Communication for Development Approaches to Address Violence Against Children: A Systematic Review SUMMARY REPORT - Unicef
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C4D WORKING
PAPER SERIES
Communication for Development
Approaches to Address Violence
Against Children:
A Systematic Review SUMMARY REPORT
tle: 3: C4D and Violence Against Children - working paper
tle: 4: C4D and Violence Against Children - full report
Acknowledgements
RESEARCH TEAM
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Suruchi Sood, Associate Professor,
Dornsife School of Public Health, Drexel University
CO-PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Günay Salazar
CO-PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Ami Sengupta
RESEARCH STAFF: Carmen Cronin, Michelle Gordon, Jessica
Lopez, Kelli Kostizak, Sarah Stevens
STUDENT ASSISTANTS: Joëlla Adams, Srinidhi Bhatt, Janay
Brandon, Mena El Turky, Nina Figueroa, Andrew Issa,
Priyanka Padidam, Nikhil Shah, Anuja Thatte
Communication for Development (C4D)
UNICEF
Working Paper Series
MANAGEMENT TEAM:
• Neha Kapil, C4D Specialist, UNICEF Headquarters
Communication for Development Approaches • Charlotte Lapsansky, C4D Specialist, UNICEF Headquarters
to Address Violence Against Children: • Clarice Da Silva e Paula, Child Protection Specialist, UNICEF
A Systematic Review (Summary Report) Headquarters
• Marina Komarecki, IKM Specialist, UNICEF Headquarters
Authors: Suruchi Sood and Carmen Cronin • Sophie Flynn, Child Protection Consultant, UNICEF Headquarters
• RyAnn Babcock Waldemarsen, Programme Support, UNICEF
Headquarters
© United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), • Mercy Abgai, Programme Support, UNICEF Headquarters
New York, 2019
OVERALL GUIDANCE:
Suggested citation: Sood, S. and C. Cronin, • Theresa Kilbane, Senior Advisor, Child Protection, UNICEF
Communication for Development Approaches to Headquarters
• Rafael Obregon, Chief, C4D, UNICEF Headquarters
Address Violence Against Children: A Systematic • Stephen Blight, Senior Advisor, Child Protection, UNICEF
Review, UNICEF, New York, 2019. Headquarters
• Susan Bissell, Chief, Child Protection, UNICEF Headquarters
The designations in this publication do • Cornelius Williams, Chief, Child Protection, UNICEF Headquarters
not imply an opinion on legal status of any
INPUTS & CONTRIBUTIONS:
country or territory, or of its authorities, or
• Susana Sottoli, Associate Director, UNICEF Headquarters
the delimitation of frontiers.
• Patricia Portela Souza, C4D Specialist, UNICEF Headquarters
Cover photos (left to right): © UNICEF/
UGDA201400118/Dyer; © UNICEF/INDA2014- Reviewers
00034/Biswas; © UNICEF/UNI179589/Filippov; UNICEF
© UNICEF/UNI184209/Newar • Ketan Chitnis, C4D Chief, UNICEF Vietnam
• Rudrajit Das, C4D Specialist, UNICEF
• India Ayda Eke, Child Protection Specialist, UNICEF Headquarters
• Fabio Friscia, C4D Specialist, UNICEF WCARO
• Karin Heissler, Child Protection Specialist, UNICEF Headquarters
• Mika Kunida, C4D Specialist, UNICEF WCARO
• Paolo Mefalopulos, C4D Chief, UNICEF India
• Mario Mosquera, C4D Specialist, UNICEF India
• Joachim Theis, Child Protection Chief, UNICEF India
• Cristina del Valle, Child Protection Specialist, UNICEF WCARO
• Nance Webber, C4D Chief, UNICEF Bangladesh
For further information, contact: • Clara Sommarin, Child Protection Specialist, UNICEF Headquarters
• Caroline Bacquet, Child Protection Specialist, UNICEF Headquarters
Communication for Development and • Jennifer Keane, Child Protection Specialist, UNICEF Headquarters
Child Protection Sections • Child Protection Regional Advisors
Programme Division EXTERNAL REVIEWERS
• Sue Goldstein, Programme Director at Soul City,
United Nations Children’s Fund
Johannesburg Area, South Africa
3 United Nations Plaza, • Lisa M. Jones, Ph.D. Research Associate Professor of
New York, New York 10017 Psychology, Crimes against Children Research Center (CCRC),
Email: c4dhq@unicef.org University of New Hampshire.
Website: www.unicef.org/cbsc • Catherine L. Ward, Ph.D. Associate Professor, Department of
ISBN Number 978-0-9911961-7-3 Psychology, University of Cape Town
EDITING AND PROOFREADING
Robert David Cohen and Teresa Stuart, Rainbarrel Communications
Lisa Hiller-Garvey, Small World Stories
DESIGN AND LAYOUT
Big Yellow Taxi, New York
Communication for Development
Approaches to Address Violence
Against Children:
A Systematic Review SUMMARY REPORT
In the State of Palestine, five-
year-old triplets (left-right)
Alma, Maryam and Lareen
have taken shelter
in a mental health clinic,
where their father is a nurse,
in Gaza City.
© UNICEF/UNI167953/D’AKI
FOREWORD
D
espite a clear legal and ethical imperative to protect children, Violence
against Children (VAC) remains pervasive. It affects millions of children
every year, in their homes, communities, schools, workplaces, in detention
centres and childcare institutions, and online. It can have long lasting, and often
lifelong, negative effects. The vast majority of children never speak out about
their experiences and even fewer receive the services they need to recover.
When the global community adopted the Sustainable innovation and best practice in shifting social norms related to
Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015, targets were set to VAC. C4D is indeed integral to UNICEF’s VAC programmatic
eradicate all forms of violence, abuse, exploitation and approach under the Strategic Plan 2018-2021. Changing social
trafficking against boys and girls, as well as harmful practices norms is also embedded in the VAC Theory of Change, as
by 2030. There is increasing recognition that VAC places a a stand-alone outcome, and as a cross-cutting strategy that
long-term burden on health and social services, undermines influences all other outcomes.
investment and development in other sectors (such as health,
early childhood development, nutrition and education) and Even so, the evidence and documentation of C4D best practices
constrains economic growth. Conversely, investment in to address VAC is limited. There is an urgent need to improve
ending violence against children and women can accelerate access, dissemination, systematization, and use of data and
development across all the SDGs. evidence on social and behavior change and community
engagement to promote protective practices. In recent years,
Violence against children encompasses several efforts have been undertaken to strengthen this. Yet
“all forms of physical or mental there are few such efforts focused on VAC.
violence, injury and abuse, neglect or
This report is part of a package of evidence and tools that
negligent treatment, maltreatment or includes this systematic review of C4D interventions to
exploitation, including sexual abuse" address VAC, an evidence review of randomized controlled
(Article 19, United Nations Convention on the trials, a Technical Guidance for C4D programmes
Rights of the Child) addressing VAC, and training materials related to the
Guidance. This suite of materials is a result of UNICEF’s
Transforming social norms that condone or facilitate VAC or investments in C4D capacity and its collaboration with
prevent child victims from accessing support, and reinforcing Drexel University to strengthening the evidence-base on
positive norms that protect children from violence, has been what works for preventing and responding to VAC through
increasingly recognized as crucial by the global community – C4D. Several UNICEF offices are using these resources to
it is, for example, one key strategy of the INSPIRE package for develop country roadmaps and strengthen their strategies to
ending violence against children (WHO, 2016). address VAC through robust C4D programming. We hope
that more UNICEF offices, governments, partner agencies,
UNICEF has a critical role to play in ending VAC and achieving and others working in this area will find this package useful.
the SDGs. It is a leading global agency with the profile, reach, We hope that it will also provide the hard evidence that
expertise and mandate to achieve impact at scale. Building on governments and development agencies need for scaling up
its expertise and technical leadership in Communication for efforts to reduce violence against children.
Development (C4D), UNICEF is also well placed to lead on
RAFAEL OBREGÓN STEPHEN BLIGHT
Chief, Communication for Senior Advisor, Child Protection
Development Programme Division, UNICEF Programme Division, UNICEF
2 Communication for Development Approaches to Address Violence Against Children: A Systematic Review — Summary Report
Contents
Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Executive summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Sampling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Key findings ..................................................................................... 7
SECTION 1: Sampling information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
SECTION 2: Programme design issues.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
SECTION 3: Programme implementation information.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
SECTION 4: Overall programme evaluation processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
SECTION 5: Thematic analysis of key results by type of research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3 Overall recommendations ............................................................ 14
4 Conclusion .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Appendix A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Appendix B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Appendix C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3 Communication for Development Approaches to Address Violence Against Children: A Systematic Review — Summary Report
1 Background
A group of children play ‘is
jam mu mee mon or Eenie,
Meenie, Miney, Mo in Eng-
lish in Adone village of Ta Oi
district in Saravane province,
Lao PDR.
This research study, initiated by the Programme Division at UNICEF
headquarters in New York, systematically analyses interventions
addressing violence against children through the use of communication
for development (C4D)1. It sought to answer the following research
question: ‘What are the effects of communication for development
approaches to address violence against children (VAC)’?
© UNICEF/UNI18 276 8/NOO RANI
This summary report is meant for public distribution and accompanies
a longer document that provides a full and detailed report of the
systematic review and its findings.
1 The term communication for development (C4D) is being used to cover a wide variety of communication approaches and strategies as detailed in Figure 1.
4 Communication for Development Approaches to Address Violence Against Children: A Systematic Review — Summary Report
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
T
his systematic review examined available FIGURE 1: List of communication approaches
peer-reviewed, published and grey
literature (reports and programme Communication approaches
documents) on C4D interventions addressing
issues relating to VAC within a 13-year time period
and terms
(2000-2013). The systematic review focused on Communication (for/and) development
interventions in which children, as defined by Behaviour change communication
the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC),
Advocacy
were either the audience or beneficiaries. There
are differences among practitioners and scholars Social mobilization
on all the communication approaches and terms Community mobilization
that constitute C4D. Therefore, the systematic Participatory communication
review included several complementary terms
Communication campaigns
such as behaviour change communication, social
mobilization, media campaigns, and advocacy. Strategic communication
See Figure 1 for a complete list of communication Media campaigns
approaches that typically fall under the domain
Social media
of C4D. As for types of VAC, a variety of broad
and specific issues were included. The systematic Interactive communication technologies (ICTs)
review did not include interventions dealing with
VAC in conflict settings or during emergency/
disaster situations.
Executive summary
T
he number of manuscripts related to the addressing affective and behavioural domains
use of C4D approaches to address VAC such as attitudes, norms and practices.
has steadily increased each year since
2000. Of the 302 manuscripts that were analysed, Most interventions did not report segmenting
44 per cent discuss an intervention implemented audiences into primary, secondary or tertiary
in a developing country, which speaks to the groups. Interventions commonly used more
geographic robustness of this review. than one approach to meet stated objectives,
with interpersonal communication and training
Roughly half of the interventions reviewed did being the dominant approaches. However,
not explicitly reference a conceptual model nearly two-thirds of interventions did not select
to underpin the interventions. Those that multiple channels to meet the needs of a diverse
did, typically cited individual or cognitive and segmented audience. New technologies
conceptual models and a majority focused on and mobile forms of communication were used
the individual level of change. Few programme to a lesser degree, although cross-tabulations
objectives utilized SMART or SPICED (see with the year of publication showed a growing
reference on page 8 for criteria description) reliance on new technologies.
criteria to write programme objectives or
focused on positive changes that individuals The paucity of robust and rigorous monitoring and
could undertake to promote behaviour and evaluation underscores the need to invest more
social change. All of the C4D objectives were heavily in research, especially in low- and middle-
written in ‘cognitive’ terms with no reference to income countries. Few manuscripts described
5 Communication for Development Approaches to Address Violence Against Children: A Systematic Review — Summary Report
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
formative research or process evaluations. In summary, it is essential to expand outcome
Significantly more manuscripts reported on impact evaluation studies so as to enhance our
evaluations. Qualitative observational data was understanding of global best practices, which
a commonly utilized evaluation methodology. in turn need to be contextualized based on
This type of data on its own, unfortunately, what works at a local level to address VAC.
makes a weak case for C4D attribution to
programme outcomes. Overall, there is a serious Moving forward, future research and practice
underutilization of participatory research methods should consider the following 15 overall
for any and all types of evaluations. recommendations. These are categorized under
three broad themes relevant to contextualizing
FIGURE 2: Overall recommendations emerging from the and framing the issue, programme design,
systematic review implementation and evaluation. These themes are
elaborated later on in the report.
Contextualisation and framing of the issue
• Specifically address children within other forms of violence Sampling
• Explore linkages between different forms of VAC In order to systematize the review process,
• Explore VAC along a spectrum the shortlisting of manuscripts involved seven
• Contextualize VAC both as a cause and an outcome databases and three stages of review:
• Start early and continue into adulthood
• Move beyond a place-based approach to a wider norms-based approach 1. TITLE REVIEW: Titles deemed relevant
to incorporate innovative communication channels and tackle the culture were shortlisted for abstract review.
of violence
2. ABSTRACT REVIEW: Shortlisted abstracts
were scanned for relevance based on
Programme design their adherence to the inclusion criteria.
3. FULL TEXT REVIEW: Full text manuscripts
of the relevant abstracts were read and
simultaneously entered into a database.
• Embrace the social ecological model for behaviour and social change
• Broaden conceptualizations of C4D approaches to encompass efforts that
While the key search criteria yielded a total of
involve any form of communication/ communicative action and cut across all
levels in the social ecological model 80,532 results, only 302 manuscripts made the final
• Segment audiences by gender and address gender specific needs and cut. In other words, 302 articles were read fully and
differences coded into an excel database for further analysis.
• Clarify direct and indirect linkages between stated programme outcomes
and C4D or communication objectives and messages
• Reconfigure programme and C4D/ communication objectives of VAC interventions FIGURE 3: Flowchart of the review process
• Move beyond individually-focused knowledge, attitudes, and practices by
addressing social, emotional, and behavioural competencies Total hits: 80,532
Programme implementation and evaluation Selected for abstract review: 1,909
• Position VAC as a 'glocal' issue through qualitative and Selected for full text review: 533
quantitative measurement (articles: 414 reviews: 119)
• Enhance investment in research
• Scale up promising interventions
Selected for coding: 302
(articles: 235 reviews: 68)
6 Communication for Development Approaches to Address Violence Against Children: A Systematic Review — Summary Report
2 Key findings
In Ukraine, [NAMES CHANGED]
Mariya sits with her daughters –
four-year-old Liliya and 2-year-
old Alina – in a rehabilitation
centre for children with disabili-
ties, in the city of Kharkiv. Alina,
who has multiple disabilities, re-
ceives treatment at the facility.
The results from this systematic review SECTION 1:
were organized into five sections Sampling information
I
nformation on the year of publication
• SECTION 1: Sampling information indicated that approximately half of
• SECTION 2: Programme design elements the articles (53 per cent) were published
© UNI CE F/UNI17 5765/ ZMEY
• SECTION 3: Programme implementation
between 2008 and 2013. Data on
• SECTION 4: Overall programme evaluation processes
• SECTION 5: Thematic analysis of the key results by
the geographic location of implemented
type or research interventions is presented in Table 1.
It is important to note that over 50 per cent
of manuscripts from South Asia came from
7 Communication for Development Approaches to Address Violence Against Children: A Systematic Review — Summary Report
KEY FINDINGS
TABLE 1: Geographic distribution of manuscripts in the systematic review database
REGION NUMBER OF MANUSCRIPTS PROPORTION
South Asia 30 manuscripts about 10 per cent
Eastern and Southern Africa 18 manuscripts about 6 per cent
Middle East and North Africa 15 manuscripts about 5 per cent
Industrialized countries 168 manuscripts over 50 per cent
Global 31 manuscripts about 10 per cent
India and 39 per cent of manuscripts from ecological framework3 to design and implement
industrialized countries came from the United interventions was largely implicit. Community
States. Manuscripts categorized as global approaches were explicitly mentioned in 34
typically reflected reviews and meta-analyses. manuscripts (11 per cent). There was evidence
A larger proportion of the interventions of additional models as well: 15 manuscripts (5
were implemented in urban locations (81 per cent) referenced social marketing and some
manuscripts or 27 per cent) as compared to 13 manuscripts (4 per cent) reported addressing
rural locations (12 manuscripts or 4 per cent). social norms. In keeping with UNICEF’s strong
Eighty interventions (over 25 per cent) were focus on human rights-based approaches, eight
implemented in multiple locations. The general manuscripts (3 per cent) specifically mentioned a
trend in publications utilizing C4D approaches human rights, gender or multicultural focus.
to address VAC issues is promising, with a
steady increase in the numbers of manuscripts ASSESSMENT OF PROGRAMME AND
published every year since 2000. COMMUNICATION OBJECTIVES
There was little to no evidence of the utilization
SECTION 2: of SMART or SPICED4 criteria when describing
Programme design elements programme objectives. Moreover, the stated
T
he analysis of programme design focused objectives of the individual behaviour change
on conceptual frameworks, programme programmes were universally designed to reduce
and communication objectives, and the or eliminate harmful practices. Programme
level of influence reported in the manuscripts. objectives made little stated effort to focus on
positive changes that individuals could undertake
ASSESSMENT OF CONCEPTUAL to promote behaviour and social change. Of the
FRAMEWORKS2 302 manuscripts, 28 (9 per cent) did not provide
Few manuscripts included an explicit any specific communication objectives guiding
statement of conceptual models to underpin the intervention. Furthermore, it is important to
described interventions. Almost 43 per cent note that all the C4D objectives were written in
of the manuscripts did not clearly reference
any conceptual model. Cognitive models 3 Bronfenbrenner’s (1994) social ecological model postulates
that the entire ecological system in which growth occurs
(e.g. social cognitive theory and the theory of needs to be taken into account in order to understand human
planned behaviour) were mentioned most often, development. This system is composed of five socially
organized and inter-related subsystems: microsystem,
appearing in 51 of the manuscripts reviewed. mesosystem, exosystem and macrosystem.
Close to a quarter of the manuscripts explicitly
4 SMART is a mnemonic for criteria used to guide the setting of
relied on individually-based approaches to objectives and stands for: Specific – Measurable – Attainable
behaviour change. The utilization of a social- – Relevant and Time-bound. The SPICED approach is a useful
tool for thinking about how programme objectives can be set in
a participatory and inclusive way with local communities. The
2 See National Cancer Institute (2005). Theory at a Glance: A letters broadly conform to the words: Subjective - Participatory
Guide for Health Promotion Practice (second edition) for a - Interpreted and communicable - Crosschecked and compared -
summary of conceptual frameworks utilized in this review. Empowering - Diverse and disaggregated.
8 Communication for Development Approaches to Address Violence Against Children: A Systematic Review — Summary Report‘cognitive’ terms with no reference to addressing 1. GENERAL AUDIENCES: children, parents/ Rita Akhter, a five-year-
old girl holds her slate to
affective and behavioural domains. As far as caregivers, general public, males, females,
display her drawing during
and, in a few isolated cases, perpetrators. a class in a pre-school
the cognitive objectives were concerned, the
supported by UNICEF at
emphasis was on lower-level domains such as 2. PROFESSIONALS: service providers, Korial slum in Dhaka.
knowledge and comprehension; verbs such as teachers, law enforcement officials, and
healthcare workers.
‘understanding’ and ‘increasing’ were more
commonly utilized as opposed to the activation of 3. OPINION LEADERS: community
higher-order cognitive skills such as assimilating, influentials and policymakers.
examining, assessing and evaluating.
Seventy-one manuscripts (24 per cent) described
ASSESSMENT OF THE LEVEL OF interventions targeting one type of audience. Most
INFLUENCE OF THE INTERVENTIONS of these interventions were directed towards one
The systematic review included a variable group and did not necessarily consider segmenting
entitled ‘level of inf luence’, which audiences into primary, secondary and tertiary
was conceptualised as the focus of the groups. A majority of the interventions, 215
intervention in terms of seven levels ranging manuscripts (71 per cent), directly addressed
from the individual to the global. The results children and adolescents. Among other audience
from the analysis indicate that overall, a groups, parents were the focus of 178 manuscripts
majority of the interventions (over 8 out of (close to 60 per cent) while caregivers were
10) focused on the individual level (see Figure mentioned in 63 manuscripts (21 per cent). Among
4 for more information). professional categories, teachers were the key
intended audience in 119 manuscripts (close to 40
SECTION 3: per cent). Key influentials and policymakers
Programme implementation
T
he analysis of programme FIGURE 4: Results on levels of influence from the manuscripts
implementation information focused included in the systematic review database
on the intended audiences, the
communication approach, as well as the specific 100
communication channels used for interventions. 83.8
80
ASSESSMENT OF THE INTENDED 61.6
60 53.6
AUDIENCES FOR INTERVENTIONS 50
Intended audience refers to the audience or
40
individuals an intervention is trying to reach,
© UNICEF/UNI18 006 8/KIRON
sometimes also referred to as programme 22.8
20 11.9
participants. Three core groups of audiences
emerged from the review: 3.6
0
Individual Interpersonal Community Organizational Social Policy Global
(n=253) (n=186) (n=162) (n=151) (n=36) (n=69) (n=11)
9 Communication for Development Approaches to Address Violence Against Children: A Systematic Review — Summary ReportKEY FINDINGS
were the intended audiences for a quarter media as their main communication vehicle (84
of the interventions. manuscripts used advocacy; 93 manuscripts used
mass media). Some 143 manuscripts (47 per cent)
ASSESSMENT OF THE were based on community-based approaches.
COMMUNICATION APPROACHES
The systematic review database focused on Interpersonal communication and training as a
six different types of strategic communication means to communicate information to intended
approaches (see Figure 5). The results indicate audiences was used in a majority of the interventions,
that 254 of the manuscripts (84 per cent) 230 manuscripts (76 per cent). Campaigns using
reported using more than one approach to meet media channels such as television, radio and print
the intervention’s objectives. Information on appear to be more commonly utilized in developing
strategic approaches showed that less than a countries. United States-based interventions followed
third of the interventions used advocacy or mass training/capacity-building trajectories led by
university-based researchers focussing on violence in
FIGURE 5: Results on the strategic communication approaches institutionalized settings (e.g. in schools) or within
from the manuscripts in the systematic review small community settings. The focused nature of
100 and academic involvement in the interventions from
industrialized countries likely allows for higher levels
80 76.2 of systematic evaluation and documentation.
59.9 ASSESSMENT OF
60
COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
47.4
Interventions within the systematic review
40 utilized a range of communication channels: mass
30.8
27.8 media sources (e.g. TV/film, radio, print), new
communication technologies (e.g. Internet and
20
mobile phones), local media (e.g. street theatre
2 performances), counselling (e.g. expert or peer),
0 and advocacy interventions (e.g. public forums and
Advocacy Mass Community Interpersonal Capacity Intermediated
(n=84) Media (n=143) (n=181) Building (n=6) community dialogue). Some 82 manuscripts (27
(n=93) (n=230) per cent) described interventions utilizing only one
channel and an additional 96 manuscripts (32 per
FIGURE 6: Results on the communication channels used in the
cent) focussed on two channels of communication.
manuscripts in the systematic review
Therefore, almost two-thirds of interventions did
100
not utilize a wide mix of channels to meet the
needs of diverse and segmented audiences (see
80 73.8 Figure 6 for more information).
59.1 A majority of the interventions (223
60
manuscripts; 74 per cent) employed interpersonal
communication and counselling as their primary
40
approach, and in most cases counselling was
27.8
20.9
accompanied by the use of printed materials (179
20 15.9 15.9 manuscripts; 59 per cent). New technologies and
12.9
4
mobile forms of communication were used to a
lesser degree, although cross-tabulations with the
0
TV/Film Radio Print Internet Mobile Local Counselling Public year of publication show a growing reliance
(n=84) (n=39) (n=179) (n=48) technologies media (n=223) forums
(n=12) (n=48) (n=63) on new technologies.
10 Communication for Development Approaches to Address Violence Against Children: A Systematic Review — Summary ReportINTRODUCTION
Rajasthan, Kalu plays
SECTION 4: evaluated. An additional 41 manuscripts (14 per with his school friends
Overall programme cent) used only a pre- and post-test design and outside his school.
Timely intervention
evaluation processes an even smaller number, 13 manuscripts (4 per by NGO Mahan Seva
A
s the primary research question guiding cent), utilized a case-control evaluation design Sansthan has resulted
in the tribal children
this review focused on effectiveness, without pre- and post-test measurements. The being enrolled and
substantial attention was placed on the most common evaluation design consisted of retained in school. The
UNICEF-suppor ted
evaluation components of the manuscripts. The observational studies featuring qualitative data, NGO specialises in
child protection and
following elements were of particular interest: as noted in 85 manuscripts (28 per cent), hence conducts workshops,
evaluation designs, research methods, analysis making a weak case for direct attribution, i.e. training and campaigns.
frameworks, sampling, and indicators. change that can be linked back to a programme.
The evaluation information was broadly ASSESSMENT OF
categorized as formative, process1 or impact. Of RESEARCH METHODS
the 302 manuscripts included in the database, The utilization of qualitative methods was more
51 (17 per cent) discussed formative research, 43 common at the formative and process phases
(14 per cent) included information on process than the use of quantitative methods alone.
evaluation, and 227 (75 per cent) included impact Mixed methods were also utilized to a fair degree
evaluation information. in these two evaluation phases. As for impact
evaluations, more manuscripts reported using
ASSESSMENT OF OVERALL quantitative methods (116 manuscripts or 38 per
EVALUATION DESIGN cent) as compared to qualitative methods. Of the
The data showed that 48 manuscripts (16 per cent) 302 manuscripts analysed, only 24 (8 per cent)
utilized the most widely accepted and most robust mentioned the use of participatory methods.
evaluation design (randomized controlled trials). While there may be a bias on the part of journals
A majority of these trials were from school-based to accept more unconventional ‘participatory’
interventions, which lend themselves more easily methodological studies, this nevertheless denotes
to randomization at the school or classroom level. serious underutilization of participatory methods.
An additional 45 manuscripts (15 per cent) relied
on the most feasible and still robust programme ASSESSMENT OF
© UNI CE F/UNI17 1875/ PARELK AR
evaluation methodology (the pre- and post with ANALYSIS FRAMEWORKS
case-control design) without randomization. This Formative research tended to focus on thematic
lack of randomization is not surprising given reviews and involved univariate analyses, the
the field-based nature of the programmes being simplest form of statistical analysis in which
individual variables (e.g. knowledge and
1 Process evaluation is more commonly referred to as monitoring. attitudes) are described. The lack of comparative
11 Communication for Development Approaches to Address Violence Against Children: A Systematic Review — Summary ReportIn Guinea, children
attend class at the bivariate or multivariate analysis indicates a community level (e.g. public denouncements).
Mangalla school, in the
town of Guéckédou, lack of specificity and sophistication in terms of
Guéckédou Prefecture. undertaking any causal or behavioural analysis. In general, the manuscripts lacked information on
Because of the Ebola virus
disease outbreak, schools In addition, manuscripts often failed to specify sampling frameworks and included relatively small
across the country re-
how the results from formative research were sample sizes. When combined with simple analysis
mained closed after the
conclusion of the July- used to design and implement programmes. techniques, this revealed the lack of specificity and
August 2014 holidays and
finally reopened on 19
When conducted, process evaluations were sophistication in the evaluation data being collected,
January 2015. narrowly defined as a way to measure outputs leading to questions about quality and effectiveness.
and not a mechanism for mid-course corrections
or tracking outcomes. Close to a third of SECTION 5:
the impact evaluations utilized multivariate Thematic analysis of key
techniques, indicating that mostly quantitative results by type of research
T
data was being analysed while controlling for his section provides information from
background and confounding variables. a detailed thematic analysis of the
key results and their discussion in the
ASSESSMENT OF SAMPLING manuscripts. The information presented in this
A majority (51 manuscripts or 17 per cent) of section is divided into formative, process and
formative research sampling involved youth, impact assessment results. A grounded theory
whereas only a handful of studies identified approach was utilized to derive ‘key themes’
influential people or professionals such as from the data extracted from the manuscripts.
teachers as being part of their sample. Most These themes were further categorized as being
process evaluation results were from within theoretical, operational or methodological in
structured school-based interventions and often nature and are summarized in the section below.
lacked information on sampling procedures.
Sampling data from impact evaluations revealed FORMATIVE RESEARCH RESULTS
that over 8 out of 10 manuscripts (80 per cent) Of the 302 manuscripts included in the database,
relied on primary data collection to make a 51 (17 per cent) discussed formative research.
case for effectiveness. Less than a quarter of A summary of the key findings is presented
the assessments reported involving multiple in Figure 7. A list of manuscripts from the
respondents such as children, parents and systematic review that describe formative
community leaders, or students and teachers. research can be found in Appendix A.
ASSESSMENT OF INDICATORS PROCESS EVALUATION RESULTS
In line with the individual-level cognitive Of the 302 manuscripts included in the
conceptual basis of most interventions, the database, 43 (14 per cent) included information
© UNI CE F/UNI18 1857/ DE MUN
associated indicators were also mostly individually- on process evaluations. A snapshot of the
based and on focused domains, such as knowledge. key findings regarding process evaluations is
In addition, 288 manuscripts (76 per cent) included presented in Figure 7. A list of manuscripts from
indicators based on data collected from individuals, the systematic review that describe process
without any attempt to aggregate at the family evaluation can be found in Appendix B.
(e.g. dialogue), school (e.g. conflict resolution), or
12 Communication for Development Approaches to Address Violence Against Children: A Systematic Review — Summary ReportKEY FINDINGS
IMPACT EVALUATION RESULTS: findings relating to the impact evaluations is
Of the 302 manuscripts included in the presented in Figure 7. A list of manuscripts
database, 227 manuscripts (75 per cent) included from the systematic review that describe impact
impact evaluations. An overview of the key evaluations can be found in Appendix C.
FIGURE 7: Key findings on formative research, process evaluation and impact evaluation
Theoretical Theoretical Theoretical
• The examination of barriers and • Process evaluation allows • Impact evaluation data highlight the importance of
motivators during formative research programmes to make a clear link utilizing an ideation model (Babalola et al., 2006)
are often couched in terms of between the intervention and impact, with intermediate and outcome variables that predict
individual-level barriers and solutions. which in turn makes a stronger case behaviors. Ideation variables include, for example:
Unfortunately, there is little reported for employing C4D approaches. cognitive (knowledge, belief, values, etc.), emotional
effort to understand social and (emotional response, self-efficacy) and social (social
structural determinants of change. influence and personal advocacy) factors.
• Evidence of social change by interventions is limited,
while the need for interventions to address normative
factors is imperative.
Operational Operational Operational
• Formative research plays a crucial • Process evaluation is especially • It is important to contextualize interventions based on
role in designing interventions that critical for large-scale programmes individual and cultural needs.
are community-owned and culturally where implementation may vary due • Evidence exists regarding the success of
sensitive. to external reasons. interpersonal and community interventions targeting
• Formative research constitutes an • Process evaluation can disaggregate ‘at-risk’ populations.
important method of identifying measurement among diverse • It is important to keep gender in mind as a key variable
communication channels, which is audiences. both for designing interventions specifically for men
especially important for interventions • Process evaluation can indicate and as a potential evaluation confounder.
that seek to utilize new communication initial success and serve as a means • Place-based programme interventions need to
technologies. to validate and expand interventions. consider where VAC occurs.
• Formative research feeds directly into • Impact evaluations suggest that C4D works in
message and material design. conjunction with other interventions to bring about
• Formative research is effective in sustainable change.
determining and understanding key • There is growing data on the efficacy of new
audiences, as well as partners who communication technologies as a mechanism for
should be involved in programmes programme implementation as well as for evaluation.
addressing VAC. • Several impact assessments on various VAC issues
• Formative research serves as a means highlight the importance of addressing VAC as part of
to identify key issues that must be early childhood development interventions.
addressed. • Impact assessment results showcase the importance
of long-running interventions.
Methodological Methodological Methodological
• Community-based participatory • Process evaluation is commonly • There is a severe lack of evaluation data on
research has proven effective used as a way to examine fidelity of effectiveness of interventions and very strong
in obtaining a comprehensive implementation. evidence of the need for additional effectiveness
and complete picture of barriers • Process evaluations can be evaluations, specifically those from low and middle-
and motivators when designing conducted regardless of the nature income countries.
interventions. and scope o f the intervention. • Interventions driven by methodological rigor alone
• Process evaluation helps identify need t o contend with ethical concerns.
Type 3 error – when interventions are • The scope of effectiveness evaluation can be
not implemented according to plan expanded t o include both qualitative and participatory
(Basch et al., 1985). evaluation.
• Process evaluation is useful in
tracking changes in ‘outcomes’.
13 Communication for Development Approaches to Address Violence Against Children: A Systematic Review — Summary ReportOverall
3 recommendations
Pictured here are children from the Bha-
gyanagar Children's Home for Girls and
Boys. The organizations runs two homes
(one for girls and one for boys) for chil-
dren aged between 6 and 14 years. They
are often orphans, children of migrant
workers, and potentially child labourers.
“Today, violence results in more than 1.5 million people being killed each
year, and many more suffer non-fatal injuries and chronic, non-injury
health consequences. Despite the fact that violence has always been
present, the world does not have to accept it as an inevitable part of the
© UNICE F/UNI15 871 2/BI SWAS
human condition. Violence can be prevented. This is not an article of faith,
but a statement based on evidence.”
– V I O L E N C E P R E V E N T I O N : T H E E V I D E N C E . W O R L D H E A LT H O R G A N I Z AT I O N , 2 0 1 0
14 Communication for Development Approaches to Address Violence Against Children: A Systematic Review — Summary ReportOVERALL RECOMMENDATIONS
I
n an overview summarizing the major review dealt with violence but lacked specificity in
achievements and remaining challenges terms of their focus on children. For example,
of the Convention on the Rights of the interventions addressing other forms of violence
Child, Doek (2009) reported that national mostly acknowledged the nexus of VAC with
efforts addressing VAC have often been violence against women (VAW). There is
hampered by a lack of financial and human overwhelming agreement that individuals directly
resources or political will. In turn, this has engaged in or responsible for violence at some
impeded the proper infrastructure to support point in time have been victims themselves and
children’s rights from forming. He concluded that the negative ramifications of VAW are
that addressing VAC takes more than having multiplied manifold if and when children are
the proper infrastructure, it requires having a involved. However, strategies dealing with VAW
culture that supports the rights of the child. do not often segment by age or address VAC as a
correlated issue. For example, there is an absence
C4D approaches can challenge social and of age-based disaggregation in programmes
cultural norms that perpetuate and condone addressing human trafficking. Disaggregation by
violence. Approaches to tackle social norms age would allow child trafficking to emerge as a
have been successfully used to reduce alcohol separate issue deserving focused attention.
misuse and smoking behaviours; also, to
change attitudes of young males towards risky EXPLORE LINKAGES BETWEEN
sexual behaviours and bullying (WHO, 2009).
Within UNICEF, C4D is integrated as a key
2 DIFFERENT FORMS OF VAC. The
overlap of manuscripts shortlisted
cross-cutting strategy that promotes long-term across different search criteria highlights that the
behaviour and social change and is defined different types of VAC cannot be pigeonholed by
as: “an evidence-based and participatory topic. Rather, they must be conceptualized as
process that facilitates the engagement of multiple forms or facets of violence. For example,
children, families, communities, the public child marriage and female genital mutilation/
and decision makers for positive social and cutting and gender-based violence are
behavioural change in both development intrinsically linked, as are corporal punishment
and humanitarian contexts through a mix and child abuse/maltreatment. Similarly, child
of available communication platforms and trafficking and sexual exploitation co-occur. No
tools” (UNICEF, 2019). Herein lies the critical doubt this overlap complicates both
importance of exploring the role that a range implementation and evaluation of programmes;
of communication approaches underlining however, it is important that the
C4D can play in addressing VAC. Key interrelationships and complexities between
recommendations from this systematic review these issues be recognized and addressed
that apply specifically to child protection holistically. This is especially important given the
programmes as a whole, and their C4D magnitude of their prevalence, the plethora of
components in particular, are categorised mediating and causal factors involved, and the
under the three broad themes below. multitude of C4D approaches we have at our
disposal to address VAC.
I. CONTEXTUALISING AND
FRAMING VAC EXAMINE VAC ALONG A SPECTRUM.
SPECIFICALLY ADDRESS CHILDREN
3 This recommendation relates to the
previous one regarding the linkages
1 WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF OTHER
FORMS OF VIOLENCE. The search
between different types of VAC. Associated topics
such as VAW yield more consistent research and
term combinations yielded over 80,000 hits. Most data than when searching for VAC. One potential
of the manuscripts discarded by this systematic explanation may be that VAW has been measured
15 Communication for Development Approaches to Address Violence Against Children: A Systematic Review — Summary ReportOVERALL RECOMMENDATIONS
in discrete, verifiable forms – physical, emotional change are instrumental for creating new
and sexual -- whereas VAC is often measured norms of masculinity and raising a generation
across broad conceptualizations. These can range of men who do not accept violence as a norm
from discriminatory nutrition practices associated and girls who refuse to accept violence silently.
with girl children, all the way to interventions
addressing female foeticide. Further, the review MOVE BEYOND A PLACE-BASED
shows that the response to child labour has largely
been in the area of policy change, while at the
6 APPROACH TO A NORMS-BASED
APPROACH TO INCORPORATE
community and individual levels child labour INNOVATIVE COMMUNICATION CHANNELS AND
might be considered a social good (helping poor TO TACKLE THE CULTURE OF VIOLENCE. Most
children in need) rather than as a facet of VAC. recent programmes have drawn on the United
Hence, child labour persists on a massive scale but Nations Secretary-General’s Study on VAC and
remains virtually unseen. On the other hand, focused on the settings prioritised in the study.
sexual abuse is clearly typified as criminal These are: the home and family, schools and
conduct, and although reporting has become more educational settings, care and justice systems,
commonplace, it continues to be considered a work setting, and the community. Many of the
deviant behaviour. It is important, therefore, to programmes associated with these settings rely
consider the full spectrum of potential causes and on techniques that are associated with the
impacts when addressing VAC. location. Therefore, programmes in school and
educational settings usually involved elements of
CONTEXTUALIZE VAC BOTH AS A teacher (expert or peer) based training.
4 CAUSE AND AN OUTCOME. One of
the key difficulties during the course
Meanwhile, programmes in the home and
family-level often fell within the social work
of the literature search related to the complexity of realm. Such narrow conceptualizations result in
understanding the nature of VAC, as it the replication of ‘tried and true’ approaches for
encompasses such a wide and complex range of communication that also have a narrowly
issues. At one end of the spectrum, the systematic defined focus. It is important to consider
review revealed that programmes are based on a innovative ways to communicate about VAC.
wide range of causal factors, ranging from the There is some evidence of new communication
social to the psychological that result in VAC. In technologies being utilized as a channel for
this regard, a majority of the manuscripts dissemination and also for tracking programme
portrayed VAC as an outcome. However, at the implementation and success in this regard.
other end, violence emerges as a causal factor for
adverse educational outcomes and long-term Place-based interventions can be implemented
morbidity and mortality. Both ways of and evaluated in a streamlined fashion.
understanding VAC are valid, although strategies For example, conducting a randomized
to address it may differ. controlled trial and monitoring fidelity of
implementation can all take place in an
START EARLY AND CONTINUE INTO institutional environment such as a school.
5 ADULTHOOD. There is evidence of
long-term success for early
However, while it is important to begin
interventions at one place, it is equally
childhood programmes. Both family-based important to branch out to address more
programmes promoting positive parenting and complex social contexts. One must consider
early childhood development programmes can issues relating to VAC that occur in less
address child maltreatment and neglect starting concrete or discrete places (such as verbal and
in infancy. These have the potential to sustain sexual harassment that adolescent girls face in
positive effects well into adulthood. Primary public spaces) which are harder to tackle and
prevention efforts fostering generational address. Given the ubiquitous nature of VAC,
16 Communication for Development Approaches to Address Violence Against Children: A Systematic Review — Summary ReportOVERALL RECOMMENDATIONS
it is also important to address it at a broader institutional, policy and overall national level Children perform rhymes
at a day care centre
level. One possibility could be to address VAC response is also critical to address VAC and create
supported by UNICEF
through a normative lens and tackle what an enabling environment for change. This has and funded by Marks &
Spencer at a slum in
can be considered a ‘culture of violence’. One proven effective especially in addressing female Baunia Badh, Mirpur.
relevant example might be child labour. A genital mutilation/cutting in many countries,
shift from the traditional policy perspective where a combination of challenging harmful
to a normative approach would help frame social norms together with legislative and policy
this issue as one of VAC and may help address level approaches has yielded positive results.
both the supply and demand for child labour.
Linking school violence to the normative BROADEN CONCEPTUALIZATIONS
violence happening outside schools would be
another way of broadening the perspective.
8 OF C4D APPROACHES TO
ENCOMPASS EFFORTS THAT
INVOLVE ANY FORM OF COMMUNICATION/
II. DESIGNING THE PROGRAMME COMMUNICATIVE ACTION AND CUT ACROSS ALL
LEVELS OF THE SOCIAL ECOLOGICAL MODEL.
EMBRACE THE SOCIAL This review included many approaches that
7 ECOLOGICAL MODEL FOR
BEHAVIOUR AND SOCIAL CHANGE.
intersect with a broad understanding of what
C4D is and its integral role in the uptake and
Much of the published literature on VAC maintenance of individual and social change.
programmes utilized a cognitive and Much of the information on programmatic
individually-based behaviour change approach. responses for VAC reveals that these are
While such approaches are useful and valid in inherently communicative: counselling,
some instances, there is a growing realization that awareness raising, disclosure, negotiation, public
© UNI CE F/UNI16 0045/ KIRON
individuals are embedded within a larger social denouncement, resistance and confrontation.
system. Thus, effective programmes have to Indeed, in the preliminary review of manuscripts,
consider the interpersonal, family and it was often difficult to distinguish between
community dimensions to generate and measure overall programme approaches and discrete C4D
change. At the same time, a concerted components. Interventions were not necessarily
17 Communication for Development Approaches to Address Violence Against Children: A Systematic Review — Summary ReportIn the Syrian Arab Re- described as utilizing C4D approaches, even when CLARIFY THE DIRECT AND
public, (left-right) Rokan,
six, and Mahmoud, five,
play with hand puppets at
they clearly did. Nevertheless, upon closer
examination, C4D techniques dominated in
10 INDIRECT LINKAGES BETWEEN
STATED PROGRAMME AND
Ahlam Al-Tofoola kin-
dergarten, in the city of
efforts to reduce harmful practices. COMMUNICATION OBJECTIVES AND
Tartous, Tartous Gover- MESSAGES. Programmes addressing VAC have
norate. The siblings, who
SEGMENT AUDIENCES BY GENDER often been couched within a ‘harm reduction’
9
had to leave their home
in the city of Aleppo two AND ADDRESS GENDER-SPECIFIC framework and both programme and
years ago, are among
about 50 children at the NEEDS AND DIFFERENCES. A communication objectives have been listed in
kindergarten who were number of points highlighted the importance of negative terms (e.g. reduction of harmful
displaced by conflict.
gender. practices). Communication messages, on the
1. Female empowerment is necessary and other hand, have focused on the positive, for
successful in addressing violence, and example, through the frequent use of role
it is therefore essential to implement models for desired behaviours. Clearer linkages
interventions that specifically meet the and flow of logic between the articulation of
needs of girls. objectives and messaging that is designed to
2. The need to involve men and boys address or meet those objectives is needed.
more often in gender transformative Establishing intermediate communication
interventions was highlighted. objectives would help determine how
3. A focus on females must not exclude young communication messages contribute to
boys from VAC issues as they are also achieving overall programme objectives. A
affected. related issue deals with labelling all traditions
4. There is a need to address both men and as being ‘harmful’. This can lead to negative
boys in terms of their roles both as victims unintended consequences, most notably by
and perpetrators. For example, anti- driving a practice underground, rather than
bullying programmes have been designed creating sustained behaviour and social change.
to address the needs of boys by examining
‘machismo’ and its role in VAC.
© UNICEF/UNI17 632 9/YOUNGMEY ER
5. There is also a growing demand to address
the specific needs of marginalized groups
such as gay, bisexual and transgender
youth who are often subjected to
widespread discrimination and violence.
18 Communication for Development Approaches to Address Violence Against Children: A Systematic Review — Summary ReportOVERALL RECOMMENDATIONS
RECONFIGURE PROGRAMME AND understanding of what VAC is in the form of a
11 COMMUNICATION OBJECTIVES OF
VAC INTERVENTIONS. Many of the
standardized definition and measurements of
incidence and prevalence is an essential first
interventions did not use the basic SMART and step to gauging the magnitude of VAC as an
SPICED criteria when describing programme issue deserving of global advocacy and
objectives. It was also challenging to concerted action. The United Nations
distinguish between overall programme and Secretary-General’s Study on VAC is a seminal
C4D objectives. VAC is an emotionally charged effort to provide a detailed global overview of
issue and yet programme and communication VAC, where it occurs, and ways to combat it.
objectives were mainly couched in cognitive However, local indicators of VAC are not
terms with little reference to the power of routinely accessible. This hinders the data
emotions to promote behaviour and social comparison at global levels and renders
change. Cognitive objectives could move situation analyses for behaviour and social
beyond enhancing knowledge and change interventions difficult to undertake.
comprehension to ensuring the activation of
higher-level cognitive changes associated with ENHANCE INVESTMENT IN
assimilation and evaluation of information.
14 RESEARCH. The grey literature
contains many examples of creative
MOVE BEYOND INDIVIDUALLY interventions addressing VAC, especially
12 FOCUSED KNOWLEDGE,
ATTITUDES AND PRACTICE BY
implemented in low and middle-income
countries. However, much of this creative
ADDRESSING SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL AND programming is unaccompanied by information
BEHAVIOURAL COMPETENCIES. Interventions on the effectiveness of these strategies. Much of
that encompass training, capacity-building, and the published literature, especially when
efficacy approaches -- either as the end result or as grounded in community-based approaches,
essential building blocks – have reported positive tended to focus on the ‘process’ of implementation
outcomes. This was especially true of anti-bullying rather than effectiveness. It is essential to expand
programmes for school children, youth projects to the number of outcome evaluation studies to
reduce gang violence, or child marriage initiatives enhance our understanding of global best
that provide economic opportunities for adolescent practices. This needs to be contextualized based
girls. At the same time, enrichment programmes on what works at a local level.
providing preschool children with both academic
and social skills showed promise in addressing SCALE UP PROMISING
child maltreatment and neglect. Even within
interventions with narrowly focussed individual
15 INTERVENTIONS. Much of the
robust evidence for effectiveness is
level outcomes, it is important to step beyond the based on small-scale pilot projects employing
cognitive knowledge/ awareness dimensions and randomized controlled trial designs. This is
address emotional, relational and behavioural especially true of programmes dealing with
competencies to effect change. corporal punishment, bullying and gang
violence among youth. However, there is scant
III. IMPLEMENTING AND information on the potential for scale up of
EVALUATING THE promising interventions. A practical way
PROGRAMME forward might be to develop a road map of such
pilot interventions along with scaling up
POSITION VAC AS A ‘GLOCAL’ guidelines. After evaluating progress over a
13 ISSUE THROUGH QUALITATIVE
AND QUANTITATIVE
reasonable time period, programme planners
and implementers can determine whether to
MEASUREMENT. Promoting a core continue, adapt or discard the intervention.
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