"ENGAGED, PROFESSIONAL - AND FEMALE?" A GENDER PERSPECTIVE ON MUSEUM EDUCATION IN GERMANY
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METHODICAL AND INFORMATIVE TEXTS/METODICKÉ A INFORMAČNÍ TEXTY
“ENGAGED, PROFESSIONAL – AND FEMALE?”
A GENDER PERSPECTIVE ON MUSEUM EDUCATION
IN GERMANY
MARKUS WALZ https://doi.org/10.5817/MuB2021-2-6
ABSTRACT/ABSTRAKT: job of museum education in the a jiné výchovně vzdělávací
1960s (West and East Germany). činnosti v muzeích byly i během
The employees in German The search for honorary staff první poloviny 20. století nadále
museum education are currently to carry out museum pedagogy úzce spojeny s funkcí kurátora
predominantly women. Since steered women into this field of sbírek či vědeckého ředitele
almost all professions in Central activity. This article concludes muzea. Obě tyto pracovní pozice
Europe were reserved for men in with the thesis that the rise of byly převážně obsazovány muži.
the past, what is interesting about individual women from precarious První organizátorkou muzejního
museum education is when women employment to permanent positions vzdělávání na plný úvazek se
took up this profession and how in museum education led to the stala až v letech 1925–1934 Fride
this gender imbalance was able current dominance of women in Schottmüller, která zůstala
to take shape. Two hypotheses this field of activity. nadlouho ojedinělým příkladem
suggest themselves: the argument působení ženy v této nově vznikající
of maternity gave rise to several „Angažovaná, profesionální – profesi. Samostatná pracovní
educational job profiles for women, a žena?“ Muzejní edukace pozice muzejního edukátora byla
especially that of kindergarten v Německu z pohledu gender vytvořena muži v šedesátých
teacher, but also that of elementary letech 20. století (v Západním
school teacher. The emancipation Muzejní edukace v Německu a Východním Německu).
movement around 1900 fought for je v současnosti doménou žen. Následná potřeba zapojení
special women’s academies and Vzhledem k tomu, že ve střední dalšího neplaceného personálu do
for the reservation of individual Evropě byla téměř všechna povolání vykonávání výchovně vzdělávacích
professions, supposedly particularly v minulosti vyhrazena mužům, prací v muzeu přivedla pak k této
suitable for women, for women zajímá nás, kdy se ženy v oblasti oblasti činnosti také ženy. Článek
interested in them. The search for muzejní edukace prosadily a jak končí konstatováním, že současná
reflections in the history of the k této genderové nevyváženosti převaha žen v oblasti muzejní
development of German museum mohlo dojít. Nabízejí se hned dvě edukace je vyústěním vývoje jejich
education shows that neither of hypotézy. Jednou z nich je, že působení v tomto oboru činnosti,
these phenomena explains the předpokladem vzniku některých který směřoval od příležitostné
professional activities of women ženských výchovně vzdělávacích práce až k stálému zaměstnání.
in museum education: guiding the profesí, zejména učitelky
visitors and other educational work v mateřské či základní škole, bylo KEYWORDS/KLÍČOVÁ SLOVA:
in museums remained, even in mateřství. Druhá hypotéza tvrdí,
the first half of the 20th century, že o vznik speciálních vzdělávacích museum education – museum
firmly linked to the position of the ústavů pro ženy a etablování pedagogics – feminisation – museum
collector or the scientific director jednotlivých typicky ženských history – Germany
of the museum. Men dominated profesí se zasloužilo emancipační muzejní edukace – muzejní
both positions. The first full-time hnutí na přelomu 19. a 20. století. pedagogika – feminizace – dějiny
organiser of museum education, Při pohledu do historie muzejnictví – Německo
Frida Schottmüller, appeared muzejní edukace v Německu
late (1925–1934). As a woman, však zjišťujeme, že ani jeden
she remained an isolated case z uvedených fenoménů nevysvětluje The headline of this article
within this emerging profession. odborné působení žen v této paraphrases the title of a handbook
Men developed the separate oblasti: provázení návštěvníků article on museum education in
77MUSEOLOGIC A BRUNENSIA
Austria today. Its author stated: characterised by a high proportion was on the “technical assistant”
“The professional field is clearly of women. in collection management
female”; as evidence she cited that (cataloguing, photographing,
among the 34 museum educators An additional explanatory model drawing).5 The libraries took
certified in Austria, 32 are may be constructed by reflecting a faster development: Since 1907,
women.1 Information concerning the history of schooling. Some an association of female library
the (uncertified) majority of German countries already knew assistants existed in Germany
Austrian museum educators does female teachers in the 18th century (“Vereinigung bibliothekarisch
not exist. Although Germany (independent of nuns at convent arbeitender Frauen”).6 Educational
annually presents its museum schools). In all Western societies, tasks were not an issue in either
statistics, gender-related data is since the 19th century, there has context.
also lacking there: since 1981, been a persistent increase in the
a single questionary asked for the proportion of women teachers in Since there is little data on this
gender of museum directors but general, especially in elementary aspect of museum history, this
only of directors. A clue is provided schools.4 The women’s school article collects circumstantial
by the 64 board seats that exist in (“Frauenschule”), newly created evidence of women’s museum
total in the German professional in Germany in 1908, specifically pedagogical work in Germany in
association “Bundesverband qualified female teachers in chronological order to discover
Museumspädagogik” and its six home economics, needwork or this kind of women’s activity in
regional associations; eleven of gymnastics, as well as kindergarten history and conceivable reasons
them are occupied by men. The teachers. As soon as school children for that. Because the historical
proportion of men on the individual were seen as a target group for outlines of museum education
boards varies from 50 per cent on museums, the participation of are unclear, all museum work in
the national board (2 out of 4) to women in educational work would personal contact to visitors is taken
zero on the regional association in be conceivable. into consideration. The search
Baden-Württemberg (0 out of 10).2 begins with any kind of imparting
Pointing in the same direction, Two other historical phenomena in a collection even as an unpaid
less than five per cent of the are not currently suitable for activity.
applications for art education at the constructing further explanatory
temporary exhibition “documenta models. Firstly, the supervision Pre-modernity: museum
12”, 2007 in Kassel, were submitted of young children was already education hidden in personal
by men.3 a matter for women in its unions
beginnings around 1770 (Marie-
As a reason, one can reflect from Salomé Oberlin, Ban de la Roche/ Even if the clear break in museum
the European modern history that Alsace). Qualification programmes history with the French Revolution
almost all professional activities for early childhood education in is now disputed, reflections on the
were initially reserved for men Germany were initially aimed history of museum education have
and that women had to fight for exclusively at women (first in the so far followed this dichotomy
equal rights. Consequently, there Kaiserswerth Deaconess House, of pre-modernity and modernity.
should be a transition from a male- founded in 1836). However, there Eva Sturm, for example, claimed
dominated to a museum education are no indications that young that the beginnings of museum
children were considered a target education were genuinely
1 STÖGER, Gabriele. Engagiert, professionell,
serviceorientiert – weiblich: Kunst- und
group for museum work in earlier interwoven with the beginnings
Kulturvermittlung in österreichischen Museen. years. Secondly, one strand of art museums (which she dated
In COMMANDEUR, Beatrix, Hannelore KUNZ- of the women’s emancipation around 1800).7 Accordingly, it
OTT and Karin SCHAD (eds.). Handbuch
Museumspädagogik. Kulturelle Bildung in Museen. movement established separate
München: Kopaed, 2016, pp. 383–390; here women’s academies around 5 GRÜTTEL, Else. Weibliche Museumsangestellte.
p. 383. Museumskunde. Zeitschrift für Verwaltung und
1900. At the same time, museum Technik öffentlicher und privater Sammlungen,
2 Bundesverband Museumspädagogik e.V. Karlsruhe
[online]. [accessed 2021-08-20]. Available from
professionals were discussing 1913, vol. 9, pp. 219–224.
www: . whether women were suitable 6 LÜDTKE, Helga. Anspruchsvolle Arbeit
3 MÖRSCH, Carmen. Am Kreuzungspunkt von for museum work. The focus für „bedürfnislose“ Frauen. Die ersten
Bibliothekarinnen in Deutschland. In LÜDTKE,
vier Diskursen: Die documenta 12 Vermittlung
Helga (ed.). Leidenschaft und Bildung. Zur
zwischen Affirmation, Reproduktion,
Geschichte der Frauenarbeit in Bibliotheken. Berlin:
Dekonstruktion und Transformation. In MÖRSCH, 4 ESSEN, Mineke van and Rebecca ROGERS. Zur
Orlanda, 1992, pp. 25–52; here pp. 37, 43.
Carmen (ed.). Kunstvermittlung II. Zwischen Geschichte der Lehrerinnen. Historiographische
kritischer Praxis und Dienstleistung auf der Herausforderungen und internationale 7 STURM, Eva. Woher kommen die
documenta 12. Zürich; Berlin: Diaphanes, 2009, Perspektiven. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik, 2006, Kunst-Vermittlerinnen? Versuch einer
pp. 9–33; here p. 14. vol. 52, pp. 319–337. Positionsbestimmung. In Dürfen die das? Kunst
782 0 2 1 / 10 / 0 2
is necessary to examine what Academic Museum at Göttingen in learning, but also travelling
happened to concepts prevalent in University (1773). Even in the merchants and their relatives, if
the Ancien Régime after the turn of realia collections of higher schools, any, who were travelling with
the century around 1800. for example from 1698 at the them. Because of the limited
Paedagogium in Halle (Saale), no demand, these tours were
Firstly, smaller presentations museum pedagogy was detachable, secondary tasks of castellans and
of collections were handled by because the person responsible for other servants. In princely painting
the owner himself, who showed the didactics gathered, arranged galleries, the court painter was
them to visitors and engaged and used the collections for the usually commissioned as gallery
in conversation with them. teaching purpose in question. director, who could possibly
Consequently, there was no This direct didactic connection delegate to a gallery inspector;
museum education that could be of the teaching collections proves the situation was similar with
detached from the owner. In the continuity up to the present in librarians. Professors delegated
bourgeois milieu, there were more the university collections and tours of university collections
natural history cabinets than art museums. to students; they called the
collections. This also applies to professor in if a visitor asked very
religious orders; unfortunately, Thirdly, the collections of fine art knowledgeable questions.
there are no publications on took a different development in
conceivable collections in that princely art collections in the The gender relations in these four
women’s monasteries. The 18th century were made practically pre-modern schemes depend on
secularisation of the monasteries usable for the founding of drawing external factors. The personal
dispersed most of these collections; schools (sculpture collection) union of owner and mediator
the princely collections changed and art academies (painting could only be female-determined
smoothly with the increasing gallery), and in most cases the to the extent that there were
understanding of the collections gallery director also headed the female collectors; in the case of the
as state instruments that were no art academy. The period around princesses, it must be remembered
longer part of the monarch’s way 1800 marked an apparent caesura: that in most German countries
of life and therefore did not require the paths of the art museum and women are only conceivable
any personal commitment on the the art academy diverged, and the as wives of the monarch or as
part of the prince. Only private art academies established separate guardians of the future monarch.
collections created out of individual collections. Nevertheless, this Among the wives, Karoline Luise,
interest remained bound to the special path of the fine arts was not Margravine of Baden-Durlach,
owner. lost: on the one hand, syntheses of stands out, who showed her
art school and art museum were painting cabinet to external guests
Secondly, many pre-modern still founded after 1800 (e.g. at the and was intensively involved in the
collections had a direct didactic “Pohlhof” in Altenburg/Thuringia princely natural history cabinet. In
context. University professors in 1848), and on the other hand, German universities, there were no
collected illustrative material for the synthesis of schools of applied female professors before the 20th
their courses, which led to the art with corresponding museums century and no female students
creation of corresponding cabinets. spread (following a precursor from (with extremely rare exceptions).
Johann Daniel Major (1634–1693) 1844, the Minutoli Collection in The situation in the art academies
already distinguished two room Liegnitz/Silesia). was slightly better. Katharina Treu
functions for this purpose, (1743–1811) taught at the Electoral
a hall with collection cabinets Fourthly, a special attitude of the Academy of Art in Düsseldorf from
on the walls and a “conference public should not be forgotten, 1776. She could be described as
hall”.8 In the 18th century, these the sightseeing. As a combination the first German professor to teach
cabinets increasingly became the of supervision and information from exhibits, but she remains an
responsibility of the universities, for those interested, the guided isolated case. Management duties
an early example being the Royal tour emerged. It reached the field depended on the main profession; if
of action of the “pre-modern” light caretaker duties in residential
als sozialer Raum. Art, education, cultural museums via the visit to the palaces were readily given to war
work, communities. Wien: Turia + Kant, 2002,
pp. 198–211; here p. 199. castle: princely castles, but also invalids, the staff was recruited
8 JEKSTIES, Angela and Gaetano OEHMICHEN. the princely and municipal from men. In short, if there was
Das Museum Cimbricum. In Museum Cimbricum. libraries, offered an option for a “pre-modern museum education”
Aspekte des öffentlichen Museumswesens in
Schleswig-Holstein 1689–1980. Kiel: Christian- leisure activities. Visitors were not at all, women had a place in it only
Albrechts-Universität, 1989, pp. 77–97. only travellers with an interest as isolated cases.
79MUSEOLOGIC A BRUNENSIA
19th century: new pedagogical events to make better use of the profession is irrelevant for the
event formats, new actors collections. history of museum education.
The literature suggests the Additional budget from a funding The format of guided museum
Senckenberg Nature Museum in foundation made an expansion tours continued. A series of
Frankfort on the Main as a starting possible in 1854: now external lectures by Dr. Eduard Gerhard on
point for museum education in experts could receive fees for representations of Greek mythology
Germany. Frankfort was one of lectures. Every three years, in sculpture and vase painting,
the “free cities” in the German later every two years, the which this museum official gave
Confederation, so it was not ruled Natural Research Society held in 1834/35 in the Royal Museum
by a monarchy but by a bourgeois a public lecture cycle with a fixed (today: “Altes Museum”), is
oligarchy. The Nature Museum, curriculum, and mineralogy was considered to be the beginning of
founded in 1817, functioned in added as a new field of knowledge. guided tours of museums in Berlin.
a similar way: the members of the The group of participants Around 1900, the Royal Museums
Senckenberg Natural Research comprised 20–30 people each time, in Berlin established public Sunday
Society committed themselves to mainly teachers and secondary tours: The respective museum
the museum in their free time. One school pupils, students, doctors directors or curators realised this
of the 17 founding members was and pharmacists. The new offer as a service task. In addition,
the master tailor Johann Christoph building of the Nature Museum in a semi-governmental organisation
Fritz (1781–1835), who used his 1908 contained separate classrooms (“Centralstelle für Arbeiter-
professional skills in the museum as for the now one-year courses. The Wohlfahrtseinrichtungen”) had
a taxidermist. In 1826, the general facility also allowed microscopy been organising free guided tours
meeting commended him for using and dissection exercises.11 The in various Berlin museums since
the permanent exhibition of the model of university lectures 1896.13
Nature Museum as a classroom on and seminars is unmistakable.
Sunday mornings, before the public Nothing is known about teaching This external organisation planned
hours, to “give lessons in natural contributions by women for the and marketed museum tours on
history to a number of boys and entire period. Sunday afternoons, especially for
awaken a love for it”.9 workers. Initially, the museum
An argument from the history directors held these tours
In the same year, 1826, the city of museum education reminds themselves, but due to demand,
of Frankfort granted an annual us that many German museums interested high school teachers
subsidy of 1,500 guilders to found came into being through civic were recruited as guides.14 The
a natural history teaching institute. engagement and that among same organisation organised
The Natural Research Society these initiators, teachers were a conference on popular art
developed half-year courses with a prominent group. However, this education in Berlin in 1900. The
three lessons per week covering still does not clarify whether it was keynote address was given by the
the three fields of knowledge: a matter of teachers’ historical or Hamburg museum director Alfred
botany, zoology and comparative scientific leisure interests or school Lichtwark, although he himself
anatomy. The target group was now pedagogical interests. The high admitted that he was skilled in
adults and high school students. level of involvement of teachers in lecturing but had never conducted
Responsibility for this teaching was history associations rather points a guided tour of an art exhibition.
taken over by another founding to private inclinations. As positive He identified as particular problems
member, the physician Dr. Philipp evidence, only one museum director the lack of training of the guiding
Jakob Cretzschmar, until 1845.10 and drawing teacher is currently staff and the tendency of the
The logic of the university museums known who used museum objects scientific staff to offer too much
was thus reversed: no collections as models for his drawing lessons.12 historical knowledge.15
to support teaching, but teaching The museum history has not shown
any evidence of female teachers 13 SCHOTTMÜLLER, Frida. Berliner
interested in museums, so the Museumsführungen seit 100 Jahren.
Berliner Museen. Berichte aus den preußischen
early feminisation of the teaching Kunstsammlungen, 1935, vol. 56, pp. 39–40.
9 KRAMER, Waldemar. Chronik der
Senckenbergischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft 14 ALBRECHT, Heinrich. Fünf Jahre praktisch-
1817–1966. Frankfurt a. M.: SNG, 1967, pp. 193, sozialer Thätigkeit. Aus der Versuchsituation der
239. 11 Ibid. Centralstelle für Arbeiter-Wohlfahrtseinrichtungen.
Berlin: Heymann, 1898, pp. 34, 36.
10 SCHÄFER, Wilhelm. Geschichte 12 WEIß, Gisela. Sinnstiftung in der Provinz.
des Senckenberg-Museums im Grundriß. Westfälische Museen im Kaiserreich. Paderborn: 15 Die Erziehung des Volkes auf den Gebieten
Frankfurt a. M.: SNG, 1967, pp. 134–135. Schöningh, 2005, p. 266. der Kunst und Wissenschaft. Vorberichte
802 0 2 1 / 10 / 0 2
At the first ever nationwide seems noteworthy that the focus occurred in Leipzig in the circle
museum conference in Germany, was on teaching school children. of elementary school teachers,
in Mannheim in 1903, guided The children may have been who at that time had no academic
tours were a major topic. Two female, but the actors were not: qualifications but were trained
speakers who both had the title of the corresponding section in the in special teacher seminars.
professor and a doctorate embodied Mannheim conference proceedings The central figure was Richard
the conflict already addressed by was entitled “Judgments of the Buch (1871–1959), who had been
Lichtwark. The high school director guiding gentlemen on the guided working as an elementary school
Trendelenburg recited: tours” and 30 men contributed. teacher since 1892 and at the same
time undertook zoological research
“Yes, if there were a choice between The background to this fact is as an amateur. He was one of the
a guide with a high level of that in Germany only the nature initiators of the Leipzig Museum of
expertise and one with pedagogical museums have a long tradition Natural History, which the Leipzig
experience, I would unhesitatingly of university-educated directors. Teachers’ Association decided to
give preference to the latter even The other types of museums were found in 1906 and which opened
if his expertise were not entirely academised in Germany in the in 1912 under Buch’s direction. In
impeccable. For it seems to me that last third of the 19th and early 20th 1916, Buch wrote: “It was clear
what matters more than this in centuries: Many museums were from the outset that the focus of
these tours is the pedagogical tact, given their first full-time museum the new institute was to be its
which does not place the emphasis directors, and in the painting educational, i.e. its task of teaching
on what attracts the scientific galleries, visual artists were and educating the people.”20 Buch
researcher, but allows the guide to displaced as museum directors. used the term museum education
confine himself to what is the main New humanities disciplines extensively, but he understood it
thing and is self-evident to the emerged. Some of them began to mean the selection of exhibits,
simple mind.”16 with the personal union of their arrangement and labelling;
university professor and museum he called it a “presentation which
The opposite position was director (e.g. ethnology), others was worked out in the manner
taken by Felix von Luschan, successfully claimed museums as of museum education”.21 In the
director’s assistant at the Royal their workplace (e.g. art history). Leipzig Teachers’ Association,
Museum of Ethnology, Berlin: Since women were only admitted personal forms of mediation
to regular university studies in were called “popular education”
“I attach the greatest importance Germany between 1900 and 1908, (“Volksbildung”). Teachers were
to guided tours by real experts and there could only be “guiding provided with preparatory material
consider them to be one of the most gentlemen”. In the first decade of for school classes, and group visits
important means of education. [...] the 20th century, the first female by clubs or youth organisations
On the other hand, I consider tours academics worked in German received an introductory lecture
by non-experts to be completely museums in unpaid trainee by Buch or another teacher. For
useless. I very often see large school positions.18 a teachers’ association, it was
classes being rushed through the far-fetched to think of special
entire Museum of Ethnology in one First half of the 20th century: educational staff in the museum.
or two hours. I think that’s quite new terminology, but no full-
nonsensical, and I’m sure it would time professional staff The focus on school education
be much more useful for the solidified in the 20th century.
children if they spent that time The German term ‘museum The first conference on museum
walking around.”17 education’ (“Museumspädagogik”) education in Germany was
marginally appeared in organised in 1929 by the “Central
In addition to the contrast between a voluminous manual on German
educators and subject scholars, it culture published in 1912.19 The ihre Ziele. Vol. 1, part 1. Berlin: Teubner, 1912,
first multiple use of the term pp. 632–692; here p. 678.
und Verhandlungen der 11. Konferenz [der
20 BUCH, Richard. Ein naturkundliches
Centralstelle für Arbeiter-Wohlfahrtseinrichtungen],
18 GRÜTTEL, Else. Weibliche Volksmuseum. Museumskunde. Zeitschrift für
23.–24. 4. 1900. Berlin: Heymann, 1900,
Museumsangestellte. Museumskunde. Zeitschrift Verwaltung und Technik öffentlicher und privater
pp. 120–121.
für Verwaltung und Technik öffentlicher und privater Sammlungen, 1916, vol. 12, pp. 68–90; here p. 69.
16 Die Museen als Volksbildungsstätten. Ergebnisse Sammlungen, 1913, vol. 9, pp. 219–224; here
21 BUCH, Richard. Das Leipziger Naturkundliche
der 12. Tagung der Centralstelle für Arbeiter- p. 223.
Heimatmuseum. In SCHOENICHEN, Walter (ed.).
Wohlfahrtseinrichtungen. Berlin: Heymann, 1904,
19 DIELS, Hermann. Die Organisation der Heimatmuseen. Wesen und Gestaltung. Berlin-
p. 168.
Wissenschaft. In HINNEBERG, Paul (ed.). Die Lichterfelde: Bermühler, 1928, pp. 111–150; here
17 Ibid., p. 184. Kultur der Gegenwart. Ihre Entwicklung und p. 118.
81MUSEOLOGIC A BRUNENSIA
Institute for Education and eyes of the young people were Gallery and the Collection of
Teaching”, financed by the Prussian to “walk” in the picture, she Sculptures of the Royal Museums
state. Franz Hilker, a retired wanted to help them “get into the in Berlin (later: State Museums)
school inspector from Berlin, scene” in order to understand the began: she researched, wrote
propagated two innovations, the composition and to be able to trace scholarly publications and
“working and teaching room” in it summarily on paper.24 catalogues of holdings, negotiated
the museum and the “museum with art dealers in Italy; along
teacher”, a “pedagogically qualified Prof. Dr. Frida Schottmüller (1872– the way, she wrote some fifty
museum expert”. Hilker strove to 1936) represented the perspective of articles for the dictionary of artists
avoid controversy, with the opinion the academic staff, but accepted that “Allgemeines Künstlerlexikon”
that art teachers could manage in an art museum whose collections edited by Thieme and Becker. She
without the help of the “museum were no longer being expanded, continued to earn her living as
teacher”, while teachers of other a “pedagogue with an understanding a drawing teacher and also taught
subjects would be grateful for of art and good taste” could be at the socialist adult education
support. In Hilker’s opinion, subject imagined as director. As a rule, she centre (“Volkshochschule”) in
scholars and teachers of all types of rejected this solution, since the new Berlin. In 1919, the Prussian
schools and subjects were suitable acquisitions required art-historical government honoured the academic
for employment as “museum expertise. Obviously, Schottmüller achievements of the ‘auxiliary
teachers”.22 The first “classrooms” saw her topic “museum and guided worker’ by awarding her the title of
in German museums are mentioned tours for schoolchildren” as a matter professor.
for Clausthal-Zellerfeld (1934) for the director. For the Prussian
and the State Folklore Museum State Museums in Berlin, however, It was not until 1920 that she
(Volkskundemuseum) in Berlin she conceded that because of the received a permanent position as
(1935).23 large number of schools in Berlin, curator at the Kaiser-Friedrich-
museum specialists could not lead Museum. Official conflicts were
Surprisingly, the 1929 conference class tours. Instead, the Prussian inevitable: Schottmüller was used
included two women. Both had an State Museums offered further to speaking directly to the Director
academic background, both spoke training in art history for teachers; General Wilhelm von Bode. With
about museum tours for children. seminars on art viewing with her regular employment, the
Edel Noth (1895–1984) was trained different age groups were planned department director Dr. Theodor
as a teacher of home economics, as a new offering. Schottmüller Demmler became her superior;
needlework and gymnastics, also presented London museums as he reprimanded Schottmüller
attended courses at art schools exemplary because specially trained for maintaining direct contact
and worked mainly as a teacher staff offered guided tours for the with Bode. One may speculate
at girls’ schools from 1919. She general public as well as for school that the employee’s professional
presented her own programmes classes.25 reputation and her professorial
for ten to sixteen-year-olds at title were part of the problem. As
different art exhibitions or at the Schottmüller is the main forerunner the result in 1925, Schottmüller
Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum (today: of professional museum education kept the title of curator of the
“Bode-Museum”), Berlin. The legal in Germany. She was a qualified sculpture collection, but she was
framework of the events remains drawing teacher, attended the given another workspace outside
unclear: different exhibitions were University of Berlin from 1899 to the museum and a new task: she
the target, the participants visited 1903 as a guest student (women had to organise the guided tours
different types of schools and were not yet admitted to regular and lectures in the State Museums.
schools, Noth worked as a teacher. studies in Prussia), and in 1903 she Schottmüller organised her work as
The timing on Saturday afternoons obtained a doctorate in art history coordinator, programme director
indicated a leisure activity. Noth at the University of Zurich. In and publicity department. Her
was not at all concerned with November 1905, a long series of involvement ranged from procuring
teaching factual knowledge: the work contracts for the Painting folding chairs for seminars in the
permanent exhibition to developing
22 HILKER, Franz. Schule und Museum. In 24 NOTH, Edel. Mit Kindern im Museum. In art-historical evening courses, from
Zentralinstitut für Erziehung und Unterricht (ed.). Zentralinstitut für Erziehung und Unterricht (ed.).
Museum und Schule. Berlin: Hobbing, 1930, pp. Museum und Schule. Berlin: Hobbing, 1930, pp. posters for advertising pillars to
98–110; here pp. 100–101. 120–127. guidelines for guided tours.26
23 HOLST, Niels von. Das Führungswesen in den 25 SCHOTTMÜLLER, Frida. Museum und
Berliner Museen. Berliner Museen. Berichte aus den Schülerführungen. In Zentralinstitut für
preußischen Kunstsammlungen, 1936, vol. 57, pp. Erziehung und Unterricht (ed.). Museum und 26 NÜTZMANN, Hannelore. Ein Berufsleben.
43–50, here p. 46. Schule. Berlin: Hobbing, 1930, pp. 111–119. Frida Schottmüller. Mitteilungen des
822 0 2 1 / 10 / 0 2
Schottmüller apparently did education department in Germany. technology in its entire scope”
not have a budget. Her main Frida Schottmüller retired a year could be taught at university.32
achievement was to increase the later, allegedly at her own request.28 Everything else should be learned
number of tours offered at no cost. through professional practice.
Before she took up her post, there Langsdorff’s successor in the Museum education thus remained
were 24 public guided tours by External Office published within the official duties of the
museum directors and curators per a misogynist text in 1936 that academic staff (or served as extra
quarter, in 1932 there were 58. held up Berlin tours by “young income for their junior generation).
Since 1932, there was a new service researchers and museum
called “tours by scientific auxiliary professionals” as an advantage The professional reality in
workers”, which was also declared over the offerings of special these years became precisely
as a qualification: ‘auxiliary museum education departments comprehensible for the first time
workers’ referred on the one hand abroad (he wrote the department through the “Yearbook of German
to people with a specific work task denomination in English and Museums”, which provided detailed
for a meagre fee (like Schottmüller French); he merely conceded that personnel data. For 1929, various
herself for a long time) and on the the “incidentally mostly ‘female’ professions were indicated in
other hand to young university [sic!] museum instructors” in the 1,504 museums, but no museum
graduates who were involved in US had “a certain even practice education. The Goethe Museum
museum work for several months in guiding” that the ‘auxiliary in Frankfurt am Main listed three
without pay. The demand from workers’ lacked.29 guides, the German Museum on
external groups for guided tours Health and Safety at Work in Berlin
on desired dates was satisfied by The educational activity repertoire four “guides and craftsmen”.33
charging a fee for this and passing of the time was clear: guided Obviously, mediation tasks were
it on to the ‘auxiliary worker’ tours and slide lectures were the fulfilled alongside other activities.
who did the tour. In museums important formats. Edel Noth alone
that did not employ ‘auxiliary presented new forms. School classes Only a few women can have
workers’, tours with students were were an important target group, been given this secondary task
offered. Full-time museum staff but not the only one. Pedagogical of museum education, because in
were responsible for checking knowledge or even routine were 1929 a total of 57 women were
the students’ level of knowledge.27 not the focus, although the term listed among the museum staff.
Financial possibilities controlled “museum teacher” was formulated The real number was higher, as
this system; promotion of women at the same time: Compared to the information provided by the
was only possible in individual pedagogical professionalism, the museums varied in detail: the
cases, basically the low proportion audience’s contact with a young Hamburg Ethnological Museum
of women among students and researcher “who has a living alone listed ten cleaning women
graduates dictates the gender ratio. relationship with his subject” (included here), while most
received a higher rating.30 The museums listed no cleaning staff
These tasks were taken away from usefulness of a special qualification at all. In addition, abbreviations
Schottmüller in April 1934 and was disputed: “Guiding in made the gender invisible in
assigned, along with press relations, a museum can only be learned to the numerical data of persons
to Prof. Dr. Alexander Langsdorff, a limited extent”, Schottmüller with simple jobs. Apart from
curator of the prehistoric wrote.31 The Düsseldorf museum administrative staff and cleaners,
department who, as a member of director Karl Koetschau explained the following were named as
the SS, seemed more trustworthy in 1918 that only “museum female: seven museum directors
to the Nazi regime. In the same (including two part-time directors,
year, this secondary activity was 28 NÜTZMANN, Hannelore. Ein Berufsleben. one museum benefactress and
Frida Schottmüller. Mitteilungen des
made independent as the “External Kunsthistorischen Instituts in Florenz, 1996, vol. 40, two unpaid directors), six civil
Office of the Berlin Museums”, pp. 236–244; here pp. 240–241. servants, four assistants, one “art
and Langsdorff thus became the 29 HOLST, Niels von. Das Führungswesen in den caretaker”, one draughtswoman,
Berliner Museen. Berliner Museen. Berichte aus
apparently first head of a museum den preußischen Kunstsammlungen, 1936, vol. 57,
pp. 43–50; here p. 50.
32 KOETSCHAU, Karl. Die Vorbildung der
Kunsthistorischen Instituts in Florenz, 1996, vol. 40, 30 Ibid. Museumsbeamten. Vortrag, gehalten auf der
pp. 236–244. Würzburger Tagung, 29. Mai 1918. Hamburg:
31 SCHOTTMÜLLER, Frida. Museum und
Lüdtcke & Wulff, 1918, p. 6.
27 HOLST, Niels von. Das Führungswesen in den Schülerführungen. In Zentralinstitut für
Berliner Museen. Berliner Museen. Berichte aus Erziehung und Unterricht (ed.). Museum und 33 SCHRAMM, Albert (ed.). Jahrbuch der
den preußischen Kunstsammlungen, 1936, vol. 57, Schule. Berlin: Hobbing, 1930, pp. 111–119; here Deutschen Museen. Vol. 2. Wolfenbüttel: Heckner,
pp. 43–50. p. 116. 1929.
83MUSEOLOGIC A BRUNENSIA
one museum assistant and one periodical “School and Museum” In the West, too, little was learned
“Fräulein” (unmarried woman) 1966–1990 and a practical manual about gender relations. Among
without specifying her occupation. in 1966 and 1976 respectively.35 the published practical reports,
Furthermore, two “technical Nothing is known about gender there were reports by women, but
assistants” and ten academic relations. Men fulfilled all men held the leading positions,
trainees (with a temporary, leadership positions and editorial were the editors of the manual.
presumably unpaid job) were listed. tasks. At the Nuremberg Art Education
In the full-time museum staff of Centre, there was a male director
the Berlin museums, the number In the Federal Republic of Germany, and a permanently employed male
of women decreased from three to the locations of several important museum educator in the early
one between 1932 and 1935 (one museums set the tone for full- years; for the rest, educational
‘auxiliary worker’ in the National time museum education work. staff worked on a fee basis –
Gallery); however, the published Central institutions that created predominantly women who saw
names of the ‘auxiliary workers’ are educational offers for the various little opportunity to work alongside
incomplete.34 museums were deemed suitable: their families. In retrospect, the
in 1961 for the State Museums in museum educator there spoke of
Second half of 20th century: West Berlin (without mentioning the “type of housewife interested in
local establishment, nationwide the predecessor from 1934 or 1925), art”.37
organisation and the beginning in 1965 for the museums of the
of the female precariat city of Cologne, and in 1969 for A female-accentuated
the Germanic National Museum niche developed in the
In the reconstruction phase after together with the municipal children’s museums. The second of
the Second World War, the two museums in Nuremberg. Other these, the Children’s Museum in
German states experienced the metropolises followed the example. the Historical Museum of Frankfort
establishment of museum education In 1965, the buzzword of the on the Main, established in 1972,
as an administrative concept, comprehensive German “education reported exclusively women for
as a field of action of museum catastrophe”, from kindergarten its entire existence in 2003, both
practice, as an organisational to schools or vocational training among the employees and among
unit and as a professional profile. to universities, generated political the numerous freelancers.38 In
In keeping with the centralist attention, so that museum Nuremberg, a freelance employee
thinking of the GDR, in the education also came into view of the Art Education Centre was
1950s two museums (Museum on the sidelines. The museum involved in a new mobile offer.39
for German History, East Berlin; boom that began at the same time The second wave of founding
State Art Collections, Dresden) was based more on historical children’s museums in the
that were considered pioneering culture and the competition for 1990s was carried out “almost
were initially equipped with appreciation of museum locations, everywhere” by women, mostly in
departments for educational work not least on tourist hopes, but private initiatives and therefore
and guided tours. After uniform also opened up opportunities for hardly under personal profit
methods for “cultural mass work” new museum education jobs in motives.40
were ordered in the “Principles the general expansion. In 1973,
on the Socialist Transformation of there were the first informal COMMANDEUR, Beatrix, Hannelore KUNZ-
Local History Museums” (1960), meetings of museum educators, in OTT and Karin SCHAD (eds.). Handbuch
Museumspädagogik. Kulturelle Bildung in Museen.
museum education departments 1982 the first, still thin, issue of München: Kopaed, 2016, pp. 76–83.
or specialised workplaces the professional journal “Standbein 37 ROOS, Julia. Ausstellungen als öffentliches
were also established in other Spielbein”, which is still published Ärgernis? Die bundesdeutsche Museumskontroverse
museums in the country. In 1963, today, was available, and in der 1970er-Jahre um das Präsentieren von
Vergangenheiten. Berlin: Bibspider, 2018, pp.
a national advisory body was 1981 the first edition of the manual 133–134.
created, first under the name “Handbuch Museumspädagogik” 38 GESSNER, Susanne. Dokumentation zum
“Working Group School and was published.36 30. Jubiläum des Kindermuseums. Ein Museum
für Kinder im Museum. Frankfurt a. M.:
Museum”, 1970–1990 as “Working Kindermuseum des Historischen Museums, 2003.
Group Museum Education”, 35 SCHNEE, Ines. Museumspädagogik in der
Deutschen Demokratischen Republik (DDR) bis 39 ROOS, Julia. Ausstellungen als öffentliches
which published an annual 1990. In COMMANDEUR, Beatrix, Hannelore Ärgernis? Die bundesdeutsche Museumskontroverse
KUNZ-OTT and Karin SCHAD (eds.). Handbuch der 1970er-Jahre um das Präsentieren von
Museumspädagogik. Kulturelle Bildung in Museen. Vergangenheiten. Berlin: Bibspider, 2018, pp. 549.
München: Kopaed, 2016, pp. 66–75.
34 SCHRAMM, Albert (ed.). Jahrbuch der 40 KÖNIG, Gabriele. Kinder- und Jugendmuseen
Deutschen Museen. Vol. 5. Wolfenbüttel: Heckner, 36 WEIß, Gisela. Museumspädagogik in der und Museen als Orte für alle Generationen.
1932; Vol. 6, 1934. Bundesrepublik Deutschland bis 1990. In In BOCKHORST, Hildegard, Vanessa-Isabelle
842 0 2 1 / 10 / 0 2
Up to the present: quantitative a whole did not increase so much, an exclusive touch (“guided tour
growth in the boom crisis employment did not necessarily by the director” at a higher fee).
mean a permanent job or “Curator’s tours” approximate art
Since German unification in 1990, a full-time position – 698 of the and research; the actual discourse
museums have gone through an 1,437 regularly employed educators accentuates the artistic practice of
ongoing boom crisis: the number of had only a half-time position in curators and distances these tours
museums grew faster than demand, 2017. The largest group among from “pedagogy” and museum
the national average of visitor the 10,899 people who worked education.
numbers per museum declined for pay in museum education in
by 6.3 % (1993–2013). Apart 2017 was made up of freelancers Conclusion: instead of
from spectacular new buildings who only worked (and were paid) women’s emancipation in
for some bigger institutions, it on demand. Since selective offers museums, causal chains in the
was a period of founding small played a major role (action days, labour market
museums: between 1993 and 2013, museum festivals, programmes
Germany got 814 new museums during school holidays), many The field of museum education
run by private associations. On freelancers received income from in Germany did not show any
the former territory of the GDR, the museum only occasionally emancipatory striving for jobs
museums lost 40 % of their staff. or seasonally. The second largest for women (about 1900) nor
Unlike the western museum boom group in 2017, 2,257 people, an echo effect of early women
of the 1970s–1980s, the sum of consisted of low-income earners teachers (18th, 19th centuries) or
public funds increased slowly and (student assistants and “mini-jobs” the feminisation of the different
disproportionately to the museum limited to a maximum income of teaching professions (20th century).
numbers.41 €400 per month).43 Men introduced the technical term
museum education in Germany,
In 1992, the German museum Guided museum tours show men were the first to discuss the
statistics counted 358 museums a multidirectional development. right qualifications for museum
among 3,002 responding museums They are criticised today (“frontal guides. The first full-time head of
with at least one regularly teaching on the move”), their a museum education department
employed museum educator ready-made presentation of in Germany (1925) came about
and a total of 505 persons (plus information contradicts basic rather accidentally when internal
3,565 freelancers). In 2007, pedagogical principles. The quarrels with a woman were ended
there were already 682 of professional museum education by removing Frida Schottmüller
3,613 responding museums with elaborated a variety of alternative from her original tasks. The formal
a total of 991 regularly employed formats. Nevertheless, guided establishment of the department
educators and 6,923 freelancers. tours are still the most common led to male staffing. The factually
In 2017, there were 823 out of form of presentation: 82.1 % educational work was fulfilled
4,237 responding museums with of the 4.237 German museums by the existing academic (largely
a total of 1,437 regularly employed responding in 2017 offered guided male) staff.
educators and 7,205 freelancers.42 tours; programmes for school
This quantitative increase as classes got the second rank with Apart from isolated cases, women
well included a boom crisis. 49.5 %.44 Large museums draw did not appear in German museum
Because capital investment as a conceptual line between “museum education until it had received its
education” and “visitor service” first local structures and the first
REINWAND and Wolfgang ZACHARIAS (eds.). (standard guided tours that can explicit full-time positions (for
Handbuch Kulturelle Bildung. München: Kopaed, be called up). On the other hand, men). The parallel development in
2012, pp. 669–671.
it is still common for the museum East and West and the GDR’s lead
41 WALZ, Markus. Von der deutschen
Vereinigung zur Boomkrise der Gegenwart. management and those responsible in time refute that the second
In WALZ, Markus (ed.). Handbuch Museum. for temporary exhibitions to offer phase of the women’s emancipation
Geschichte – Aufgaben – Perspektiven. Stuttgart:
Metzler, 2016, pp. 69–75.
guided tours. But the character of movement (in the 1960s of West
42 HAGEDORN-SAUPE, Monika.
these “official tours” changed in Germany) would have affected the
Museumspädagogik in Zahlen. In COMMANDEUR, the last decades. Some of them got establishment of museum education.
Beatrix, Hannelore KUNZ-OTT and Karin SCHAD
(eds.). Handbuch Museumspädagogik. Kulturelle
Bildung in Museen. München: Kopaed, 2016, pp.
43 Statistische Gesamterhebung an den Museen Obviously, neither a longer
der Bundesrepublik Deutschland für das Jahr 2017.
362–368; Statistische Gesamterhebung an den
Berlin: Institut für Museumsforschung, 2018, pp. perspective of museum history nor
Museen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland für das
Jahr 2017. Berlin: Institut für Museumsforschung,
53–54. general theses on the increasing
2018, pp. 53–54. 44 Ibid., p. 60. participation of women in the
85MUSEOLOGIC A BRUNENSIA
labour market are able to explain amounting to several thousand 15 people who completed a museum
the gender-unbalanced situation euros. education dissertation between
of German museum education. 1987 and 2011, none of whom
Therefore, a causal chain will be Due to the numerical ratio of people were employed in a museum.47 In
sketched here as an explanatory working in museum education, it is 1992, it was reported from south-
model. It is based on plausible most likely to get a freelance job for west Germany that many museum
arguments not on empirical facts. a few hours or a mini-job. Instead education jobs were temporary and
of the “art-interested housewives” many job holders had not worked
As a caveat, it should be noted that of the 1970s, we probably find towards this career goal but had
there are undoubtedly people who mainly career starters who continue taken up the position to escape
are only willing or able to engage the tight financial framework from unemployment.48
in limited gainful employment, their studies in order to gain initial
and that it is entirely possible experience in the museum with This structure receives its female
to earn a good income from the hope of getting a full-time job accent from the outside. Hidden
freelance museum education work. later (in or also outside of museum power issues and influences on
Nevertheless, it is a well-known education). In addition, there are decision-makers could make it
phenomenon of German labour people in difficult labour market difficult or impossible to recruit
market research that especially situations who are prepared in the women. Today, this is unlikely,
in the cultural industries, many longer term to combine a small at least in state and municipal
people work in solitary self- amount of time at their desired museums in Germany, due to the
employment and earn significantly museum job with other gainful monitored equality of women.
below-average incomes. This part of employment. Consequently, women do not meet
the cultural industries is considered any obstacle if they are interested
a characteristic case of precarious Most of those who have found their in a museum job. As long as family
living conditions, where it is first job in this way face the next eye work is predominantly fulfilled
assumed that the individual’s old- of the needle: there are six times as by women, women will be more
age provision is not sufficient and many people in freelance contracts willing to take on occupations with
therefore poverty in old age is or marginal employment as there a small amount of time. For decades,
likely later on.45 are full-time professionals, so that cultural studies, humanities and
when vacancies arise employers can education have had a strong appeal
The basis of this explanatory model choose from an oversupply (besides for young women, and some of the
is the labour market. There is conceivable lateral entrants). Since disciplines relevant to museums are
a quantitatively insufficient demand every second museum education studied almost exclusively by women
for graduates of several museum- position is only a half-time job, (e.g. textile science). Regardless of
relevant subjects (e.g. art history many who are looking for a full-time the level of qualification, a majority
for decades). The teaching diplomas position will settle for part-time in of women opt for pedagogical
in (West) Germany experienced the hope that the contract will be professions: in 2020, 73.1 per cent
striking cyclical changes, which, increased later or a full-time job will of teachers at German schools are
if negative, provided more people become available elsewhere. female, in primary schools their
interested in museum education. As share is highest at 89.4 per cent;
a result, there is a constant supply Because employers have mastered with a female quota of 92.9 per cent
of young people who, due to a lack these labour market tiers, the (2020),49 kindergarten education is
of alternatives in the desired field of coveted full-time museum education
museum work, see a limited option positions can be offered and filled Gesprächssituationen. Berlin: Bibspider, 2018, pp.
as an opportunity. An indication at the lower end of the pay scale. 11–118; here p. 65.
of the willingness to take risks Indications of this are the pay offers 47 WALZ, Markus. Museologische Kenntnisstände
involved is that several qualification in German job advertisements for in der Hochschullehre. In WALZ, Markus (ed.).
Handbuch Museum. Geschichte – Aufgaben –
programmes for museum education museum educators, which often Perspektiven. Stuttgart: Metzler, 2016, pp.
activities are constantly offered in remain at the bachelor’s level (data 382–384; here p. 384.
Germany, with participation fees from 2005–2014),46 and those 48 DÜRR, Christiane. Biologieunterricht im
Museum. Ökologie und Umwelterziehung in
Museen im deutschsprachigen Raum. Frankfurt a.
46 BREDEMANN, Antje. Das Tätigkeitsfeld
M.: Haag & Herchen, 1992, p. 206.
45 KOLLAR, Elke. Museumspädagogische der Museumspädagogik im Spiegel von
Praxisprofile und Berufsbilder. In COMMANDEUR, Stellenanzeigen – Anforderungen und 49 Anteil der weiblichen Lehrkräfte an
Beatrix, Hannelore KUNZ-OTT and Karin SCHAD Arbeitgeberleistungen. In BREDEMANN, allgemeinbildenden Schulen in Deutschland
(eds.). Handbuch Museumspädagogik. Kulturelle Antje und Claudia RÜTSCHE. Aspekte im Schuljahr 2019/20 nach Schulart [online].
Bildung in Museen. München: Kopaed, 2016, pp. museumspädagogischer Arbeit. Zwei Studien [accessed 2021-08-20]. Available from www:
307–314; here p. 311. zu Personalanforderungen und psychologischen2 0 2 1 / 10 / 0 2
one of the most gender-unbalanced Bundesverband Museumspädagogik e.V. 2016, pp. 362–368.
professions on the German labour [online]. Karlsruhe ISBN 978-3-86736-451-5.
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