in the past, he had been criticized for
trying to stage a fight between snakes.
To Nicholson, this was an educational
exercise, but others associated it with
bullfighting or cockfighting. Although
animal fighting was not taboo at the
time, it was viewed as cruel and morally
wrong by many, especially animal lovers.
In the image at right, Nicholson extracts
venom from a rattlesnake.
20 REFLECTIONSYou can also read
