Democratizing the Public Sphere 3/2021 - WACC Global
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3/2021 Democratizing the Public Sphere
Media Development is published quarterly by the
World Association for Christian Communication
308 Main Street
Toronto, Ontario M4C 4X7, Canada.
Join the World Tel: 416-691-1999
Association for Christian 100 Church Road
Teddington TW11 8QE, United Kingdom.
Communication!
www.waccglobal.org
WACC is an international organization that pro-
motes communication as a basic human right,
Editor: Philip Lee
essential to people’s dignity and community. Root-
ed in Christian faith, WACC works with all those
Editorial Consultants
denied the right to communicate because of status,
Embert Charles (Chairperson of the Msgr. Patrick An-
identity, or gender. It advocates full access to infor-
thony Folk Research Centre (FRC) of Saint Lucia)
mation and communication, and promotes open
Clifford G. Christians (University of Illinois,
and diverse media. WACC strengthens networks
Urbana-Champaign, USA).
of communicators to advance peace, understanding
Margaret Gallagher (Communications Consultant,
and justice.
United Kingdom).
Cees J. Hamelink (University of Amsterdam,
MEMBERSHIP OPPORTUNITIES Netherlands).
Membership of WACC provides opportunities to Patricia A. Made ( Journalist and Media Trainer,
network with people of similar interests and values, Harare, Zimbabwe).
to learn about and support WACC’s work, and to Robert W. McChesney (University of Illinois,
exchange information about global and local ques- Urbana-Champaign, USA).
tions of communication rights and the democrati- Samuel W. Meshack (Hindustan Bible Institute &
zation of the media. College, Chennai, India)
Francis Nyamnjoh (CODESRIA, Dakar, Senegal).
WACC Members are linked to a Regional Asso- Rossana Reguillo (University of Guadalajara, Mexico).
ciation for the geographic area in which they are Clemencia Rodriguez (Temple University, USA).
based. They receive regular publications, an annual Ubonrat Siriyuvasek (Chulalongkorn University,
report, and other materials. Regional Associations Bangkok, Thailand)
also produce newsletters. In addition, members are Pradip N. Thomas (University of Queensland,
invited to participate in regional and global activi- Brisbane, Australia).
ties such as seminars, workshops, and webinars.
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Cover artwork: Brad Collicott
Published in Canada
ISSN 0143-5558
2 Media Development 3/2021
a
Vol. LXVII 3/2021
4 Editorial 36 Breaking the silence: Public
communication in/for Palestine
6 Democratizing the public sphere Gretchen King
Philip Lee
39 Audiences radio : « C’est une
11 The public sphere sorte de krach »
World Bank Fiona Moghaddam
15 The politics of public space in 41 On the screen
India
Pradip N. Thomas
19 Reclaiming a feminist digital
In the next issue
public sphere from the margins
Deepti Bharthur & Ankita Aggarwal
The 4/2021 issue of Media Development
will explore how best to communicate
24 Public communication in
climate change and its impact on
Latin America: Obstacles and
local communities. It will also focus
overcoming experiences
on the findings of the Global Media
María Soledad Segura
Monitoring Project (GMMP) 2020.
28 Medios comunitarios y su
vigencia en la era digital
Jorge Guachamín Llerena
32 La comunicación en la defensa
de los territorios
Monica Montalvo Mendez y Suleica
Pineda
3 Media Development 3/2021EDITORIAL progress until opportunities for access and par-
ticipation in the production and development
of media content are more widely shared…
The World Bank notes that the public sphere “is
an ideal of good and accountable governance. Media infrastructure is a common good whose
Its requisites are free flows of information, free governance and design should be much more
expression, and free debate. The ideal public open to democratic engagement than current-
sphere is truly participatory and the best ly.”2
protection against abuse of power.”1
Then there is the fundamental question of
Requisites beg questions and answers.
political will, as evidenced by Pradip N. Thomas
In Voltaire’s “best of all possible worlds”,
in his article “The politics of public space in
everyone would be equal and treated equally.
India” in this issue of Media Development:
Everyone would have access to information
and knowledge (raising political and economic “In India, where rampant and rapacious forms of
questions as well as problems of technical neo-liberalism have defined public space and
infrastructure). Everyone would have the the terms for public encounters, there has been
capacity to speak out and everyone would be a steady securitisation of public spaces leading
listened to. to the creation of walled and privileged publics.
But we do not live in an ideal world. In other words – a separation of publics across
According to Oxfam, the world’s richest 1%
caste, religion, and class lines. This is a danger-
have more than twice as much wealth as 6.9
ous precedent.”
billion people. Almost half of humanity is
living on less than $5.50 a day. In 2020, global The ideal public sphere includes but is
extreme poverty rose for the first time in over only partially configured by “public interest
20 years as the disruptions of the Covid-19 media”, based on a form of journalism that
pandemic aggravated the impacts of conflict brings into the public domain information that
and climate change. About 120 million the public has a right to know. Often implied
additional people are living in poverty because in this definition is that but for investigative
of the pandemic, with the total expected to rise journalism, undisclosed or censored information
to about 150 million by the end of 2021. affecting the public might remain hidden. The
Alongside all this, there is communication Pentagon Papers (Washington Post and New
and information poverty. Its key manifestations York Times, 1971), Watergate (Washington
include lack of access to platforms to raise Post, 1972), sexual abuse of minors by Catholic
concerns about issues that affect lives and clergy (Boston Globe, 2002), NSA surveillance
livelihoods; under/misrepresentation in media (Washington Post and Guardian, 2013), and the
content; low levels of media literacy; limited Windrush scandal (Guardian, 2018) are just
access to relevant information, including public a few examples. Many more can be found in
information; absence of a free, independent, media outlets in the global South.
inclusive, and pluralistic media sector; media Civitates, a philanthropic initiative for
concentration in the hands of the powerful; and democracy and solidarity in Europe, defines
social and cultural factors that obstruct genuine independent public interest journalism as,
participation. “Journalism that informs the public about
It seems obvious that access to affordable what matters to everyone in society, made by
communications is an essential condition of actors who are independent of vested (political,
social inclusion: corporate or other private) interests, and that is
committed to the pursuit of truth, seeking to
“Media cannot effectively contribute to social
provide the public with reliable and accurate,
4 Media Development 3/2021balanced and representative information, in given moment, political, economic and techno-
accordance with the standards of the profession.” logical conditions define its scope. In short, the
Put simply, the public interest is about post-public sphere is part of a developmental
the general welfare, security, and well-being of history.”3
everyone in the community. The public interest
is not just what readers, listeners, or viewers It is even more important, therefore,
want as consumers or as entertainment. It is for those most concerned about securing
about issues that affect everyone, even if many an equitable, accessible, and balanced post-
people are not aware of them. public sphere – whatever form it takes – to be
In terms of their coverage of politics, consulted at every opportunity and for human
economics, society, and culture, public interest rights and social justice principles to underpin it.
media may take the shape of a national
Notes
newspaper or broadcaster. However, there is also 1. See “The Public Sphere” issued by the World Bank’s
a vital role to be played by local media, currently communication for Governance and Accountability
under threat by a concentration of corporate Program (commGAP) and republished in this issue of
Media Development.
media ownership that threatens news plurality 2. “Why the media is a key dimension of global inequality.” The
and a diversity of voices and opinions. Conversation. 7 February 2018.
3. Philip Schlesinger. “After the post-public sphere”. Media,
The financial viability of local news media Culture & Society 2020, Vol. 42(7-8) 1545–1563.
has been drastically affected by the ubiquity of
digital platforms. With fewer journalists on the
ground, some stories are not even being covered.
The effect is news deserts (regions without
adequate coverage); a scaling back of coverage;
Recent issues of
forced mergers with other outlets; and loss of Media Development
advertising income.
The “public sphere” is inevitably fluid
2/2021 Revisiting MacBride: Communica-
and is made up of kaleidoscopic patterns of
tive Justice Today
overlapping influences, pressures, dominant
and less dominant voices. It is also subject to 1/2021 Coming To A Screen Near You: The
technological change, marked most recently by Future of Cinema
the digital. Some people are already speaking
of a “post-public sphere”, with considerable 4/2020 Communication in a Time of Crisis
uncertainty about what comes next. 3/2020 Expanding Public Communication
As Philip Schlesinger shrewdly observes: Spaces
“The idea of a post-public sphere designates 2/2020 Traditional Knowledge and Climate
the breakdown of an existing model, signal- Change: Bridging the Gap
ling uncertainty about how long it will take for
1/2020 Realising Gender Equality: Progress
another ensemble to develop. Of course, we
and Problems
cannot be sure when, or even whether, that will
happen. In the context of current instability, Media Development is provided free to
however, it is worth recalling that structural WACC Individual and Institutional Members
change has always driven conceptions of the and is also available by subscription.
public sphere. This has resulted in periodic
For more information visit the WACC website:
reconstructions of how it works. Its periodic
www.waccglobal.org
reformulation in the most influential theoreti-
cal development of this idea shows how, at any
5 Media Development 3/2021Democratizing network for communicating information and
points of view (i.e., opinions expressing af-
the public sphere firmative or negative attitudes); the streams of
communication are, in the process, filtered and
Philip Lee synthesized in such a way that they coalesce
into bundles of topically specified public opin-
Digital connectivity has transformed the ions” (Habermas, 1996: 360).
notion of the “public sphere”. This is true In simpler terms, we could think of the pub-
at all levels: global, regional, national, lic sphere as the network of spaces (traditional
community, and personal, where digital media, social media, messaging apps, university
technologies have become ever more campuses, public gatherings, places of worship,
and coffee shops) where citizens have an oppor-
present and integral. Before digital, tunity to make sense of issues that affect them
media and communication ecosystems and their societies, influence public awareness
that contributed to public awareness and of those issues, and contribute to agenda-setting
agenda-setting were simpler and, in processes that ultimately lead to legislative, policy,
theory, easier to regulate and reform. In and practical responses.
contrast, today’s digital communication In contexts where such communication net-
works are functional and transparent, democrat-
domains revolve around complex ic debate and freedom of expression are usually
technologies that make them difficult taken for granted. Others struggle with issues of
to regulate, creating opportunities for accessibility and affordability, diversity and plur-
governments and big tech to control. In ality, ownership and control, privacy and secur-
this context, how can civil society reclaim ity, representation, and misrepresentation. Still
others face censorship, repression, and murder.
a public sphere that is credible, inclusive,
and trustworthy? “These political, economic, social and cultural
obstacles to full inclusion in society impact
T he observable universe is estimated to con-
tain some 225 billion galaxies that exert
gravitational pull on their systems of stars, stellar
lives and livelihoods – in particular those of
marginalized, underserved and excluded men,
women, young people and children in many
remnants, interstellar gas, dust, and dark matter.
countries of the world” (Lee & Vargas, 2020:
Each galaxy contains black holes from which no
1).
matter escapes.
This paradigm of gravitational attraction A recent example during the Covid-19 pan-
(influence), light, darkness, and black holes, of- demic is the impact that the “digital divide” has
fers a conceptual model for today’s public sphere, had on people’s lives and livelihoods. In country
where areas that exert powerful influence co- after country, those with limited or no access to
exist and interact with those exerting weaker in- information and digital technology – the poorest
fluence, as well as with those into which infor- and most marginalized – suffered disproportion-
mation vanishes. ately.
What is the public sphere? Philosopher and
sociologist Jürgen Habermas has spent a lifetime The public sphere is fluid and porous
interrogating this question. He writes: Public spheres are not fixed entities. They inter-
act in complex ways; they transform themselves
“The public sphere can best be described as a
6 Media Development 3/2021in relation to the political, social, and cultural country’s Maori people, with the aim of improv-
ideologies that make them up and the techno- ing their opportunities, maintaining their cultur-
logical infrastructures that underpin them. In al heritage, and promoting their language.
theory, the media in the dominant public sphere In contrast, the “alternative public sphere”
oversee political and social accountability, with a – community media, blogging and vlogging – is
formal public service remit supposedly guaran- markedly different, today vastly extended by the
teed by financial independence and government Internet and digital platforms and offering its
non-interference. own form of journalism. Guy Berger, director for
Such “public service media” provide content Freedom of Expression and Media Development
intended to inform or of cultural value, as op- at UNESCO, has made the point that:
posed to commercial media, whose content aims
to attract a large audience and thereby maximize “Citizen journalism and blogging challenge the
revenue from advertising and sponsorship. status of institution-driven journalism, as well
But even that distinction between public as the occupational ideology of professional
service and commercial media is blurred. For journalists and journalism. At large, the in-
example, in the United Kingdom, Channel 4 is ternet decentralises the privileged position of
publicly owned but largely commercially funded. the media to interpose itself between source
It programmes a lot of entertainment while be- and user. It also alters the spatial horizon of
ing subject to a public service remit under which community or nationally based media” (Berger,
Channel 4 News has established an enviable 2010: 560).
reputation for reliable, factual coverage of na-
tional and international events. How, then, do such different media con-
Public service media also facilitate the im- stellations and clusters exert a gravitational
plementation of cultural policies aimed at uniting pull on public awareness of issues that impact
disparate parts of a country. For example, Can- people’s lives? How can they help shape public
ada is committed to bilingualism (English and opinions that encourage positive political and
French). As a result, its national public broad- social change?
caster, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
(CBC) is publicly funded, employing translators Towards mutual understanding through trust
and journalists who speak both official languages The theory of “communicative action” expounded
and encouraging the production of cross-cultural by Jürgen Habermas explicitly recognizes the
material. dignity of all human beings. It asserts that sys-
Interestingly, TV Ontario (TVO), one of tematic discussion can reveal universal truths and
the CBC’s provincial counterparts, describes it- codes of conduct that enable those involved to
self as “Ontario’s public educational media or- reach agreements from which they can all benefit.
ganization and a trusted source of interactive As such, communicative action is a political, eco-
educational content that informs, inspires, and nomic, and social tool of immense value. How-
stimulates curiosity and thought.” It often faces ever, it depends on the capacity of everyone to
a struggle to secure enough funding to enable it dialogue and their willingness to try to under-
to continue its mission of “Empowering people stand each other’s perspectives. In this way, they
to be engaged citizens of Ontario through edu- can agree actions that have just consequences for
cational media.” all. Trust is crucial.
In the UK, the British Broadcasting Cor- A starting point for moving towards mu-
poration (BBC) also supports multiculturalism tual understanding is engaged dialogue – the
and diversity. In New Zealand, the public broad- kind that involves the desire to hear and under-
casting system supports broadcasting for the stand what other people are saying and how they
7 Media Development 3/2021see the world. It is what behavioural scientist viding information that is credible and reliable.
Adam Kahane calls “deep conversation”. He de- However, the experience of the past decade has
scribes four models of talking and listening. The undermined transformational dialogue through
first is “downloading”, consisting of polite, social- unregulated public communication that has led to
ly acceptable, conventional exchanges in which confusion and has adversely impacted human
people do not listen carefully and nothing new is rights by spreading misinformation, sowing dis-
explored. The second is “debating”, when people trust, and inciting hatred.
actively search for new information or perspec- In the 1970s, Brazilian educator and phil-
tives and engage in argument. osopher Paulo Freire argued for a new type of
The third model is “reflective dialogue”, communication and education based on dialogue,
characterized by placing oneself in the pos- one more conscious of social structure and which
ition of another person and listening to oneself envisaged both sender and receiver as equal part-
through his or her eyes and ears. The fourth and ners. It allowed learners to look at the world from
most powerful is “generative dialogue” in which
two or more people experience a sense of com-
“A transparent, engaged,
mon purpose and are fully engaged with what
and dialogical public sphere is
is taking place and its potential for change. The
essential today in light of the many
premise is simple:
challenges brought about by digital
“The way we talk and listen expresses our rela- communications. Fortunately, policy
tionship with the world. When we fall into the makers are taking notice.”
trap of telling and of not listening, we close
ourselves off from being changed by the world
and we limit ourselves to being able to change their own perspective, escaping the ideologic-
the world only by force. But when we talk and al slant imposed by dominant groups in society
listen with an open mind and an open heart (Diaz Bordenave 1976, quoted in Rogers, 2006:
and an open spirit, we bring forth our better 111). As Freire himself put it, “being dialogic is
selves and a better world” (Kahane, 2004: 4). not invading, not manipulating, not imposing
orders…being dialogic is pledging oneself to the
Engaged dialogue, particularly its “gen- constant transformation of reality” (Freire, 1973,
erative” form, is the most democratic, in which quoted in Huesca, 2003: 212). That is precisely
everyone takes part on an equal footing, and the vision of the public sphere we should aim for.
everyone is listened to. It is reminiscent of the A transparent, engaged, and dialogical
talking circle, a traditional instrument for dealing public sphere is essential today in light of the
with conflicts, misconceptions, disagreements, or many challenges brought about by digital com-
deeper problems that interfere with the everyday munications. Fortunately, policy makers are tak-
concerns of a person or a community. Talking ing notice. For example, recent discussions at the
circles enable people to search for new directions, level of the European Union produced a report
making amends, righting wrongs, and creating acknowledging “both the potential and the risks
new pathways toward conflict resolution and the of new digital technologies, and that these risks
possibility of reconciliation. have an impact on human rights and fundamen-
Independent media, alternative media, and tal freedoms, not only at an individual level but
social media can all contribute to communica- also in a societal dimension. In this context, gov-
tive action, deep conversation, and generative ernance mechanisms and a regulatory framework
dialogue. They can also challenge the hegemony are critical” (22nd EU-NGO Human Rights
of traditional mass media enterprises by pro- Forum).
8 Media Development 3/2021The report went on to call for legislators ing and other harmful communications online as
“to make the digital space work for everyone: undermining these gains and having a corrosive
putting the dignity of people at the centre and impact on democratic expression in Canada.
safeguarding all human rights, from the right to The previous year, WACC Europe pub-
privacy, to non-discrimination, to taking part in lished Breaking Down the Social Media Divides
decision-making processes. This requires build- addressing the proliferation of hate speech and
ing extended coalitions where a plurality of ac- negative narratives on online platforms, and sug-
tors should have a say.” gesting ways to counter those narratives. The re-
The information and knowledge that port noted that:
people need to govern their lives and make in-
formed decisions comes from a wide range of “All people have the right to live in dignity, free
sources, including public interest journalism, and from discrimination. This applies everywhere,
affordable, transparent, and accessible communi- including in our online interactions. Unfor-
cation platforms. These sources are vital both for tunately, intolerance and hate speech online
democratic accountability and citizens’ partici- are both widespread and dangerous in today’s
pation in democracy. As sociologist Elisabeth world. Hate speech goes far beyond disagree-
Clemens has pointed out, they reinforce: ment and threatens democratic societies be-
cause it attacks and silences people.”
“A vision of rational individuals governing
themselves through collective deliberation. By Encountering hate and discrimination
means of critical discourse, self-interested or online can be distressing and hurtful. As social
private individuals reflect on common concerns media have become a fixed feature of people’s
and discover the nature of the public good, jus- lives, individuals and communities need to find
tice, and truth” (Clemens, 2010: 374). ways to promote diversity and respect online.
This is about what can be done to create a pub-
In this spirit, in January 2021 the Can- lic sphere in which all people are able to express
adian Commission on Democratic Expression their voices in a respectful and dignified manner.
(CCDE) published the final report of a three- As the report concludes:
year initiative designed to offer insights and
policy options that support Canada’s democratic “In a world that is increasingly divided, where
and social cohesion. After nine months of study people retreat into their filter bubbles and re-
and deliberation, the CCDE identified a series fuse to have conversations with those who do
of functional steps to enable citizens, govern- not share their views, there is a strong and ur-
ments, and platforms to deal with the matter of gent need to engage. We need to break down
harmful speech in a free and democratic, rights- the divides we see on social media and in life
based society like Canada. As the report noted, and talk with each other.”
“Along with a more open and accessible public
square has come a less trustworthy and safe one. Digital justice and inclusion
This represents one of the central paradoxes and In today’s world, it is relatively easy to suppress
challenges of our times.” political and social dissent and peaceful activ-
The CCDE based its work on the generally ism by controlling access to the Internet and
accepted principle that free speech is fundamen- censoring social media platforms. Rather than a
tal to a democratic society and that the Internet blanket response, civil society is calling for poli-
is a means of enabling more people to participate cies to combat online harms that are proportion-
in public debates. At the same time, it saw the ate and that avoid the potential for over-censor-
rise of hatred, disinformation, conspiracies, bully- ship of content.
9 Media Development 3/2021Regulating social media platforms calls for “Social exclusion can only be overcome
several measures. One is a statutory duty to act when principles of inclusion and participation
responsibly imposing an affirmative requirement form the bedrock of policies and actions aimed
on all platforms, including social media compan- at ‘leaving no one behind’ (the mantra of the
ies, personal messaging apps, search engines and Sustainable Development Goals). The principles
other internet operators involved in disseminat- that underlie communication rights determine
ing user-generated and third-party content. In who participates and whose voices are listened to
addressing harms, this duty must balance free- when decisions are made. This is a sine qua non,
dom of expression and opinion against hate since the core of human rights standards is that
speech and incitement to violence. their normative implications pertain to everyone:
Another measure is to establish regulatory the very concept of communication rights im-
bodies, operating within legislated guidelines, plicitly demands concrete measures for the in-
that represent the public interest and remove con- clusion of all people everywhere” (Lee & Vargas,
tent moderation and platform governance from
2020: 19). n
the exclusive preserve of private sector companies.
Such regulatory bodies would work in cooper- References
ation with a “social media council” serving as a Berger, G. (2010). ‘Problematizing ‘media development’ as a
publicly accessible forum to reduce harms and to bandwagon gets rolling’. In the International Communication
Gazette, Vol 72, No 7, November 2010.
improve democratic expression on the Internet. Clemens, E. C. (2010). ‘Democratization and Discourse: The
Civil society organisations would need to have a Public Sphere and Comparative Historical Research.’ In
seat on both the regulatory body and the council Social Science History 34(3): 373-381.
Habermas, J. (1996). Between Facts and Norms: Contributions to a
to facilitate independent oversight and to pre- discourse theory of law and democracy. Cambridge, UK: Polity
vent these spaces from being co-opted either by Press.
Huesca, R. (2003). “Participatory Approaches to Development
state or private sector actors. Communication”. In Bella Mody, ed. International and
Another idea gaining traction in some cir- Development Communication: A 21st-Century Perspective.
cles is that of creating public or non-profit al- New Delhi and London: Sage Publications.
Kahane, A. (2004). Solving Tough Problems: An Open Way of
ternatives to existing private digital platforms. Talking, Listening, and Creating New Realities. San Francisco,
These would be platforms that, much like public CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Lee, P. & Vargas, L. (2020). Expanding Shrinking
service media, operate outside the logic of the Communication Spaces. Penang: Southbound.
market and exist primarily to promote democrat- 22nd EU-NGO Human Rights Forum. Final Report (2020).
ic debate, ensure transparent access to informa- Rogers, E. (2006). “The Passing of the Dominant Paradigm”.
In Alfonso Gumucio-Dagron and Thomas Tufte, eds.
tion, and guarantee freedom of expression. Communication for Social Change Anthology, South Orange:
Finally, neither regulation nor oversight CSFC.
can succeed without a functioning mechanism Philip Lee is WACC General Secretary and editor of its
with the possibility of legal and financial redress international journal Media Development. His publications
to tackle complaints, resolve disputes, and take include The Democratization of Communication (ed.) (1995);
Many Voices, One Vision: The Right to Communicate in Practice (ed.)
down content that presents an imminent threat (2004); Communicating Peace: Entertaining Angels Unawares (ed.)
to an individual or a community. (2008); Public Memory, Public Media, and the Politics of Justice
(ed. with Pradip N. Thomas) (2012); and Expanding Shrinking
Today’s public communication sphere may Communication Spaces (ed. with Lorenzo Vargas) (2020).
depend on digital technologies, but the princi-
ples of balance, fairness, truth-telling, and respect
for human dignity that underlay public service
media still apply. As has been noted elsewhere:
10 Media Development 3/2021land), salons (France), and table societies
The public sphere (Germany) became places where aristocrats
and members of the middle class met to
discuss art and politics. In these gatherings,
World Bank “authority of argument supplanted the au-
thority of title,” (Price, 1992: 9). Social status
The idea of the public sphere is normative. became disregarded entirely (Habermas,
It is an ideal of good and accountable 1962/1995). With the development of the
governance. Its requisites are free flows first mass medium, the newspaper, the groups
of information, free expression, and free that met in salons and coffee houses became
truly public: “Newspapers made public af-
debate. The ideal public sphere is truly
fairs and discussions about such affairs ac-
participatory and the best protection cessible to individuals scattered across space”
against abuse of power. In reality, we (Splichal, 1999: 23). Technically, this denotes
only find approximations to this ideal. the advent of what is today understood as
However, promoting good governance public sphere.
means striving toward the ideal of a * Tribal gatherings – in stateless communities
in Africa or in regions with strong tribal
truly inclusive public sphere. traditions, tribal gatherings have similar
T o understand the meaning and the nature of functions as Western citizen assemblies, or
the public sphere today, it is helpful to look indeed the ancient agoras. Such meetings
at the development of the meaning of the term. represent the public life of the tribal com-
Its meaning has always been closely tied to his- munity.
torical circumstances and to technical develop- * Church congregations – in periods of pol-
ments. The historical trajectory also highlights itical struggle, the church often provided a
the relevance of the public sphere for promoting space for members of oppressed or margin-
democracy and political accountability. alized groups to gather and articulate their
objectives.
Originally, the public sphere was a specific
* Today, the public sphere is even more strong-
meeting place. With the development of media
ly tied to the media. It is “defined in relation
and communication technology, the character of
to the mass media, because the mass media
the public sphere changed from a location to a
permit the circulation of opinion and offer
communication network (Splichal, 1999).
the conditions in which the forum can func-
* Ancient Greece – the most general under- tion” (Bentivegna, 2002: 52).
standing of the public sphere comes from
The term “public sphere” gained prominence
the Ancient Greek city-states, where citizens
with the spread of new communication technol-
directly participated in political decisions
ogies in the 1990s. The Internet in particular is
(Habermas, 1962/1995). Public life was tied
considered to provide unprecedented opportun-
to a specific locale, the agora, where citizens
ities for exchanging information and for deliber-
exchanged and discussed opinions.
ation among a large number of people of differ-
* European Monarchies – in the ent backgrounds. Access for minority voices and
non-democratic state-forms of later centur- political outsiders is considered to be essential to
ies, the royal court was the public sphere, and a well-functioning public sphere (Marx Ferree,
only the king determined what was public. et al. 2002: 299).
* • Salons – Over the course of the late 17th The concept of the public sphere has a long
and early 18th centuries, coffeehouses (Eng- tradition in philosophy and the social sciences.
11 Media Development 3/2021the contemporary understanding of the term is a libertarian ideal where everyone is able to pro-
mainly based on the work of German sociologist pose ideas, and where the best idea will win (see
Jürgen Habermas, who provided a comprehen- Mill, 1859/1985; Milton, 1644/1927).
sive analysis of the nature of the public sphere
and its historic transformations (Habermas, Constitutive elements
1962/1995). He defines the public sphere as a
A functioning democratic public sphere rests on
five pillars (Odugbemi, 2008):
“Network for communicating information and
points of view… the streams of communication * Constitutionally guaranteed civil liberties –
are, in the process, filtered and synthesized in Freedom of expression, opinion, and assem-
such a way that they coalesce into bundles of bly. Most countries today accept basic civil
liberties as agreed upon in the Universal
topically specified public opinions” (Habermas,
Declaration of Human Rights.
1992/1997: 360).
* Free, plural, and independent media system
The public sphere is situated between pri- not under state control – The media system
vate households on the one hand, and the state is often seen as the main institution of the
on the other. It is a space “where free and equal public sphere (McQuail, 2005). As such, it
citizens come together to share information, to can only guarantee equal access and voice to
debate, to discuss, or to deliberate on common citizens if it is independent of political and
concerns” (Odugbemi, 2008: 17). corporate interests.
Until the invention of the printing press, * Access to public information – This includes
citizens came together in a particular space, for freedom of information legislation and a
instance a coffee-house, where they discussed culture of transparency and openness. A large
with other people. The development of mass number of countries have adopted freedom
communication has changed the nature of the of information laws. However, such laws
public sphere from a physical space to a com- need to be complemented by a culture that is
munication structure. Today, people can get in conducive to openness and inquiry.
touch through telephone or the Internet, and * Civil society – A vibrant civil society supports
they can find out about what other people think citizens’ demand for accountability and par-
by reading a newspaper editorial or by watching ticipation in the public sphere. Civil society
local television news. organizations organize and promote the
Therefore, today’s public sphere goes be- citizen agenda.
yond space and includes all channels of com- * Sites of everyday talk about public affairs –
munications through which citizens can send Everyday talk is an important factor in the
and receive information. This two-way-flow of formation of public opinion. Sites of every-
communication is essential: A public sphere does day talk are all places where people come
not exist if, for instance, a government publishes together to discuss politics (such as work-
information but does not listen to the people. place, coffee shops, schools).
The public sphere is for the state what the The constitutive elements of the public
market is for the economy (Splichal, 1999). In the sphere work together based on the underlying
public sphere, the goods that are exchanged and principle of openness and publicity (Splichal,
the currency that is traded are not of economic, 2006). The philosopher Immanuel Kant articu-
but of political nature. the main product of the lated the principle of publicity as a legal maxim
public sphere is public opinion, and ideas are the and as a fundamental principle of democracy. He
“goods” that are exchanged. This view equates the stated that all actions that affect other people are
public sphere with a “free marketplace of ideas”, wrong if they do not hold up to public scrutiny
12 Media Development 3/2021(Kant, 1795/1983: 107-144). Kant also designat- organizations and activities that have no
ed the public sphere to be the space for “public primary political or commercial character
use of reason”. The public use of reason is based and are not motivated by profit or power
on ethical principles of communication (Haber- (Splichal, 1999). Under certain circumstances
mas, 1981/1984), such as respect for opposing they can become part of the public sphere
speakers and viewpoints, the ability to comprom- (Habermas, 1962/1995).
ise, and other principles of fair public debate. * Public officials – The state is not a part of
the public sphere, but it has the capacity,
The public sphere and civil society and even the obligation, to be an actor in
The democratic public sphere is a “structural force the public sphere. In the democratic public
in politics… a critical part of the architecture of sphere, public authorities listen to the public
good governance,” (Odugbemi, 2008: 15) which and determine the public will, communicate
again is crucial for the elimination of poverty. their own issues and positions (Odugbemi,
The public sphere is a participatory space where 2008) and provide information about deci-
citizens’ voices are amplified. sions and actions.
* The media – The mass media “have central
The concept of the public sphere is closely
significance in the creation of an institution-
tied to civil society, although they are not syn-
al (infra) structure enabling the organiza-
onymous. Civil society organizations act and
tion of the general interest both nationally
can gain voice and influence in the public sphere,
and internationally” (Splichal, 2006: 703).
thereby exerting influence over official authorities
In addition to providing communication
through public opinion (Habermas, 1992/1997).
channels, the mass media also introduce and
It is “in the free and open public sphere that so-
shape topics of public discussion.
cial movements acquire a public voice, fight for
recognition, assert themselves, seek to shape pub- * Private actors – When private citizens or
lic opinion, influence leaders and policy makers, corporations enter the public sphere, they
and bring about change” (Odugbemi, 2008: 28). usually do so to promote private or public
Good and accountable governance builds upon a interests. in the latter case, they become part
free flow of information, free expression, and free of the public.
discussion of matters of political concern.
Public opinion
Actors in the public sphere Public opinion is a product of the public sphere,
and a crucial concept in governance and political
* The public – The traditional understanding of
decision making. Public opinion refers to:
the public refers to an imaginary group of
people that are connected through their mu- * Affairs related to the state, the government,
tual interest in one or several issues of public or social institutions;
concern. The members of the public need not * Issues that are open and accessible to every-
be located in the same place. In contempor- one;
ary social science, the term is often equated * Events, policies, or decisions that concern
with politically relevant groups of citizens, people that do not participate in them (Mill,
for instance the electorate, civil society, local 1859/1985);
communities, or mass media audiences (Price, * Issues of common concern;
2008: 11-24). * The public good (as opposed to private inter-
* Civil society – Civil society and the pub- ests).
lic are closely related, but conceptually not * Public opinion is often understood to have
synonymous. Civil society is constituted by the following characteristics:
13 Media Development 3/2021* it represents one prevailing opinion among educated, have access to all relevant information,
many possible ones. and if they are able to deliberate on issues, they
* it tends to be transitory. have a right to have their say on how they are
* it refers to the dominant opinion, the opin- governed. Public opinion is not the “tyranny of
ion of the majority. the majority”, but the considered product of de-
liberation in the public sphere.
Public opinion is formed through process-
es of collective decision making according to the
following process (Price & Neijens, 1997: 336- The public sphere as opportunity
360): Issues of concern are articulated; possible A properly functioning public sphere that allows
solutions to a problem are developed; decision for free information flows and for equal partici-
makers assess the consequences of choosing one pation in deliberation will provide real oppor-
option over the other; decision makers evaluate tunities for successful and good governance.
alternative solutions; decision making. Governments’ legitimacy rests on the support of
Public opinion is crucial for politics. As the people. National unity or at least an opera-
Scottish philosopher David Hume stated: “It is tive consensus enables the effective implication
therefore, on opinion only that government is of policies. Citizens’ genuine support for govern-
founded” (Hume, 1994: 16). Public opinion is ment programs and reforms is a prerequisite for
the basis of political power and legitimacy, and their success. Active and informed citizens pro-
any government “is secure only to the extent that vide valuable input into the process of governance,
the relevant population willingly consents to the
rule” (Odugbemi, 2008: 17). “A properly functioning public sphere
that allows for free information
The public sphere as threat flows and for equal participation
Not only democratic governments need to be in deliberation will provide real
aware of the functions of the public sphere. Hos- opportunities for successful and good
tile public opinion can be a threat to democracies governance. “
as well as autocratic regimes. in authoritarian
contexts, hostile opinion can build underground
helping to improve the quality and effectiveness
and may eventually erupt to disturb the political
of public service delivery. In short, governance is
order. Through mobilizing public opinion, op-
only good and democratic if citizens are able to
position groups may be able to gather substantial
form considered opinions within an open public
support and frame reform proposals that a gov-
sphere.
ernment may be forced to heed. In the worst case,
divisive groups may fracture the public sphere,
causing political chaos or even violence. Policy implications
An open and democratic public sphere rests on
Politicians and technical experts sometimes
legally guaranteed civil rights, most importantly
argue that it may not be advisable to follow pub-
freedom of expression, opinion, and assembly, as
lic opinion in every instance. It is assumed that
well as access to information laws. Such laws will
people often do not know or do not care about
only be effective in a culture of openness. That
particular governance issues. If this is the case,
means that public officials should feel commit-
following public opinion may even be detriment-
ted to the public’s right to know, not the govern-
al to citizens’ well-being. A healthy and open
ment’s right to secrecy. Media regulation should
public sphere is a remedy against uninformed
guarantee that the media can fulfil its democrat-
and unconsidered opinion. The idea of democ-
ic roles without political or economic pressures.
racy rests upon the assumption that if people are
Literacy and education promote a citizenry that
14 Media Development 3/2021is interested in public affairs and that is willing as
well as able to participate in governance. Policies The politics of
should target these main factors to promote a
public sphere that enables good, democratic, and public space in
accountable government. n
India
Source: The communication for Governance and Ac- Pradip N. Thomas
countability Program (commGAP), a global pro-
gram at the World Bank, which seeks to confront the Jantar Mantar is the location for
challenges inherent in the political economy of de- public protests in Delhi. It is a site
velopment.
at which literally scores of major
References
protests have taken place – the Right
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& S. Livingstone (Eds.), Handbook of new media: Social
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Habermas, J. (1962/1995). The structural transformation of the
public sphere: An inquiry into a category of bourgeois society.
CAA (Citizen Amendment Act) rallies
Cambridge: MIT Press. against contentious citizenship laws, the
Habermas, J. (1981/1984). The theory of communicative action.
Boston: Beacon Press. Farmer’s protest among numerous others.
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Cambridge: Polity. Green Tribunal, the police, right-wing
Hume, D. (1994). Political essays. Ed. K. Haakonssen.
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Marx Ferree, M., Gamson, W. A., Gerhards, J., & Rucht,
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used to place journalists, students, social
democracies. Theory and Society, 31(3), 289–324. activists and protestors behind bars – a
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Mill, J. S. (1859/1985). On liberty. London: Penguin.
Milton, J. (1644/1927). Areopagitica. New York: Payson &
can turn into a death sentence.
A
Clarke.
Odugbemi, A. (2008). Public opinion, the public sphere, and rguably, spaces such as Jantar Mantar are
quality of governance: An exploration. In S. Odugbemi where the meanings of democracy are de-
& T. Jacobson (eds.), Governance reform under real-world
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Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. held up to power, where causes and issues be-
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Price, V. (2008). The public and public opinion in political
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handbook of public opinion research. London: Sage. racy, however, is an anathema to the current
Price, V. & Neijens, P. (1997). Opinion quality in public opinion
research. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, hyper-nationalist government in power and its
9(4), 336–360. proto-Fascist leadership that is very much in the
Splichal, S. (1999). Public opinion. Developments and controversies
in the twentieth century. Lanham, MD: Rowman & tradition of Bolsonaro in Brazil, Trump in the
Littlefield. USA and Erdogan in Turkey. And in this con-
Splichal, S. (2006). In search of a strong European public
sphere: Some critical observations on conceptualizations of
text, the networked public sphere simply has to
publicness and the (European) public sphere. Media, Culture contend with a centrally supported misinforma-
& Society, 28(5), 695–714. See also Habermas (1962/1995); tion regime – often referred to as the BJP’s in-
Odugbemi (2008).
famous IT Cell and its support for troll farms
and counter-publicity initiatives at spinning the
15 Media Development 3/2021story of the government’s successes even in the lic space and /or share communications or com-
context of its tragic, even criminal mishandling municate the need for reform and social change.
of the second Covid wave in India. So, what seems to be happening is that the very
While this propaganda machine is in full idea of what constitutes a public is being redrawn,
flow, what we are seeing is the relentless death reimagined, reassessed in exclusive ways.
of the public’s right to speak, to critique, to offer Another example of the ruin of public
alternative stories. It is quite extraordinary that space is the grand project of establishing a new
those who speak up against the government’s Parliament complex – The Central Vista (that
lack of preparedness, the lack of hospital beds, sounds like a hotel complex in Singapore!) os-
oxygen in Delhi and neighbouring Uttar Pra- tensibly because the previous one created by the
desh have been jailed. While all manner of trad- British architect Sir Edwin Lutyens across 2,800
itional remedies such as smearing cow dung and hectares, with 3,000 government-owned prop-
drinking cow urine are given publicity, there is erties and 600 private bungalows is a reminder
little space for evidence-based public communi- of India’s colonial heritage. It does not sit well
cations. “Positivity Unlimited” is the Rashtriya with the muscular men and women belonging to
Swayamsevak Sangh’s (RSS, a cadre-based Na- Hindutva who would rather include cows and
tional organisation and power behind the gov- peacocks but not the ordinary people of India in
ernment’s) PR response to the Covid crisis and their vanity projects.
it is quite extraordinary to see the media em- There is an assault on public space in India
brace and communicate the wholly fictitious and and common lands are fast disappearing under
manufactured message of Positivity Unlimited. the twin onslaught of the State and the Market.
In fact, Lutyen’s Delhi is up for sale. God men
and gurus too have played their role in expro-
Politicisation of public communications and
priating public space. The South Indian godman
public space
Sadhguru built his massive Isha Foundation on
Public communication is more than just the cit-
forested lands inhabited by tribal groups and
izen’s right to communicate or to enjoy being in
which were also important elephant migration
communicative environments. It is the right to
corridors. It would be such a perfect gesture if
exercise our senses – of touch and feel, to social-
that property were to be taken over by the gov-
ise, to share, to eat, to be along with others, in the
ernment and deliberately allowed to disintegrate
context of collectivities that are at the very core
and revert to forest, elephants and tribals.
of public communications. In this sense there are
definite correlations between freedom of expres-
sion and the right to public space for the one Forgotten public spaces
cannot exist without the other. While govern- Arguably, one of the consequences of Covid-19
ments the world over are chary of the right to has been a retreat into private space – and very
free expression they have, over the years whittled little possibilities to “encounter”, to meet, by
away at public space that is fundamental to the chance or by design, the Other. In that sense
enabling of free expression. What we are seeing Covid-19 lock-downs have led to the death of
in country such as India is the politicisation of public space and to a certain unmaking of cities
public communications and public space. that were meant for crowds and for minglings.
While it is perfectly normal to be involved At the same time, people in lock-downs have
in public forms of religious communications that used their balconies to communicate – to sing,
involve many millions of publics, such as at the play music, to share and collaborate in a range
Kumbh Mela, an important gathering of Hindu of social and cultural activities – highlighting
sects and devotees, in the current dispensation, it the value of public spaces that we often take for
is not natural for collectivities to gather in a pub- granted.
16 Media Development 3/2021Here again there are distinctions to be made hospital because they did not have a smartphone
– of the forced symbolic publicness imposed by and did not have access to social media to find
the political class to celebrate the contributions out the availability of an oxygen cylinder in what
made by poorly paid nurses in the UK and in India are poorly equipped, neighbourhood health fa-
or the clanging of pots and pans and the lighting cilities.
of lamps to shoo away the spirits of Covid-19 as The turn towards online registration for
against the spontaneous manifestations of pub- most, if not all social security schemes has left
licness and celebrations of public space by neigh- informal workers without any connectivity high
bours in Covid-stricken neighbourhoods around
the world. Perhaps such spontaneous expressions
of publicness need to be recorded in a repository “The atrocious circulations of
of pandemic convivialities – ideas from which Covid remedies on social media in
could be drawn up to enrich and enable public India, ranging from the benign to
spaces in a post-pandemic environment. the surreal and downright harmful,
reveal the gaps in digital literacy that
exist today. In a largely unregulated
Online public space
environment, anything goes and all
What about public space online? Often theorised
sorts of religious charlatans and self-
as limitless space, it is really available for all to
made doctors prescribe all sorts of
take part in? In the context of Web 2.0 govern-
ments, the private sector and civil society have all remedies.”
placed their trust in the digital revolution as the
pathway towards economic productivity, citizen
participation, and multiple efficiencies in access
to goods and services. While there definitely are and dry. Even Covid-19 registrations under the
efficiencies in the platform economy, grandiose, government scheme CoWIN require the use of
supposedly public projects such as Digital India, smart phones that are just not as ubiquitous as
have in Covid-times been exposed for what they media coverage has consistently reported. The
are – exclusive, market-driven in a context in dire state of rural health facilities – the lack of
which opportunities for both market and state primary health care, basic health facilities, lack of
surveillance have become immense. doctors and health professionals has been exposed
by this pandemic – in other words, the woeful
The experience of Covid has brutally ex-
state of public health in India. It is distressing to
posed the digital divide. While online education
think that billions of dollars have been spent on a
was good for the privileged who had access to
variety of vanity projects while ordinary Indians
laptops, to smart phones and the Internet, stu-
have been left to fend for themselves.
dents from lower caste and class backgrounds in
prestigious institutions like the Indian Institutes
of Technology (IIT) at one end of the spectrum Limits of the digital revolution
and kids in rural schools at the other suffered What Covid-19 has perhaps demonstrated is
because of a lack of access to basic technologies the very real limits to the digital revolution. The
such as a connected laptop. There are some amaz- fact that those who have smart phones can ac-
ing stories of a single smartphone being used by cess services but also fall prey to misinformation
multiple children in a rural setting because les- and disinformation does not say much about
sons and learning resources are being delivered the quality of online spaces that people inhabit.
through Whatsapp. There are heart-breaking The atrocious circulations of Covid remedies
stories of rural folk who simply had to take their on social media in India, ranging from the be-
stricken loved ones by foot, or autorickshaw to a nign to the surreal and downright harmful, re-
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