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Review
Discovery of X-rays—Its Impact in India and History of X-ray
Research in Colonial India
Suprakash C. Roy
Formerly at Bose Institute, Kolkata 700009, India; suprakash.roy@gmail.com
Abstract: India holds a respectable position globally in X-ray research, particularly in X-ray crystal-
lography. X-ray research in India is as old as the discovery of X-rays and the history of X-ray research
in colonial India is fascinating. The purpose of this paper is to present how India participated in X-ray
research and how X-ray research initiated by C.V. Raman, the only Indian Nobel Laureate in physics,
at the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science (IACS) paved the way to proliferate X-ray
research in all parts of India and acted as the foundation stone of modern X-ray research in India.
With limited resources under the British rule (India became independent in 1947), readers will find
that the research work performed by Indians is commendable. This article is neither comprehensive
nor detailed but will give the readers a flavour of the high-quality X-ray research that was performed
in India in the early years after the discovery of X-rays.
Keywords: X-ray; colonial India; history
1. Introduction
India entered the international mainstream of scientific research in the late nineteenth
and early twentieth century. It was Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose (1858–1937) who first
Citation: Roy, S.C. Discovery of showed the world that it is possible to do science at par with Western standards in colonial
X-rays—Its Impact in India and India when he demonstrated his millimetre wave experiment with equipment made in
History of X-ray Research in Colonial India with limited resources before the Royal Society of London during his first scientific
India. Quantum Beam Sci. 2022, 6, 16. mission to Europe (1896–1897). Serious research began in universities in the 1920s and
https://doi.org/10.3390/ 1930s in Allahabad, Dhaka (now in Bangladesh), Punjab, Delhi, Mysore, Andhra Pradesh,
qubs6020016 Banaras, etc., pursuing the idea of teaching-cum-research institutions in contrast to the
Academic Editor: Akihiro Iwase
purely teaching universities set up by the British [1].
So far as X-ray research in India is concerned, it started immediately after the discovery
Received: 21 March 2022 of X-rays first by excitation to reproduce X-ray photographs indigenously and then to
Accepted: 8 April 2022 pursue research more seriously [2,3]. C.V. Raman started his scientific research as an
Published: 22 April 2022
amateur at Indian Association in Calcutta and later turned into a serious researcher cum
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral teacher and earned the Nobel Prize in physics in 1930. After his return from England in 1921,
with regard to jurisdictional claims in C.V. Raman started serious scientific research using X-rays with a host of talented students
published maps and institutional affil- which paved the way for building X-ray crystallography research centres across India.
iations.
2. Discovery of X-rays
Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845–1923) has been credited with the discovery of X-rays
and was awarded the first Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901 for this discovery. Roentgen’s
Copyright: © 2022 by the author.
discovery is known to be the result of an accident while he was experimenting with a
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
discharge tube. The objective of the current article is to present a historical account of X-ray
This article is an open access article
discoveries, such as that X-rays were produced experimentally much before Roentgen’s
distributed under the terms and
discovery in 1895 as has been found in literature and to study the influence of this discovery
conditions of the Creative Commons
on the scientific community of India.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
The twenty-eighth of December 1895 is considered as the date of discovery of X-ray,
4.0/).
the date on which Roentgen submitted his first “provisorial” communication Uebereineneue
Quantum Beam Sci. 2022, 6, 16. https://doi.org/10.3390/qubs6020016 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/qubs
Quantum Beam Sci. 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 11
Quantum Beam Sci. 2022, 6, 16 2 of 11
The twenty-eighth of December 1895 is considered as the date of discovery of X-ray,
the date on which Roentgen submitted his first “provisorial” communication Uebereine-
Art
neuevon
ArtStrahlen (On a(On
von Strahlen New KindKind
a New of Rays) which
of Rays) was was
which published in the
published inProceedings of the
the Proceedings of
Würzburg
the Würzburg Physico-Medical Society
Physico-Medical (Sitzungber
Society der WürzburgerPhysik.-
(Sitzungber MedikGesellschaft).
der WürzburgerPhysik.- MedikGesell-
First oral
schaft). presentation
First of the discovery
oral presentation was made
of the discovery before
was madethe samethe
before Würzburg Society on
same Würzburg 23
Soci-
January
ety on 231896. The meeting
January 1896. Thewas chairedwas
meeting by the famous
chaired by anatomist
the famous Albert RudolfAlbert
anatomist von Kolliker
Rudolf
(1817–1905)
von Kollikeras(1817–1905)
reported inasthe Münchener
reported in theMedicinische WochenschriftWochenschrift
Münchener Medicinische of 29 January 1896.
of 29
After the lecture Roentgen produced an X-ray picture of Kolliker’s hand
January 1896. After the lecture Roentgen produced an X-ray picture of Kolliker’s in a glass plate
hand in
(Figure 1). It (Figure
a glass plate was Dr.1).Kolliker whoKolliker
It was Dr. proposedwhothat the newthat
proposed rays
thehenceforth be known as
new rays henceforth be
Roentgen
known asrays [4]. rays [4].
Roentgen
Figure 1.1. First
Figure First X-ray
X-ray picture
picture made
made in
in public
public by
by Roentgen
Roentgen during
during his
his first
first oral
oral presentation
presentation before
before
the Würzburg Physico-Medical Society on 23 January 1896. The picture shows the hand
the Würzburg Physico-Medical Society on 23 January 1896. The picture shows the hand of Albert of Albert
Kolliker who
Kolliker whochaired
chairedthe
thetalk.
talk.
Roentgen’s discovery
Roentgen’s discovery was was shrouded
shrouded withwith mystery,
mystery, stories,
stories, and
and controversies
controversies which which
sometimes reached a stage of humiliation to the
sometimes reached a stage of humiliation to the great scientist. great scientist. It is believed that fluores-
cence was
cence was first
first noticed
noticed by by Roentgen’s
Roentgen’s laboratory
laboratory assistant
assistant Ludwig Zhender in 1890, who,
whileworking
while workingwith withthethedischarge
discharge tube
tube covered
covered withwith
black black cloth,
cloth, observed
observed the fluores-
the fluorescence
cence
in in the fluorescent
the fluorescent screen screen
placedplaced
nearbynearby [5]. Zhender
[5]. Zhender was loyalwastoloyal to Roentgen
Roentgen through-
throughout his
outand
life his life
hadand had not any
not claimed claimed any recognition,
recognition, but this
but this story wasstory
severelywasdistorted
severelyto distorted
humiliate to
Roentgen and he was accused of stealing his Diener’s discovery [4].
humiliate Roentgen and he was accused of stealing his Diener’s discovery [4]. It is to beIt is to be remembered
in this connection
remembered that
in this X-ray tubes
connection that
that we are
X-ray talking
tubes that weabout
arewere known
talking about aswere
cold discharge
known as
tubes in which ionization
cold discharge tubes in whichof gas by high voltage
ionization of gas bywas high the sourcewas
voltage of electrons
the source in of
contrast to
electrons
modern
in contrastX-ray
to tubes
modern which contain
X-ray tubesawhich
heatedcontain
filament a for producing
heated filament electrons.
for producing elec-
According to Roentgen’s will, all his diaries and notes were destroyed after his death
trons.
whichAccording
resulted in to aRoentgen’s
great loss will,
of vital information
all his diaries and for historians,
notes such as the
were destroyed afterexact date
his death
when Roentgen realized the importance of the penetrating power of
which resulted in a great loss of vital information for historians, such as the exact date this new ray. From a
letter written by his wife Anna Bertha Ludwig in March 1896 to one
when Roentgen realized the importance of the penetrating power of this new ray. From a of his cousins Mrs. L.R.
Grauel of Indianapolis,
letter written by his wife it was
Anna found
Berthathat Roentgen
Ludwig first noticed
in March 1896 tothisonenew radiation
of his cousinssomeMrs.
time
L.R. in November
Grauel 1895 [4]. AsitBertha
of Indianapolis, mentioned
was found in her letter,
that Roentgen firston an evening
noticed of November
this new radiation
1895
someshetime became angry with
in November 1895her
[4].husband
As Berthafor the quality
mentioned in of
herfood.
letter,Inon order to soothe
an evening her,
of No-
Roentgen took her downstairs to his laboratory and introduced her
vember 1895 she became angry with her husband for the quality of food. In order to soothe to the mysterious new
rays. However, it was not mentioned whether her hand with a ring was exposed to this
ray (Figure 2) on the same day. According to Edgar Ashworth Underwood, Director of
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her, Roentgen took her downstairs to his laboratory and introduced her to the mysterious
new rays. However, it was not mentioned whether her hand with a ring was exposed to
this ray (Figure 2) on the same day. According to Edgar Ashworth Underwood, Director
Wellcome
of WellcomeHistorical Museum,
Historical Museum, thethe
picture of his
picture wife’s
of his hand
wife’s was
hand taken
was onon
taken 8 November
November
1895. This
8, 1895. date
This waswas
date accepted by Konrad
accepted by Konrad Weiss, the the
Weiss, historiographer of Austrian
historiographer Roentgen
of Austrian Roent-
Society and isand
gen Society accepted as theasdate
is accepted the of theofdiscovery.
date the discovery.
Figure2.2.X-ray
Figure X-raypicture
picturetaken
takenby
byRoentgen
Roentgenofofhis
hiswife
wifeBertha
BerthaLudwig’s
Ludwig’shand.
hand.(Courtesy:
(Courtesy:Prof.
Prof.Alok
Alok
Mukherjee, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India).
Mukherjee, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India).
LikeJagadish
Like JagadishChandra
ChandraBoseBose(1858–1937)
(1858–1937) who
who refused
refused to to take
take patent
patent of his
of his discovery
discovery of
of microwave
microwave (the(the discovery
discovery for which
for which Guglielimo
Guglielimo Marconi
Marconi waswas awarded
awarded the Nobel
the Nobel Prize)Prize)
[6],
[6],the
on on ground
the ground thatthat knowledge
knowledge is for
is for all all
and and should
should bebe freelyavailable,
freely available,Roentgen
Roentgenalso also
refused to take patent of any part of his discovery and rejected all commercial
refused to take patent of any part of his discovery and rejected all commercial proposals proposals
connected
connected to to this discovery.
discovery. However,
However,unlikeunlikeJ. J.C.C. Bose,
Bose, hehe
lostlost
all all
his his savings
savings duedue to
to post
post
war war inflation
inflation and suffered
and suffered financial
financial and other
and other difficulties
difficulties in the in the
last last of
years years of his
his life. life.
Roent-
Roentgen
gen died in died in from
1923 1923 from colorectal
colorectal cancer.cancer.
3.3.Production
Productionof ofX-rays
X-raysbefore
beforeRoentgen
Roentgen
There
There is evidence that X rayshad
is evidence that X-rays hadbeen
beenproduced
producedexperimentally
experimentallybefore
beforeRoentgen’s
Roentgen’s
date in 1895. This is not surprising because the basic physical process to generate
date in 1895. This is not surprising because the basic physical process to generate X-rays is
X rays
the passage
is the of electricity
passage through
of electricity gases,
through the study
gases, of which
the study had been
of which started
had been in eighteenth
started in eight-
century. Francis Hauksbee (estimated to have died in 1713) who was the Curator
eenth century. Francis Hauksbee (estimated to have died in 1713) who was the Curator of Experi- of
ments to the Royal
Experiments to theSociety, London,London,
Royal Society, described seeing “the
described shape
seeing and
“the figure
shape of figure
and all parts
of of
all
his hand” while working with electricity and vacuum [5]. Interest in the study of discharge
parts of his hand” while working with electricity and vacuum [5]. Interest in the study of
in gases was revived in the middle of nineteenth century after Faraday’s experiments with
discharge in gases was revived in the middle of nineteenth century after Faraday’s exper-
“radiant matter” and many scientists were involved in producing different improvised
iments with “radiant matter” and many scientists were involved in producing different
discharge tubes to study discharge of gases. Heinrich Geissler, Johann Wilhelm Hittroff,
improvised discharge tubes to study discharge of gases. Heinrich Geissler, Johann Wil-
and Sir William Crookes were some of the people who worked with discharge tubes and
helm Hittroff, and Sir William Crookes were some of the people who worked with dis-
they were unknowingly exposed to X-rays while working.
charge tubes and they were unknowingly exposed to X-rays while working.
In India, Father Lafont (1837–1908), a Jesuit missionary of St. Xavier’s College, Calcutta
In India, Father Lafont (1837–1908), a Jesuit missionary of St. Xavier’s College, Cal-
brought from Europe a Crooke’s tube at a time (1878–1879) when vigorous research was in
cutta brought from Europe a Crooke’s tube at a time (1878–1879) when vigorous research
progress in Europe using Crooke’s tube. Father Lafont delivered a lecture in 1880 titled
was in progress in Europe using Crooke’s tube. Father Lafont delivered a lecture in 1880
“Crookes on Radiant Energy” in the Science Association [7]. Lord Lytton, the then Viceroy of
India, invited Dr. Mahendralal Sircar (1833–1904), the founder of Indian Association for the
Cultivation of Science (IACS), to demonstrate the actions of Crookes tube. A contemporary
report described: “It is not possible for any individual to forget the evening. Dr. SircarQuantum Beam Sci. 2022, 6, 16 4 of 11
had such a wonderful mastery over the subject that he very easily explained the amazing
behaviour of one millionth of atmosphere to the entire satisfaction to His excellency”.
It has been said that Jagadish Chandra Bose built an X-ray apparatus (presumably
used a discharge tube) a few years before Roentgen and demonstrated “X-rays passing
through the hand” [7]. As reported by A.K. Biswas [8] “we have reports of Jagadish setting
up his own X-ray apparatus in 1887, quite a few years before such a machine was imported
to India”. Therefore, we see that X-ray research in India had its root before the formal
announcement of the discovery of X-rays.
The first recorded scholarly evidence to produce Roentgen rays was about hundred
years before Roentgen by William Morgan (1750–1833), the Welsh mathematician and Chief
Actuary of British Equitable Assurance Society. Morgan [9] reported in the Philosophical
Transactions that based on the length of time for which mercury was boiled in vacuum—the
‘electric’ light turned violet, purple, then beautiful green, and finally the light became invis-
ible! Morgan presented this discovery to the Royal Society in 1784 which was witnessed by
Richard Price and one of Richard’s friends, an American ‘electrician’, the famous Benjamin
Franklin (1706–1790).
It is believed that Philipp Lenard (1862–1947), another contemporary of Roentgen,
who worked on cathode rays came very close to the discovery of X-rays. In fact, both
Lenard and Roentgen were nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physics for the year 1901, and
the Committee recommended that the prize should be divided equally between Roentgen
and Lenard. However, the Royal Academy of Science did not follow this recommendation
and decided to award the prize to Roentgen alone. On 12 October 1892, Lenard had been
able to show for the first time that cathode rays can penetrate the aluminium window
and can travel a few inches in air by observing the fluorescence produced on granules of
potassium phosphate placed outside the tube [10]. Four years later, in 1905, the Nobel
Committee decided to award the Nobel Prize to Lenard for his ingenious work on cathode
rays. Lenard, however, considered himself to be “the mother of X-rays” while Roentgen
was “the midwife who happened to deliver the child”. There are other scientists who are
believed to have observed X-rays before Roentgen and we are not going into the details of
those stories.
4. The First X-ray Photograph: Claims and Counter-Claims
The very first terms used for pictures produced by X-rays were the unabbreviated
and easily understandable combination of words such as ‘X-ray photograph’ or ‘shadow
photograph’. There were a lot of debates, controversies, personal choices, and etymological
discussions in choosing the name of the pictures taken by X-rays [3].
Who first produced the first X-ray photograph after the discovery of X-rays is replete
with claims and counter-claims. It is said that the first shadow graph or Roentgenograph of
metal objects [4] was obtained by accident in 1892 by a Philadelphia experimentalist Arthur
Willis Goodspeed (1860–1943). The story goes that Bill Jennings, a friend of Goodspeed,
was counting his coins after the Bill Jennings’ Carfare on the Woodland Avenue trolley
when Goodspeed asked Jennings to help in photographing the spark gap of a Ruhmkorff
coil. Jennings put his coins on the top of a plate while assisting in the positioning of the
electrodes. The plate was later found to have black patches. Rounded shadows shown in
Figure 3 are the images of coins. They paid little or no attention to those circular shadows
till the announcement of Roentgen’s discovery. They then repeated the experiment and
understood the reason. However, Goodspeed expressly and repeatedly denied any claims
to priority because at that time he had failed to interpret these shadows.Quantum
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Figure3.3.Goodspeed’s
Figure Goodspeed’sfirst
firstshadowgraph
shadowgraphproduced
producedinin the
the University
University of of Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania on on 20 Febru-
20 February
ary 1890. The rounded shadows are coins. (Taken from: The Trail of the Invisible
1890. The rounded shadows are coins. (Taken from: The Trail of the Invisible Light). Light).
Themost
The mostlegitimate
legitimateclaim
claimwas wasthat
thatof ofaaScottish
Scottishengineer
engineerAlanAlanArchibald
ArchibaldCampbell
Campbell
Swinton (1863–1930) who tried to replicate X-ray photos in
Swinton (1863–1930) who tried to replicate X-ray photos in the beginning of 1896 immedi-the beginning of 1896 imme-
diately
ately after
after thethe discovery
discovery [4].[4].
He He conductedhis
conducted hisexperiment
experimentusing usingaahomemade
homemadetube tubeandand
hisplates
his plateswere
werefirstfirstreproduced
reproducedin inNature
Natureand andsubsequently
subsequentlyin inIndustries
Industriesand andIron
Ironand
andthethe
Electrical Review
Electrical Review of ofLondon
Londonthe thenext
nextdayday[11].[11]. From
From thethereconstructed
reconstructed timetable
timetable thatthat he
he
maintained,the
maintained, thefollowing
followingwerewerecaptured:
captured: first first (poor)
(poor) roentgenogram
roentgenogram on on Tuesday
TuesdayJanuary
January
7;7;first
firstsatisfactory
satisfactory“metallic”
“metallic”(a (arazor
razorin inits
its paperboard
paperboardcasing)casing) roentgenogram
roentgenogramon onJanuary
January
8;8;first
firstroentgenogram
roentgenogram of of aahand
handon onJanuary
January 13 13 (shown
(shown to to the
the Prince
Prince ofof Wales);
Wales);and andfirst
first
exhibit
exhibitof ofthose
thosetwo twoplates
plateson on16 16January
January1896. 1896.
Michael
Michael Idvorsky
Idvorsky Pupin
Pupin (1858–1935)
(1858–1935) of of USA,
USA, anan immigrant
immigrant from from former
former Serbia,
Serbia,
claimed
claimed thatthathe heproduced
producedthe thefirst
firstroentgenogram
roentgenogramon on22January
January18961896after
afterRoentgen.
Roentgen.In In
1924, he wrote: “I obtained the first X-ray photograph in America
1924, he wrote: “I obtained the first X-ray photograph in America on 2 January 1896, two on 2 January 1896, two
weeks
weeksafterafterthe
thediscovery
discoverywas wasannounced
announcedin inGermany”.
Germany”.With Withthetheaid
aidofofaaphosphorescent
phosphorescent
screen,
screen, supplied by his friend Thomas A Edison, superimposed on a photographic plate,
supplied by his friend Thomas A Edison, superimposed on a photographic plate,
he
hewaswasable
abletotoproduce
produceaagood goodX-ray X-raypicture
picturein inaafew
fewseconds
secondsof ofexposure
exposure[12]. [12].Literature
Literature
search
searchshows
showsthatthatPupin’s
Pupin’sfirst
firstpaper
paperon on Roentgen
Roentgen rays rays (dated
(dated Saturday,
Saturday,11February
February 1896)
1896)
was published on February 5 in Electricity of New York which
was published on February 5 in Electricity of New York which was essentially a summary was essentially a summary
of
ofdata
datafrom
fromEuropean
European sources
sources [4].[4].
HisHisfirst roentgen
first roentgenplate, as mentioned
plate, as mentioned in hisinarticle, was
his article,
published in Science around February
was published in Science around February 14. 14.
Thomas
ThomasEdisonEdison(1847–1931)
(1847–1931)who whoisisfamous
famousfor forhis
hisinvention
inventionof ofelectric
electricbulb,
bulb,realized
realized
the importance of the Roentgen rays as soon as the news
the importance of the Roentgen rays as soon as the news of the discovery reached of the discovery reached the USA. the
According to a statement made by his secretary William Henry
USA. According to a statement made by his secretary William Henry Meadowcraft, “Mr. Meadowcraft, “Mr. Edison
was
Edisonthe was
first the
to recognize the importance
first to recognize the importanceof the cable
of theannouncement
cable announcement of Dr. ofRoentgen’s
Dr. Roent-
discovery. The same day he started to make the
gen’s discovery. The same day he started to make the apparatus and had apparatus and had it finished the next
it finished the
day. Three of the metropolitan dailies heard of it and for three weeks more than twenty
next day. Three of the metropolitan dailies heard of it and for three weeks more than
newspaper reporters were stationed at the Laboratory”. The first interview of Edison
twenty newspaper reporters were stationed at the Laboratory”. The first interview of Ed-
was made on 7 February 1896 and published in Times on 8 February. Edison strongly
ison was made on 7 February 1896 and published in Times on February 8. Edison strongly
believed that some practical (commercial) application would emerge from Roentgen’s
believed that some practical (commercial) application would emerge from Roentgen’s
“purely scientific” discovery, and he employed his staff to find out the most favourable
“purely scientific” discovery, and he employed his staff to find out the most favourable
conditions for taking roentgen photograph. A sketch of the design of one of his earliest
conditions for taking roentgen photograph. A sketch of the design of one of his earliest
apparatuses using Hittrof tube is presented in Figure 4.
apparatuses using Hittrof tube is presented in Figure 4.Quantum
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Figure4.4.Sketch
Figure Sketchof
ofEdison’s
Edison’searly
earlyX-ray
X-rayapparatus.
apparatus.(Courtesy:
(Courtesy:The
TheTrail
Trailofofthe
theInvisible
InvisibleLight.
Light.Ref.
Ref.1).
1).
5.5.X-ray
X-rayDiscovery
Discoveryand andIts ItsImpact
Impactin inIndia
India
ItItisisnot
not known exactly when andhow
known exactly when and howthe thenews
newsof ofX-ray
X-raydiscovery
discoveryreached
reachedCalcutta
Calcutta
(now Kolkata), but it is fascinating to note that it had produced
(now Kolkata), but it is fascinating to note that it had produced huge interest huge interest among
among the
the science lovers of colonial India. Within a few months of
science lovers of colonial India. Within a few months of the discovery of X-rays, Dr. the discovery of X-rays,
Ma-
Dr. Mahendralal
hendralal Sircar Sircar
(MLS)(MLS)orderedordered a Roentgen
a Roentgen tube tube
fromfrom Ducretet
Ducretet Company
Company in Europe
in Europe and
and received it in June 1896. In his diary dated 11 June 1896 we find
received it in June 1896. In his diary dated 11 June 1896 we find the following “The cases the following “The
cases (3 in number)
(3 in number) from from
DucretetDucretet containing
containing apparatus
apparatus for experimenting
for experimenting with with Roentgen
Roentgen Rays
Rays
were brought from the Customs House to the Association today. When Amrita (son
were brought from the Customs House to the Association today. When Amrita (son of
of
Mahendralal
MahendralalSircar) opened
Sircar) opened them, he found
them, that they
he found thathave omitted
they have toomitted
send theto Flourescent
send the
Screen.
Flourescent The cathode disc cathode
Screen. The was slightly
disc bent. The cells
was slightly were
bent. toocells
The big”were
[8]. too big” [8].
The
The first experiment using X-rays in India was carried out by Mahendralal
first experiment using X-rays in India was carried out by Mahendralal Sircar
Sircar
(MLS)
(MLS)on on20 20June
June1896
1896by bytaking
takingthe
thephotograph
photographof ofaahand
handusing
usingthetheprocured
procuredRoentgen’s
Roentgen’s
apparatus and it was noted in his diary that he did not obtain a good picture in his first
apparatus and it was noted in his diary that he did not obtain a good picture in his first
attempt, probably due to over exposure. As noted in his diary, he repeated his experiment
attempt, probably due to over exposure. As noted in his diary, he repeated his experiment
to obtain a better photograph and was successful on 23 June. Therefore, according to his
to obtain a better photograph and was successful on 23 June. Therefore, according to his
diary, the first successful X-ray photograph was produced in India on 23 June 1896 in
diary, the first successful X-ray photograph was produced in India on 23 June 1896 in
Calcutta by Mahendralal Sircar [13].
Calcutta by Mahendralal Sircar [13].
Experiments with X-rays were continued at the IACS by Amrita Lal Sircar under the
Experiments with X-rays were continued at the IACS by Amrita Lal Sircar under the
guidance of MLS with blocks of wood and books of different thickness, with sheets of iron,
guidance of MLS with blocks of wood and books of different thickness, with sheets of
tin foil and zinc foil as has been recorded in the diary dated 13 December 1899 [4]. This
iron, tin foil and zinc foil as has been recorded in the diary dated 13 December 1899 [4].
was the beginning of X-ray research in India after the discovery of X-rays and thus IACS
This was the beginning of X-ray research in India after the discovery of X-rays and thus
has the distinction of introducing X-ray research in India.
IACS has the distinction of introducing X-ray research in India.
A spurt of activities continued in India when people were trained in X-ray photography
A
from England spurt ofandactivities
there is continued
evidence ofinobtaining
India when people were
an excellent trained of
photograph in the
X-ray photog-
right hand
raphy from England and there is evidence of
of Earl of Elgin, the then Viceroy of India, wearing rings [13]. obtaining an excellent photograph of the
right hand of Earl of Elgin, the then Viceroy of India, wearing rings [13].
6. J. C. Bose and His X-ray Apparatus
6. J. Acharya
C. Bose and His X-ray
Jagadish Apparatus
Chandra Bose (1858–1937) (Figure 5) is known for his discovery
Acharya Jagadish
of microwaves [14] andChandra Bose (1858–1937)
his epoch-making work on(Figure 5) is knowndemonstrating
plant physiology for his discovery thatof
microwaves
plants respond[14] and hisstimuli
to external epoch-making
in a way work on plant
very similar physiology
to animals demonstrating
[15–17]. However, what that
isplants respond
less known isto external
that he was stimuli in aperson
the first way very similar
in India whoto animals
built an[15–17].
improvedHowever, what
Roentgen’s
is less known
apparatus is that
on his he from
return was the first person
England in 1897.inAcharya
India who built
Bose an improved
visited Europe inRoentgen’s
1896 at a
apparatus
time on his
when the return from
excitement of theEngland
discovery in of
1897. Acharya
Roentgen Bose
rays visited was
in Europe Europe
at itsinpeak.
1896Itatisa
time when
possible thatthe excitement
Jagadish of thebeing
Chandra, discovery of Roentgen
a physicist rays in Europe
and an exceptional was at its peak.
experimentalist, wasIt
is possible
attracted to that Jagadish Chandra,
this discovery and studied being a physicist
in detail about and an exceptional
the production experimentalist,
of Roentgen rays.Quantum Beam Sci. 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 11
Quantum Beam Sci. 2022, 6, 16 7 of 11
was attracted to this discovery and studied in detail about the production of Roentgen
rays.
Figure5.5.Jagadish
Figure JagadishChandra
ChandraBose
Bose(1858–1937).
(1858–1937).
JagadishChandra
Jagadish ChandraBose Bosereturned
returnedtoto India
India in in April
April 1897
1897 and and started
started building
building hishis ap-
appa-
paratus
ratus [3]. [3].
D MDBose,
M Bose,his his nephew,
nephew, andand former
former Director
Director of Bose
of Bose Institute,
Institute, remarked
remarked in one
in one of
of his
his articles
articles thatthat after
after ‘reading
‘reading a newspaper
a newspaper account
account ofof Roentgen’sdiscovery’
Roentgen’s discovery’hehebuilt builtanan
X-rayapparatus
X-ray apparatusininPresidency
PresidencyCollege,
College,Calcutta
Calcutta[18].[18].
Theexact
The exactdate
dateofofhis
hisbuilding
buildingthetheapparatus
apparatusisisnot notknown
knownbut butititappears
appearstotohave havebeenbeen
builtsometime
built sometimearound around1897–1898.
1897–1898.We Wefound
foundthe thefirst
firstmention
mentionofofhis hisX-ray
X-rayapparatus
apparatusininaa
letterwritten
letter writtentotoRabindranath
Rabindranath Tagore,
Tagore, thethe
firstfirst
AsianAsian to receive
to receive the Nobel
the Nobel PrizePrize in litera-
in literature,
inture,
February 1898 [19].
in February 1898Unfortunately, neither the
[19]. Unfortunately, apparatus
neither nor any sketch
the apparatus nor anyof his apparatus
sketch of his
isapparatus
available either at Presidency
is available either atCollege,
PresidencyCalcutta, the place
College, where
Calcutta, thehe builtwhere
place the apparatus
he built theor
atapparatus
Bose Institute, Calcutta,
or at Bose the institute
Institute, Calcutta, that
theheinstitute
built later,
thattoheunderstand
built later,the mechanism the
to understand of
the apparatus. Fortunately, we have been able to find a Press Report
mechanism of the apparatus. Fortunately, we have been able to find a Press Report pub- published on the 5th
oflished
May 1898on theedition
5th of the Amrita
ofMay Bazar Patrika,
1898 edition of the an erstwhile
Amrita Bazarreputed
Patrika,English daily ofreputed
an erstwhile India,
under
English thedaily
title of
‘Professor
India, underBosetheand the‘Professor
title New Light’ Bosewhich
and thedescribes
New Light’ the X-ray
which apparatus
describes
built by him
the X-ray and its demonstration.
apparatus built by him and its demonstration.
Roentgen
Roentgenused usedRuhmkorff’s
Ruhmkorff’scoil coilasasaasource
sourceofoftransient
transienthigh highvoltage
voltageinindischarging
discharging
the
the gas in Crooke’s tube. Ruhmkorff’s coil produces high voltage pulse in thesecondary
gas in Crooke’s tube. Ruhmkorff’s coil produces high voltage pulse in the secondary
coil
coilbybyelectromagnetic
electromagnetic induction
induction every timetime
every when a dc asupply
when in thein
dc supply primary is interrupted
the primary is inter-
by mechanical
rupted means. The
by mechanical means. secondary is connected
The secondary with the
is connected discharge
with tube (X-ray
the discharge tube)
tube (X-ray
and the high voltage pulse was enough to produce X-rays.
tube) and the high voltage pulse was enough to produce X-rays. By coupling a Tesla By coupling a Tesla coil with
coil
the
withsecondary of Ruhmkorff’s
the secondary coil (which
of Ruhmkorff’s then acts
coil (which thenas the
actsprimary of the tesla
as the primary transformer).
of the tesla trans-
Jagadish Chandra had been able to produce a higher voltage many times more than
former).
that can be produced
Jagadish Chandrausing a single
had been able Ruhmkorff’s
to produce a higher coil. On the basis
voltage many oftimes
the published
more than
information, we have presented a schematic diagram (Figure
that can be produced using a single Ruhmkorff’s coil. On the basis of the published 6) to represent the apparatusinfor-
he had probably
mation, we haveused. The newspaper
presented a schematic reported
diagram “We were 6)
(Figure shown a photograph
to represent of human
the apparatus he
palm taken by the
had probably Professor
used. with the new
The newspaper light,“We
reported and the
were ghastly
shownsight will long be
a photograph ofvividly
human
imprinted in our memory, for there, in the photograph, instead of the ordinary fleshy
palm taken by the Professor with the new light, and the ghastly sight will long be vividly
palm is seen depicted a long range of bones presenting a skeleton-like appearance.” Using
imprinted in our memory, for there, in the photograph, instead of the ordinary fleshy
Barium Platinocyanide screen prepared by himself with his assistants in the Presidency
palm is seen depicted a long range of bones presenting a skeleton-like appearance.” Using
College, he took X-ray photographs of different objects.
Barium Platinocyanide screen prepared by himself with his assistants in the Presidency
College, he took X-ray photographs of different objects.Quantum
QuantumBeam
BeamSci.
Sci.2022,
2022,6,6,x16
FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of
8 of1111
Figure 6. Schematic diagram of the high voltage source J. C. Bose probably used.
Figure 6. Schematic diagram of the high voltage source J C Bose probably used.
Although use of X-rays in India was started within a few months of X-ray discovery
Although use oftube
by importing X-ray X-rays
from inabroad,
India was started within
commercial a fewof
production months of X-ray
indigenous discovery
machine made
by importing X-ray tube from abroad, commercial production of
in India started only a few years before India’s independence in 1947 [3]. indigenous machine
made in India started only a few years before India’s independence in 1947 [3].
7. Medical Uses of X-rays
7. Medical
As perUses of X-rays
available literature, the evidence of first clinical uses of X-rays in India, at least
in anAsinformal
per available
setting, literature,
was started the by
evidence
Jagadish of first
Chandraclinical
Boseusesin of X-rays
1898. In ain India,
letter at least
(Sen, 1994)
inwritten
an informal
possiblysetting, was started
in February 1898bytoJagadish Chandra
Rabindranath Bose in
Tagore, he1898. In a letter
expressed his (Sen, 1994)to
inability
meet Rabindranath
written possibly in February at a time1898 when he will be busy
to Rabindranath examining
Tagore, a patienthis
he expressed with a broken
inability to
backRabindranath
meet using Roentgen at akal (machine
time when he in will
Bengali)
be busy[19].examining
The history of application
a patient of X-rays
with a broken backby
professionals
using Roentgen forkalclinical
(machine purposes in India
in Bengali) [19].is The
not very
historyclearly known. Asofreported
of application X-rays by [20], Dr.
pro-
Kartick Bose
fessionals (1873–1955),
for clinical purposes an eminent
in Indiadoctor, medical
is not very scholar
clearly and As
known. industrialist
reported [20], was “the
Dr.
first clinician in India to start clinical and X-ray laboratories”.
Kartick Bose (1873–1955), an eminent doctor, medical scholar and industrialist was “the
Installation
first clinician of the
in India first clinical
to start X-ray machine
and X-ray inlaboratories”.
hospitals for public use is full of claims,
counter-claims
Installation and of the conflicting
first X-ray reports
machineso much so thatfor
in hospitals it ispublic
very difficult
use is full to ofarrive at a
claims,
definite conclusion
counter-claims [13]. It wasreports
and conflicting reported so by
much K P so Mody
that init one of his
is very editorials
difficult published
to arrive at a
in the Indian
definite Journal
conclusion [13].of ItRadiology
was reported & Imaging
by K P thatMody “thein first
one of X-ray machine was
his editorials imported
published in
by a chemist in 1902 into India; that was only 7 years after
the Indian Journal of Radiology & Imaging that “the first X-ray machine was imported by the discovery” [21]. Madras
aMedical
chemist College
in 1902 intowebsiteIndia; (www.mmc.ac.in
that was only 7 years (accessed
after onthe17 June 2021))
discovery” [21].claimed
Madrasthat Med-the
“first X-ray outfit was obtained for the general hospital in
ical College website (www.mmc.ac.in (accessed on 17 June 2021)) claimed that the “first the year 1900 almost five years
after the
X-ray discovery
outfit was obtainedof X-rays, thegeneral
for the first in South
hospital EastinAsia”.
the year This
1900might be true
almost five considering
years after
that it is a very old medical institution started first as a Government
the discovery of X-rays, the first in South East Asia”. This might be true considering General Hospital on
that
it16isNovember
a very old 1664medical to treat sick soldiers
institution of first
started the East
as aIndia Company.
Government General Hospital on 16
Use of X-rays for therapeutical purposes
November 1664 to treat sick soldiers of the East India Company. was also carried out at the beginning of
twentieth
Use ofcentury.
X-rays Successful
for therapeutical treatment of leukaemia
purposes was also using X-raysout
carried wasatreported in Calcutta
the beginning of
Medical Journal
twentieth century. Successful treatment of leukaemia using X-rays was reported in Cal-in
[22] within five years of the first ever treatment of leukaemia, as reported
a paper
cutta published
Medical Journalin[22] Journalfive
thewithin of the American
years of theMedical
first everAssociation
treatment in of
1902.
leukaemia, as re-
Excitement of using X-rays in medical science waned with time and was replaced by
ported in a paper published in the Journal of the American Medical Association in 1902.
Xray research in physical sciences.
Excitement of using X-rays in medical science waned with time and was replaced by
Xray research
8. C.V. Ramaninand physical
Initiationsciences.
of X-ray Research in India
In July 1921, C.V. Raman (Figure 7) on his voyage to England as a delegate of Calcutta
8. C.V. Raman and Initiation of X-ray Research in India
and Banaras University to attend University Congress, was attracted to the “mystery of the
blueIncolour
July 1921,
of theC.V. Raman
sea”. On his(Figure
return7)toon his voyage
India, to England
he undertook as a delegate of
a comprehensive Calcutta
programme
and Banaras University to attend University Congress, was attracted to the
of research on molecular scattering of light by solid, liquid and gases which led to the “mystery of
the blue colour
discovery of the
of a new sea”.
light On The
effect. his return to India,
new light he undertook
effect was later known a comprehensive
as ‘Raman effect’pro-
and
gramme of research on molecular scattering of light by solid, liquid and gases
earned him the Nobel Prize in physics in 1930. During this time Raman and his students which led
to the discovery of a new light effect. The new light effect was later known as ‘RamanQuantum Beam Sci. 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 11
Quantum Beam Sci. 2022, 6, 16 9 of 11
effect’ and earned him the Nobel Prize in physics in 1930. During this time Raman and his
students were interested in the study of optical anisotropy of molecules from scattering
were interested
of light. Ramaninand theRamanathan
study of optical anisotropythe
[23] extended of optical
molecules from
theory of scattering
scattering of to light.
X-ray
Raman and Ramanathan
diffraction [23] extended
by liquids. Experiments thealso
were optical theory
carried outoftoscattering
compare to X-ray
the theorydiffraction
with ex-
by liquids. Experiments
perimental results. Sogani were
[24]also carriedthe
recorded out to compare
X-ray thepatterns
diffraction theory withof 22experimental
aliphatic and
results. Sogani [24] recorded the X-ray diffraction patterns of 22
aromatic liquids and estimated the average molecular distance from the position aliphatic and aromatic
of the
liquids
maxima of the diffraction haloes. It became clear from these experiments that themaxima
and estimated the average molecular distance from the position of the shape of
of the
the diffraction
molecules andhaloes. It became clear
the intermolecular fromhad
forces these experiments
profound that on
influence thetheshape of the
diffraction
molecules and the intermolecular
patterns. Krishnamurti forcesstudent
[25], another had profound
of Raman,influence
initiatedon the diffraction
small angle X-raypatterns.
scat-
Krishnamurti
tering which [25],
enabledanother
us tostudent of Raman,
understand initiated
the size small angleofX-ray
and distribution scattering
the particles in which
a sam-
enabled
ple. Thisus
is to understand
reportedly the size
the first smalland distribution
angle of the experiment
X-ray scattering particles in performed
a sample. in This is
India
reportedly
[26]. the first small angle X-ray scattering experiment performed in India [26].
C.V.Raman.
Figure7.7.C.V.
Figure Raman.
Ramanhad
Raman hadan anencounter
encounterwith withWilliam
WilliamBragg
Braggandandhe hewas
wasofofthe
theopinion
opinionthat
thatBragg’s
Bragg’s
firststructure
first structureofofnaphthalene
naphthalenewas wasnotnotconsistent
consistentwithwiththethebirefringence,
birefringence,while
whilethethesecond
second
one
onewas.
was. InIn order
order toto confirm
confirm this,
this, he
heand
andhishisstudents
studentsstarted
startedextensive
extensivestudies
studieson onthe
the
optical
optical and magnetic anisotropy of organic crystals to understand the arrangementsof
and magnetic anisotropy of organic crystals to understand the arrangements of
molecules
moleculesin incrystalline
crystallinestate.
state.The
Thework
workon oncrystal
crystalmagnetism
magnetismwas wasinitiated
initiatedby byone
oneof ofhis
his
successful
successfulstudents
studentsK.S.K.S.Krishnan.
Krishnan. In Inmany
manycasescasesthe
theorientation
orientationof ofthe
themolecules
moleculesin inthe
the
unit
unitcell
cellcould
couldbe becalculated
calculatedwith withaahigh
highdegree
degreeof ofprecision
precisionfrom
frompurely
purelymagnetic
magneticdata,data,
which
whichhelped
helpedininrefining
refiningX-ray
X-rayanalysis
analysisofofthethecrystal
crystalstructure
structure[27,28].
[27,28].
Bidhubhusan
Bidhubhusan Ray, another student of Raman, made significantcontribution
Ray, another student of Raman, made significant contributionto toX-ray
X-ray
spectroscopy,
spectroscopy, although he remained unknown to most physicists until a book was pub-
although he remained unknown to most physicists until a book was pub-
lished
lishedby byRajinder
RajinderSingh
Singh [29]. Bidhubhushan
[29]. Bidhubhushan RayRay(B. B.
(B.Ray) worked
B. Ray) withwith
worked Manne Siegbahn,
Manne Sieg-
abahn,
Nobela Laureate in Physics,
Nobel Laureate at Uppsala
in Physics, and on his
at Uppsala andreturn
on historeturn
India established X-ray labo-
to India established X-
ratory at Calcutta
ray laboratory at University. Satyendranath
Calcutta University. Bose who visited
Satyendranath Bose whoEurope during
visited 1924–1926
Europe during
met de Broglie
1924–1926 metbrothers
de Broglie and was attracted
brothers and was toattracted
X-ray crystal structure.
to X-ray crystalHis experience
structure. was
His expe-
utilized both at Dhaka University and later at the Calcutta University
rience was utilized both at Dhaka University and later at the Calcutta University where where he took charge
ofhethe
tookX-ray laboratory
charge after the
of the X-ray premature
laboratory death
after of B. B. Raydeath
the premature and built
of B.anB.X-ray diffraction
Ray and built an
apparatus in the laboratory (Figure 8).
X-ray diffraction apparatus in the laboratory (Figure 8).Quantum
QuantumBeam
BeamSci. 2022,6,6,16
Sci.2022, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 11
10 11
Figure8.8.X-ray
Figure X-rayDiffraction
DiffractionApparatus
Apparatusbuilt
builtby
bySN
SNBose.
Bose.(Courtesy:
(Courtesy:Prof.
Prof.Alok
AlokMukherjee).
Mukherjee).
Historically
Historically the first crystallographic
crystallographicactivityactivityininIndia
Indiastarted
started
withwiththethe determina-
determination
tion of crystal structures of napthaelene and anthracene by Kedareswar
of crystal structures of napthaelene and anthracene by Kedareswar Banerjee (KB) at Banerjee (KB)
IACSat
IACS [30,31]. In 1930, in response to KB’s article in “Nature” on the
[30,31]. In 1930, in response to KB’s article in “Nature” on the structure of naphthalene, structure of naph-
thalene, J.M. Robertson
J.M. Robertson of Michigan of Michigan
University,University,
Ann Arbor,Ann Arbor,
U.S.A., wrote:U.S.A., wrote:
“I believe Dr.“I believe
Banerjee’s
Dr. Banerjee’s
structure to bestructure to be
essentially essentially
correct. It hascorrect. It has
been clear tobeen clear
me for to me
some timeforthat
somethetime
lastthat
two
the last two
sections sections
of my paperoftomy paperDr.
which to Banerjee
which Dr.refersBanerjee
mustrefers must be as
be amended amended
regardsas regards
the distri-
the distribution
bution of the scattering
of the scattering centres incentres
the a and in the a and b directions”.
b directions”. His furtherHis furtheronresearch
research crystal-
on crystallography paved the way for a ‘complete crystallography
lography paved the way for a ‘complete crystallography structure analysis’ structure analysis’
and forandun-
for understanding
derstanding statistical
statistical relationships
relationships in the in the amplitudes
amplitudes of diffracted
of diffracted waves.waves.
FurtherFurther
details
details of his
of his life andlife andare
work work are available
available in a recently
in a recently publishedpublished book [32].
book [32].
With Raman having good contact with the giants
With Raman having good contact with the giants in the field in the field of X-ray crystallography,
of X-ray crystallog-
he was able to send many of his students abroad to let them work with
raphy, he was able to send many of his students abroad to let them work with leading leading scientists of
the field to gain contemporary knowledge of the subject. This made IACS
scientists of the field to gain contemporary knowledge of the subject. This made IACS the the nucleus of
X-ray research in India.
nucleus of X-ray research in India.
After independence, there has been a great surge of scientific research in India through
After independence, there has been a great surge of scientific research in India
establishment of laboratories by the Govt. of India. X-ray crystallography also flourished
through establishment of laboratories by the Govt. of India. X-ray crystallography also
and expanded into areas of biological sciences. Contributions of Kedareswar Banerjee
flourished and expanded into areas of biological sciences. Contributions of Kedareswar
were followed by equally profound works by other researchers in India such as G. N.
Banerjee were followed by equally profound works by other researchers in India such as
Ramachandran (University of Madras and Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore), A. R.
G. N. Ramachandran (University of Madras and Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore),
Verma (Banaras Hindu University), S. Ramashesan (National Aeronautical Laboratory,
A. R. Verma (Banaras Hindu University), S. Ramashesan (National Aeronautical Labora-
Bangalore), VR. Chidambaram (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai) and others [33].
tory, Bangalore), VR. Chidambaram (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai) and oth-
G.N. Ramachandran, a student of C.V. Raman, and most distinguished crystallo-
ers [33].
grapher of independent India worked on fibrous proteins and was recognized for the
G.N. Ramachandran, a student of C.V. Raman, and most distinguished crystallogra-
advancement of triple helix model of the structure of collagen [34] and the Ramachandran
pher
plot forofvalidation
independent India worked
of protein structure. on fibrous proteins and was recognized for the ad-
vancement of triple helix model of the structure of collagen [34] and the Ramachandran
9.plot for validation of protein structure.
Conclusions
India has a legacy of X-ray research since the discovery of X-rays in 1895. Research
9. physical
in Conclusionssciences using X-rays was started in India by C V Raman at the IACS and
madeIndia has a legacy
significant of X-ray
contribution in research
colonial since
Indiathe discovery
with of X-rays in
limited resources 1895. Research
available at that
in physical
time. sciences
By virtue of its using X-rays
scientific was started
activity in India
India made by C V Raman
a respectable at the
position inIACS
X-rayand made
research
significant
globally. IACScontribution
acted as thein nucleus
colonialof India
X-raywith limited
research in resources
India fromavailable
where it at that time. By
proliferated to
virtue of its scientific activity India made a respectable position in X-ray research
different laboratories such as the Benares Hindu University, Allahabad University, Madras globally.
IACS actedand
University, as the
thenucleus of X-ray research
Indian Institute in India
of Sciences, from where it proliferated to different
Bangalore.
laboratories such as the Benares Hindu University, Allahabad University, Madras Uni-
versity, and the Indian Institute of Sciences, Bangalore.Quantum Beam Sci. 2022, 6, 16 11 of 11
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The author is grateful to Barun Kumar Chatterjee of Bose Institute, Rajinder
Singh of University of Oldenburg, Germany, Gauri Roy, formerly at the Indian Association for the
Cultivation of Science, Alok Mukherjee of Jadavpur University, and many others for providing
important information, valuable discussions and comments. The author also thanks the authorities
of Bose Institute and IACS for giving access to relevant documents.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.
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