Family care-giving for ageing parents in Nigeria: gender differences, cultural imperatives and the role of education

International Journal of Education and Ageing                                  The Association for
                                                                               Education & Ageing
Vol. 2, No. 2, 139–154, May 2012

Family care-giving for
ageing parents in Nigeria:
gender differences, cultural
imperatives and the role of
education
Uzoma Odera Okoye
University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria

Abstract
   Caring for an elderly relative, especially in African societies, is usually a task that
   is reserved for females. This article includes an analysis of the effect of gender in
   care-giving. Data was collected, using questionnaire and interviews, from 530 adult
   (40 + years, mostly well-educated) respondents, residing in Nsukka town, Nigeria,
   who had at least one parent alive. Comparisons were made between the responses
   of the male and female adult children. The findings showed that adult daughters had
   more positive general perceptions of care-giving than adult sons and were less likely
   to see a personal care-giving role as a burden. To some extent the findings can be
   interpreted as reflecting deep-seated gender differences which have their origins
   in traditional cultural attitudes. But when considered more deeply, in the context of
   economic needs and social changes in Nigeria, and the limited support available for a
   growing population of older people, the findings raise questions about how likely it is
   that such differences will change and whether they can be affected by lifelong learning
   provision. The article concludes that developments in education and learning relating
   to understanding ageing at school-level and preparing for it in later middle age, as well
   as new forms of learning in later life, are important in the Nigerian context.

Introduction
Ageing comes to all in due time, if we live long enough. In Nigeria, the general
population is growing rapidly and is approaching 160 millions. The population of
older people is growing faster than the general population. The United Nations
(2006) predicts that the percentage of the Nigerian population aged 60 years and
above will increase by 26 percent by 2020 and 38 percent by 2050. This means that

140    International Journal of Education and Ageing

the number of elderly people to be supported and cared for will grow significantly.
The needs of older people have most often been misunderstood by Nigerian society
at large (Okoye, 2005). This is mainly because there are stereotypes of older people
that prevent many of those younger from understanding their real needs. Kenyon
(1992) and Thornton (2002) have commented on the dangers of stereotyped and
negative attitudes towards older people. This article will examine these attitudes
and will, in particular, explore the cultural imperatives in Nigerian society which
define care-giving responsibilities in terms of gender and consider if education and
learning provision can influence the situation.

People do not cope successfully with ageing in isolation. Most often they will cope
in the company of others who provide social, emotional and financial support and
assistance in surroundings that provides security, love and understanding (Connidis,
2010). In this respect, families of older people usually provide many forms of care-
giving assistance for older people. Care-giving assistance in the context of this study
is taken to mean all forms of support and assistance given to an elderly parent. This
could be by way of telephone calls, visits, financial support and physically caring
for the parent.

According to Atchley (2000), adult children generally are considered to be the first
line of support when care-giving assistance is needed for their parents. He observes
that the ageing relationship between elderly parents and adult children emerges
through interaction between each other, usually in the process of playing their
respective social roles. Abdulraheem (2005) argues that the relationship can be
destroyed or diminished by permanent geographic separation or if one or both of
the participant(s) are unable to perform their role, maybe as a result of health or other
obligations. Sijuwade (2008) believes that such factors as feelings of superiority or
inferiority, selfishness, break in trust, withdrawal by one or both participants and so
on may diminish ageing relationships and so affect care-giving. Usita et al. (2004)
suggest that likelihood of withdrawal from the relationship of a care- provider could
be in direct proportion to the level of care needed and the physical and mental
stress of providing it.

Literature Review
Gender has been seen as a strong factor, in the academic literature world-wide,
influencing ageing relationships and care-giving. Some researchers, for example
Allen (1981) and Palmore (1980) report that there is no difference between genders
on attitudes towards the elderly, yet others such as McGrew (1991), Haught et al.
(1999), Hawkins (1996), Steitz & Vener (1987) and Cicirelli (1993) indicate that
females have more positive perceptions of the older generation than males. It is
evidently possible that the way in which someone perceives an older person can
influence their views on care-giving for them.

McGrew (1991), in the USA, concludes that irrespective of one’s position in the
family, gender is a major influencing factor on the relationship between an adult child
and elderly parents. She observes that adult daughters in most cases do not appear

Family care-giving for ageing parents in Nigeria      141

to go through a complex decision making process to decide whether to provide
care but simply act on impulse. In this interpretation, the impulse to care for family
members who need it is a predisposition in females. Kramer (1995) investigated
gender differences in care-giving tasks and found that females are more likely to
assist with care provision tasks than males. Horowitz (1985) in her study found that
sons tend to become caregivers only in the absence of an available female sibling.
And even then, they are more likely to rely on the support of their own spouses.
She also found that they provide less overall assistance to their parents, especially
‘hands-on’ services.

Studies have reported gender differences with regard to care-giving satisfaction. For
women caregivers, a greater satisfaction in care-giving correlates with lower levels
of anxiety and depression (Yee & Schulz, 2000). Walker et.al. (1990) observe in their
study that daughters reporting positive effects or no change had positive evaluations
of, and were satisfied with, the care-giving role. Stoller (1983) found that being
employed significantly decreases the hours of assistance provided by sons but does
not have a significant impact on the hours of assistance provided by daughters. Many
studies have looked at the role of women and family care-giving (Long & Harris,
2000; Brewer, 2001; Dettinger & Clarkberg, 2002). Although not all have addressed
gender issues and care-giving specifically, the results are still generalisable to women
because they constitute the majority of informal care providers.

Thus, scholars generally conclude that females in most cultures are socialised into
care-giving (Brewer, 2001; Jutras & Veilleux, 1991; Long & Harris, 2000) and are more
involved in care-giving roles. Cicirelli (1993) suggests that the attachment between
daughters and elderly parents may be based on the impulse of females to care
and may involve guilt feelings. This view had earlier been put forward by Noelker &
Townsend (1987) who in their study found that guilt feeling is a major factor in the
relationship between elderly parents and their adult, particularly female children.

With regard to Nigerian culture, however, it is not necessarily clear how these
findings drawn from across the globe, particularly from developed countries, apply.
In Nigeria, cultural norms are that children are expected to provide care to their
parents both materially and otherwise. In some instances, the parent/s maybe
living with an adult child and in others the adult child may hire a paid care-giver to
reside with the parent/s usually in the home village. In Nigeria, when people living
in an urban area grow old or retire, they are usually expected to go back ‘home’ to
the village. This is more so in the Eastern part of the country where the following
empirical study was situated.

Significantly, within traditional culture in Nigeria, there are also cross-cutting
cultural imperatives which stipulate that ageing relationships such as living with
elderly parents and /or providing care are seen to be the duty of the first or last
son or daughter (Togonu-Bickersteth, 1989; Ogwumike and Aboderin, 2005). This,
according to Sijuwade (2008), is inculcated during the process of socialisation in
which the first and last of the progeny receive special care and attention and are
expected to reciprocate in like terms later in life.

142    International Journal of Education and Ageing

The purpose of the empirical study which follows, therefore, is to find out how the
comparatively well-educated population of a reasonably affluent university town in a
region of an African nation which is modernising but in which traditional values still
matter, fits into the patterns outlined in the available published academic literature.
Among those of the middle-aged adult population of the town who have at least one
parent alive, what are the perceptions of the care-giving role towards elderly parents?
In particular, are gender differences apparent in the analysis of those perceptions?
If they are, what follows? It has become obvious in recent years in Nigeria that
family provision of assistance for members in need is in danger of erosion by the
combined impacts of the job-market, mobility and city-dwelling. Clearly cultural
norms and traditional forms of behaviour will be challenged particularly with regard to
the increasing number of older people in the population. After the discussion of the
empirical study, the article moves on to discuss if education and learning can play a
part in structuring and moulding the perceptions and assumptions that will result and,
if so, what form of education and learning delivered to whom and in what manner?

Methods
Sample and Procedure

Nsukka is a university town which contains a campus of the University of Nigeria.
The population of Nsukka’s local government area is put at 147, 249 males and 160,
392 females, which makes a total of 309, 633 (NPC,2006). The university is the only
major industry in the town.

The empirical study was concerned with adults resident in Nsukka, aged 40-59
years, with at least one parent alive. This age bracket was chosen because, in
Nigeria, the expectation is that, at 40 years, an adult is normally earning a living
and his/her parent(s) will normally not be less than 60 years old. The study adopted
cluster and systematic random sampling. This means that the town was first divided
into clusters, then streets from where systematic random sampling was used to
select only eligible respondents from sampled houses. During the sampling, care
was taken to ensure equal representation of male and female respondents who had
one or both parents alive and were within the required age range. Parents did not
necessarily live in the same house with members of the sample.

The sample size for the study was 600 adults. Questionnaires and interviews were
used as the instruments of data collection. Of the 600 questionnaires distributed, 530
were returned – a response rate of 88%. There were more female (55.8%) than male
respondents (44.2%). The mean age of the respondents was 41.8 (S.D. 9.215). More
than half of the respondents (55.7%) were, or had been, married while the rest were
single (44.3%). A good majority of the respondents (75.5%) had higher educational
qualifications (Ordinary National Diploma as the minimum qualification). Half of the
respondents were professionals or civil servants (50.8%) while the others were business
men and women or unemployed. Slightly above half of the respondents (59.1%) had
both parents alive while (76.7%) earned above the national minimum wage.

Family care-giving for ageing parents in Nigeria      143

Ten in-depth interviews comprising five males and five females were conducted.
A male and a female respondent were chosen on each street for an interview. In
order to avoid bias, respondents who were interviewed were not administered
the questionnaire. The interviews were transcribed using verbatim reporting and
thematic analysis was adopted in order to highlight the salient issues raised by the
respondents relating to particular themes.

Measures

In the questionnaire, 12 items in a Likert-scale form were used to measure a
respondent’s perceptions of the care-giving role. The items included, for example:

      Adult offspring should care for elderly parents
      Mean parents should be left without care
      Only affluent offspring should provide care
      Only first sons and daughters should provide care
      Caring for adult parents should depend on what I benefited from them
      Care-giving should be done by daughters.

The responses of each respondent to all the items were summated and, based on
that summation, two categories were developed: positive perception and negative
perception of care-giving role. An index of perceptions of the care-giving role was
thus constructed.

Similarly, respondents were asked to respond to a further 10 items in a Likert-scale
format. This scale was conceptualised as dealing less with general perceptions of
care-giving and more with specific actions of care-giving assistance and whether
they constituted a burden or not. Examples were:

      Calling my parents on phone regularly to check on them is expensive,
      I will send money to my parents only when I have no immediate need for it,
      Living with my parent in the same house is not possible,
      Sending my children to live with my parents will retard their development.

The responses of each respondent to the 10 items on the ‘burden of care’ were
added up and, based on the summation, two categories of respondent were
identified; those who viewed care-giving for their parent(s) to be a burden and those
who viewed it as a normal part of life.

144      International Journal of Education and Ageing

Results

Table 1 presents the demographic characteristics of respondents by gender.

                                    Table 1
         Demographic Characteristics of respondents by gender (N=530)

Demographic           Gender of respondents         Total      χx²       p
Characteristics                                                value

                     Male           Female
Marital Status
Single               109 (46.4)     126 (53.6)     235 (100)
*Ever married        125 (42.4)     170 (57.6)     295(100)

Level of Education
Low education        84 (32.9)      171 (67.1)     282 (100)   25.045    .000
High education       150 (54.5)     125 (45.5)     248 (100)

Income level
No income            47 (42)        65 (58)        112 (100)   9.733     .008
Medium income        86 (37.9)      141 (62.1)     227 (100)
High income          101 (52.9)     90 (47.1)      191 (100)

Age
Younger              31 (37.8)      51 (62.2)      82 (100)
Middle aged          141 (43.3)     185 (56.7)     326 (100)
Older                62 (50.8)      60 (49.2)      122 (100)

Family Position
First child          108 (52.4)     98 (47.6)      206 (100)
Middle child         85 (37.6)      141 (62.4)     226 (100)   9.856     .007
Last child           41 (41.8)      57 (58.2)      98 (100)

Both Parents Alive
Yes                  125 (39.9)     188 (60.1)     313 (100)
No                   109 (50.2)     108 (49.8)     217 (100)   5.508     .012

*Married, Separated, Divorced and Widowed

Table 1 shows that more females were married (57.6%) and younger (62.2%) than
males. More of them were middle children (62.4%) and had both parents alive
(60.1%). More males than females had a higher level of education (54.5%), and
earned a higher income (52.9%).

Family care-giving for ageing parents in Nigeria      145

                                     Table 2
           Care-giving characteristics of respondents by sex (N=530)

                               Gender of respondents

Dependent Variables           Male          Female          Total         χx² p value

Perception of care-giving

Positive Perception           170 (41.2)    243 (58.8)      413 (100)     6.777    .006

Negative Perception           64 (54.5)     53 (45.5)       117 (100)

Burden of care-giving

Care-giving is a burden       142 (51.4)    134 (48.6)      276 (100)     12.441   .000

Care-giving is not a burden   92 (36.2)     162 (63.8)      254 (100)

Table 2 presents respondents’ view on care-giving. It shows – on the two sub-scales
- that female respondents (58.8%) perceived care-giving more positively than males
(41.2%) while male respondents (54.5%) perceived care-giving more negatively
than females (45.5%). The differences between male and female respondents in
their perception of care-giving role were clear and were significant (X² (1, 530)
=6.777 p

146    International Journal of Education and Ageing

The interviews illustrated these differences and also exemplified the range of
issues through which they could be expressed, particularly concerning the places
of residence of the grandparents on the one hand and the adult children and the
grandchildren on the other.

One male (50 years) exclaimed:

      If my mother come to stay with me, she and my wife will be quarrelling
      and I don’t want to die young so she is in the village and we see
      her when we go home for something or during Christmas, but if it
      becomes necessary for her to live with someone, I am sure any of my
      sisters will bring her to their house and I will be visiting her there too.

Females took a contrary position. One (46 years) called regularly:

      Although it is a bit expensive but I must call my mother every two days
      to check on her. You know they like hearing our (their children) voices
      and it will make her happy.

Another (41 years) looked ahead:

      Why not, when my children are of age I can send them to live with my
      parents. That way I don’t have to get house helps that even maltreat
      them and disrespect them.

However a male (45 years) said that he would not send his children to his parents’
home:

      My children’s education is very important to me and I can’t afford to
      send them to the village to live my parents because the schools in the
      village are not up to standard (Male, 45 years).

Discussion

These findings imply that with regard to gender and care-giving, female respondents
were more likely to render care-giving assistance than their male counterparts, were
more likely to have positive perceptions of the provision of care-giving and less likely
to admit to regarding the care-giving role as a burden. Of course, Nigerian adult
daughters may be unwilling to complain openly about their feelings. They may go
through hardship in providing effective care-giving for an elderly parent but, out of a
sense of duty, not be willing to admit to it. Elsewhere, indeed, Pinquart & Sorensen
(2006) reported high levels of burden and depression, and lower levels of subjective
well-being and physical health, in women who were caring for older people.
Nevertheless, the majority of Nigerian adult daughters did not discuss the burdens
of care-giving negatively in terms of guilt avoidance but rather, positively, as the
result of the impulse to care, their obligations and empathy as mothers themselves.

Family care-giving for ageing parents in Nigeria      147

However, in the Nigeria, with its ageing population and the contrasting pressures
of modernisation, economic growth and mobility of education, location and
employment as against traditional cultural imperatives and local and customary
values, it may be that the empathetic impulses to care for elderly parents by busy
adult daughters will not be enough, especially if they have restricted budgets and/or
if they live at a distance. It is a multi-dimensional problem. Some of the dimensions
are not found, or are found to a lesser degree, in developed countries. Elderly
parents in developed countries may receive a pension, may have access to social
and recreational facilities and medical care – in some cases free of charge. In turn,
these reduce the burden of care-giving for their adult children (Lassey & Lassey,
2001). In Nigeria, large numbers of older people do not receive any pension and do
not have access to comparable facilities and services.

During interviews in the empirical study, most of the respondents confirmed that
difficulties in care-giving arise when the adult child does not have enough money
and/or when either the parent or adult child has ill-health. In effect, some of the
respondents, including females, felt that they had had to abandon their elderly
parents in the home village where they would die, sooner rather than later, due
to lack of money and good medical treatment. The financial environment seems
to be key. There is plenty of material in this study to show that it is imperative,
as soon as economic and political factors allow, for the Nigerian state to develop
a comprehensive policy for older people which incorporates pensions and social
services and facilities such as free medical treatment, recreational facilities and
institutional and adult day care centres. All of these will help adult care–givers,
especially the females. There is also a clear need for the Nigerian state to move
ahead with full implementation of the Pension Reform Act of 2004, which has a
broad range of provisions for older people that the state has not yet introduced.

Nevertheless, it needs to be considered whether there are less resource-intensive
provisions which could be put into place now in Nigeria, if the political will is present.
Some will argue that since Nigerian males do not perceive the importance of care-
giving to elderly parents in the positive manner that women do, then what really
matters is that social and public policy, in particular educational policy, focuses
attention on changing the attitudes of males. Given the rapid growth of its older
population, Nigeria cannot afford attitudinal barriers and women cannot cope with
the necessary care-giving unaided.

It is, indeed, possible to argue that developments in schooling and education and
in learning in later life are among the reforms that are more immediately possible.
This article now suggests a four-fold approach to considering the role of education;
i) at school; ii) while caring for an elderly parent as an adult; iii) preparatory to later
life; iv) during later life.

i) In order to accelerate a move away the stereotyping of old age and gender -
   imbalanced cultural assumptions about care-giving for older people, one can argue
   that there is a need to introduce programmes even into the early years of Nigerian
   schools that will encourage young people both female, but particularly male, to

148    International Journal of Education and Ageing

   start interacting with older people early so that care-giving will come naturally to
   them when the time comes. Such programmes could be embedded in the school
   curriculum at both the primary and secondary school level. There is evidence
   elsewhere that educational programmes can have a positive effect on attitudes
   of young people towards ageing and older people (Knapp & Stubblefield, 2000;
   Puentes & Cayer, 2001; Funderburk et al. 2006; Cottle & Glover, 2007; Hall & Batey,
   2008; Dunhama & Casadonteb, 2009). The Canadian Network for the Prevention of
   Elder Abuse (CNPEA 2010), reports that most prevention strategies view education
   as one of the best means of countering elder abuse, while Davidovic et al. (2007),
   showed convincingly that intergenerational programmes are an effective way to
   influence and improve perceptions of older people and of ageing.

   Yet, it is important to be realistic about the difficulties in the case of Nigeria. As
   the study in this article has confirmed, in traditional Nigerian culture gender-role
   socialisation is strong and may constitute a major obstacle to the success of
   school-based educational programmes. In many Nigerian households, female
   children are still socialised into traditionsl roles, from generation to generation,
   according to the dictates of culture. Public enlightenment/education campaigns
   geared towards parents on the desirability of socialising male children into
   care-giving roles would be needed as an accompaniment to changes in the
   school curriculum. Cultural imperatives and traditional values do not shift
   easily. Programmes of curriculum change in schools and public enlightenment
   campaigns would need to be both sophisticated and well-resourced.

ii) There must be a place for the development of learning opportunities for the adult
     children and others who have to provide care for elderly parents. The goals of such
     programmes would include the development of caring skills, the acquisition of
     new knowledge relevant to caring (including understanding the ageing process)
     and the sharing of good practice and learning from the experience of others.
     Varying forms of learning delivery methods seem relevant – not only face-to-face
     teaching and learning and facilitated group-work but also distance learning and
     self-programming support and sharing groups.

iii) The concept of ‘pre-retirement education’ does not easily fit Nigerian society
     at present but the area of preparation for ‘being older’, on which there is a
     considerable world literature, may do. Weierich et al. (2010), for example, in
     the USA, write of education in financial planning decisions - in such matters as
     moving home, managing healthcare costs and budgeting as being fundamentally
     important. Translating this approach to the Nigerian context, one suggestion has
     been that resource persons should be trained to help older people to understand
     their financial and health needs. Findings by Okoye and Aghedo ( 2011) show
     that one of the key reasons why the 2004 Act is not being embraced by Nigerian
     workers is lack of knowledge of the benefits. Older people who develop through
     training a broader knowledge of their range of financial options in later life are
     more likely to be able to minimise their dependence on care-givers, than are
     those whose knowledge of options is limited.

Family care-giving for ageing parents in Nigeria     149

iv) There are currently suggestions in Nigeria that provision of learning opportunities
    in later life will help older people to cope with the changing environment as their
    numbers grow. Elsewhere, Ahjin and Sharan (2004) have argued that educational
    provision can open up to older adults possibilities of continuing involvement in
    their communities while Field (2009) has documented the extent to which it has
    been shown that participation in education has a positive impact on well-being
    of older adults. Kumpa and Krašovec (2007) from Slovenia think that educating
    older adults is becoming an increasingly important activity because it empowers
    them, while at the same time reducing their social exclusion. This is because
    educational programmes can suggest solutions to, or provide ways of coping
    with, many of the problems which cluster round the realities of ageing. Translating
    all of these ideas to the Nigerian context – in which many older people may be
    expected to return to the home village and fend for themselves at a long distance
    from their adult children - is, of course, problematic. It may be that educational
    programmes for older people of an indigenous kind could be developed that
    celebrate traditional skills and emphasise communal interaction and mutual
    caring. It may be that programmes of later life learning can be created that, while
    drawing on experiential knowledge and the life-time values which older Nigerian
    people have, help them to identify what they want, and what they need, from
    the emerging new Nigeria. Skilled teaching and facilitating techniques would be
    required to engage the older learners in this context. One can certainly argue
    that Nigeria and other African states cannot simply import forms of later life
    learning from western developed countries. It will have to re-think them.

This article has shown that issues and difficulties around care-giving for elderly
parents by their adult children, and the limitations imposed by gender differences in
that care-giving, are part of a growing crisis in Nigeria occasioned by the increase
of the older population. Social policy, as well as economic responses are required.
It has been proposed that among those responses, developments in education and
learning relating to understanding and preparing for ageing as well as provision of
possibly new forms of learning in later life, merit immediate consideration.

References
Ahjin, K. & Sharan B. M (2004) Motivations for learning among older adults in a
   Learning-in-retirement Institute. Educational Gerontology, 30, pp. 441–455.

Allen, B. J. (1981) Knowledge of Ageing: A cross-sectional study of three different
    age groups. Educational Gerontology 6, pp. 49-60.

Atchley, R. C. (2000) Social Forces and Ageing: an introduction to social gerontology.
   Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Brewer, L. (2001) Gender socialization and the cultural construction of elder
   caregivers. Journal of Ageing Studies, 15, 3, pp.217-235.

Burke, J. L. (1981-82) Young children’s attitude and perception of older adult.
   International Journal of Ageing and Human Development, 14, pp. 205-221.

150    International Journal of Education and Ageing

Canadian Network for the Prevention of Elder Abuse [CNPEA] (2010). Available from:
  http://www.seniors.gc.ca/images/upload/canada/145/quickfacts_eaa_canada
  09.pdf (Accessed 18th January 2012).

Cicirelli, V. G.(1993) Attachment and obligation as daughter’s motive for care-giving
   behaviour and subsequent effect on subjective burden. Journal of Psychology of
   Ageing, 8, pp. 144-155.

Connidis, I. A. (2010) Family Ties and Ageing. LA: Pine Forge/Sage.

Crespi, I. (2003). Gender socialization within the family:A study on adolescents
   and their parents in Great Britain. available at http://www.iser.essex.ac.uk/files/
   conferences/bhps/2003/docs/pdf/papers/crespi.pdf. [1655]

Cottle, N. R. & Glover, R. J. (2007) Combating ageism: Change in student knowledge
  and attitudes regarding aging. Educational Gerontology, 33, 6, pp. 501-512.

Davidovic, M., Djordjevic, Z., Erceg, P., Despotovic, N. & Milosevic, D. P. (2007)
  Ageism: Does it exist among children? Scientific World Journal, 7, pp. 1134-1139.

Dettinger, E. & Clarkberg, M. (2002) Informal care-giving and retirement timing
   among men and women: Gender and care-giving relationships in late midlife.
   Journal of Family Issues, 23, 7, pp. 857–879.

Dunhama C. C. & Casadonteb, D. (2009) Children’s Attitudes and Classroom
  Interaction in an Intergenerational Education Program. Educational Gerontology,
  35, 5, pp. 453-464.

Evans, R. (2010).Children’s caring roles and responsibilities within the family in
   Africa. Geography Compass, 4, 10, pp. 1477–1496.

Field, J. (2009) Good for your soul? Adult learning and mental well‐being. International
   Journal of Lifelong Education, 28, 2, pp. 175-191.

Funderburk, B., Damron-Rodriguez, J., Storms, L. L. & Solomon, D. H. (2006)
   Endurance of undergraduate attitudes toward older adults. Educational
   Gerontology, 32, 6, pp. 447-462.

Hall, K. W. & Batey, J. J. (2008) Children’s ideas about aging before and after an
   intergenerational read-aloud. Educational Gerontology, 34, 10, pp. 862-870.

Haught, P. A, Walls, R. T. Laney, J. D, Leavell, A. & Stuzen, S. (1999) Child and
  adolescent knowledge and attitudes about older adults across time and states.
  Education Gerontology, 25, pp. 501-517.

Hawkins, M. J. (1996) College students’ attitude towards elderly persons. Educational
  Gerontology, 22, pp. 271-279.

Horowitz, A. (1985) Sons and daughters as caregivers to older parents: differences
  in role performance and consequences. The Gerontologist, 25, 6, pp. 612-617.

Family care-giving for ageing parents in Nigeria       151

Jutras, S. & Veilleux, F. (1991) Gender roles and care-giving to the elderly: An empirical
   study, Sex Roles, 25, 1-2, pp. 1-18.

Kenyon, G. M. (1992) Why is ageism a serious social problem and what can be done
  about it? Canadian Journal on Ageing, 1, pp. 2-5.

Knapp, J. L. & Stubblefield, P. (2000) Changing students’ perceptions of aging: The
  impact of an intergenerational service learning course. Educational Gerontology,
  26, 7, 611-621.

Kramer, B. J. (1995) Eldercare and Work-Role Conflict: Toward an Understanding of
   Gender Differences in Caregiver Burden. The Gerontologist, 35, 3, pp. 340-348.

Kumpa, S. & Krašovec, S. J. (2007) Education: a possibility for empowering older
  adults. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 26, 6, pp. 635-649.

Lassey, W. R & Lassey, M. I. (2001) Quality of Life for older people: An international
   perspective. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Long, S. O. & Harris, P. B. (2000) Gender and elder care: social change and the role
   of the caregiver in Japan. Social Science Japan Journal, 3, 1, pp. 21-36.

McGrew, K. B. (1991) Daughters’ decision making about the nature and levels of
  their participation in the long term care of their dependent elderly mothers: A
  qualitative study report. Miami University: Scripps Gerontology Center, pp. 7-10.

Nigerian Population Commission [NPC], (2006). Census Report. Abuja: Government
   Printer.

Noelker, L. S. & Townsend, A. (1987) Perceived care-giving effectiveness. In T. H.
  Brubaker (Ed.) Ageing Health and family: Long Term Care, pp.115-118. California:
  Sage publishers.

Ogwumike, F. O. & Aboderin, I. (2005) Exploring the links between old age and
  poverty in Anglophone West Africa: Evidence from Nigeria and Ghana.
  Generations Review, 15, 2, pp.7 – 15.

Okoye, U. O. (2005) Young children’s perception of the Elderly: A Comparison of
  Data from the United State and South-eastern Nigeria. Journal of Intergenerational
  Relationships, 13, 3, pp.7-24.

Okoye, U. O. & Aghedo G. (2011) Workers’ perception of the Pension Reform Act,
  2004: A study of Prisons’ staff in Enugu State. Nigerian Journal of the Social
  Sciences, 7, 1, pp. 77 - 89.

Palmore, E. B. (1980) The facts on ageing quiz: a review of findings, The Gerontologist,
   20, pp. 669-672.

Pinquart, M. & Sorensen, S. (2006) Gender differences in caregiver stressors, social
   resources, and health: An updated meta-analysis. Journals of Gerontology:
   Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, Series B, 61, pp. 33-45.

152    International Journal of Education and Ageing

Puentes, W. J. & Cayer, C. A. (2001) Effects of a modified version of Feeley’s campus
  wellness vacation on baccalaureate registered nurse students’ knowledge of
  and attitudes toward older adults. Journal of Nursing Education, 40, 2, pp. 86-89.

Sijuwade, P. O. (2008) Elderly care by family members: Abandonment, abuse and
    neglect. The Social Sciences, 3, 8, pp. 542-547.

Steitz, J. A. & Vener, B. S. (1987) What do adolescents know about ageing?
   Educational Gerontology, 13, pp. 357-36.

Stoller, E. P. (1983) Parental care-giving by adult children. Journal of Marriage and
   Family, 45, 4, pp. 851-858.

Thornton, J. E. (2002) Myths of ageing or ageist stereotypes. Educational
  Gerontology, 28, pp. 301-312.

Togonu-Bickersteth, F. (1989) Conflicts over care-giving: Discussion of filial obligation
   among adult Nigerian children. Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, 4, pp. 35-48.

United Nations Department of Economics and New York Special Affairs Populations
   Division (2006) World population prospects. New York: United Nations.

Usita, P. M., Hall, S. S. & Davis, J. C. (2004) Role ambiguity in family care-giving.
   Journal of Applied Gerontology, 23, 1, pp. 20-39.

Walker, A. J. Shin, H, David, N. & Bird, D. N. (1990) Perceptions of Relationship
  Change and Caregiver Satisfaction. Family Relations, 39, 2, pp. 147-15.

Wallace, D. M. (2007). “It’s a M-A-N Thang”: Black male gender role socialization
  and the performance of masculinity in love relationships. The Journal of Pan
  African Studies, 1, 7, pp. 11-22.

Weierich, M. R., Kensinger, E.A., Munnell, A .H., Sass, S. A., Dickerson, B. C., Wright,
  C. I. & Barrett, L. F. (2010) Older and wiser? An affective science perspective
  on age-related challenges in financial decision making. Social Cognitive and
  Affective Neuroscience [doi:10.1093/scan/nsq056].

Wells-Wilbon, R. and Simpson, G. M. (2009) Transitioning the Care-giving Role for
  the Next Generation. Black Women, Gender and Families 3, 2, pp. 87-105.

Yee, J. L. & Schulz, R. (2000) Gender differences in psychiatric morbidity among
   family caregivers. The Gerontologist, 40, pp. 147–164.

Key Words
Gender. Care-giving. Older people. Nigeria. Learning. Education

Family care-giving for ageing parents in Nigeria   153

Correspondence
Dr. Uzoma O. Okoye, Department of Social Work, University of Nigeria, Nsukka,
Enugu State. Nigeria.
uzokoye@yahoo.co.uk

154   International Journal of Education and Ageing

Copyright © 2012 International Journal of Education and Ageing

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, transmitted or utilised in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written permission from
the copyright holder.