Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Key Influences on a Continued Controversial Practice

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Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Key Influences on a
 Continued Controversial Practice

         by Emma Ellis

 Introduction                                                   term complications range from swelling to infection
      The rise of international migration, coupled              to death, while FGM/C can hinder urination,
 with recent technological advances, has increased              menstruation, and childbirth in the long-run
 awareness of female genital mutilation/cutting                 (World Health Organization 2018). Additionally,
 (FGM/C), along with concern over the mechanisms                women who have undergone FGM/C often exhibit
 by which the procedure is perpetuated throughout               psychological issues, such as anxiety, depression, and
 society (Burrage 2015). Efforts to better understand           PTSD (World Health Organization 2018; Vloeberghs
 the cultural context of the practice stem from the             et al. 2012).
 current push to eradicate the procedure worldwide,                  The prevalence of FGM/C, as well as the severity
 especially since the United Nations declared FGM/C             of the complications it imposes on daily life, demands
 an act of violence against women in 1993 (Shell-               analysis and understanding of cultural and societal
 Duncan 2008). The World Health Organization                    processes. This review strives to explain why FGM/C
 (2018) classifies FGM/C into four types based on               continues to be practiced, specifically by women
 the severity of the procedure performed. Type I,               who have undergone the procedure themselves.
 a “clitoridectomy,” refers to a partial or complete            To analyze this issue, recent publications regarding
 removal of the clitoris and/or prepuce (World Health           underlying cultural influences are explored, as well
 Organization 2018). Also known as an “excision,”               as literature on the role of type, sexual experience,
 Type II includes a partial or complete removal of the          psychosocial state, and education level in predicting
 clitoris and labia minora. The most severe form, Type          a woman’s propensity to reject the custom. An
 III is often referred to as “infibulation” and occurs by       analysis of third-party influences, namely legislation,
 using a seal, typically created from the labia minora          non-governmental organizations, and community
 or majora, to reduce the size of the vaginal opening.          leaders, will also be completed. The paper concludes
 Finally, Type IV includes all other procedures                 by suggesting a preventative and reactive response to
 performed on a woman that lack medical basis, such             FGM/C as well as suggestions about areas that need
 as incising, piercing, or cauterizing female genitalia         more research.
 (World Health Organization 2018).
      The scope of FGM/C extends across the globe,              Cultural Basis
 with 200 million women alive today who have                    Historical Background and Relation to Current
 undergone some form of the procedure, as well as
                                                                Commonalities
 over three million girls who are considered “at risk”
                                                                    Female genital mutilation/cutting cannot be
 each year (UNICEF 2016). Among the 200 million
                                                                understood without first examining the cultural
 girls who have undergone FGM/C, 44 million
                                                                roots of the practice, as the procedure in its most
 were under the age of 15 and over half were from
                                                                elemental form is a tradition. Practiced for thousands
 Indonesia, Egypt, and Ethiopia (UNICEF 2016). The
                                                                of years, FGM/C arose almost spontaneously around
 practice is overwhelmingly concentrated in Africa,
                                                                the world, despite geographical barriers preventing
 the Middle East, and Asia, though it does occur in
                                                                communication between cultures (Burrage 2015).
 Europe, Australia, and North America largely among
                                                                While the foundation of the procedure is often
 individuals who have migrated from areas where
 FGM/C is common (World Health Organization                     associated with religious beliefs, the custom occurred
 2018).                                                         long before the creation of modern religions and was
      No health benefits result from FGM/C, but                 simply adopted by different faiths in subsequent years.
 short and long-term repercussions often occur                  In actuality, the commonality between the variety of
 depending on the severity of the procedure. Short-             communities that were first to practice FGM/C is

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FGM/C: Key Influences on a Continued Controversial Practice

 societal structure; the procedure gained popularity              like Sierra Leone, undergoing FGM/C allows women
 amid patriarchies where women were defined and                   to even join secret societies (Nyangweso 2014).
 treated as property (Burrage 2015). Though certainly             Especially amid patriarchal societies, few moments
 not a causal relationship, the nature of a patriarchal           exist that recognize and celebrate the actions of
 society, and the limitations it imposes on women’s               women to the extent of these ceremonies (Nyangweso
 voices being heard, creates an environment apt for               2014). The elaborate nature of these ceremonies is
 the continuation of the procedure (Mackie and                    best illustrated by the fact that one concern about
 LeJuene 2008).                                                   fully eradicating FGM/C is the economic losses that
      The link between FGM/C and gender roles                     may result from a decrease in spending without each
 persists today, as countries with a high prevalence of           girl’s coming-of-age ceremony (Burrage 2015; Ruiz,
 FGM/C are associated with lower statuses of women                Martínez, and Belchí 2017).
 at all states of their life course (Prazak 2016; Sultana              The extent to which the procedure serves
 2011). Lack of data tracking specific women’s rights             as a means to educate girls on their expected
 throughout all countries with a high prevalence                  contributions to society is demonstrated through
 of FGM/C makes it difficult to quantify gender                   the songs sung during FGM/C ceremonies. Joyce
 disparities. Nonetheless, it is clear anecdotally that           Wambura (2018) conducted a study of the songs
 the practice only serves to further the hegemonic                traditionally performed at FGM/C ceremonies
 beliefs on which it was founded.                                 in Kuria, Kenya. Several motifs were identified
                                                                  which emphasize the binary characterization of
 Key Form of Socialization - FGM/C Ceremonies                     gender within Kuria. A woman’s desired maternal
     Though deeply ingrained in a variety of societies,           instinct was emphasized through associations with
 the procedure itself differs largely between countries,          hens safeguarding chicks and trees bearing fruit,
 or even among villages, specifically in regard to the            while their role as an object of desire for men was
 timing and secrecy of the practice (Burrage 2015).               expressed through their comparison to flamboyant
 While some communities perform FGM/C after                       earrings (Wambura 2018). Even expectations for the
 birth, others wait until right before a wedding,                 upcoming ceremony are expressed through songs,
 framing the procedure as the final step before                   with women classified as a particular type of rock
 successfully entering into marriage (Burrage 2015).              depending on their ability to withstand future pain.
 Regardless, girls most often undergo the procedure               Alternatively, men are often compared to shields or
 before they turn 15 (World Health Organization                   iron rods to highlight their role as a confident and
 2018). The age at which FGM/C occurs, as well as the             strong protector (Wambura 2018). The juxtaposition
 presence of any legal prohibitions, affects the degree           of motifs for each gender reveals the expectation that
 to which the event is public. In communities like                males and females will operate in two completely
 Kuria, Kenya, elders will declare a specific time of             separate spheres. The songs thereby illustrate the
 the year as “Circumcision Season,” hosting festivities           role of FGM/C in outwardly propagating these
 to celebrate a girl’s transition into womanhood                  beliefs, before, during, and after the ceremony itself
 that include music, food, and costumes (Wambura                  (Wambura 2018).
 2018). When the procedure is performed at a later                     However, the basis of FGM/C cannot be
 age, FGM/C serves as a key component of a girl’s                 simply understood as a reminder of women’s role
 socialization process, allowing her to fully understand          in society; this argument does not account for the
 and accept her identity as a future mother and wife.             violent nature of the procedure. In a southwestern
 Furthermore, a girl’s ability to withstand the physical          Iranian state of Khuzestan, FGM/C disappeared
 pain of the procedure is even considered an indicator            organically over the course of several generations
 of her capabilities to later excel in her role as an elder       (Latham 2016). The actual procedure was replaced
 woman (Wambura 2018).                                            by a new custom, during which a knife is passed
     In some cases, the shared experience of                      under a girl’s clothing three times without making
 undergoing FGM/C will additionally create new                    contact with her skin. This tradition lacks the violent
 bonds and connections among girls. In countries                  nature of an actual FGM/C procedure yet continues

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FGM/C: Key Influences on a Continued Controversial Practice

 to reinforce societal norms (Latham 2016). Thus,               process Ruiz, Martínez, and Belchí propose. Beyond
 needing FGM/C to preserve cultural roles cannot                diversifying types of information, their approach
 be the sole explanation for the practice. Khuzestan            focuses largely on locating the most prevalent
 serves as only one example of the different avenues            justifications for FGM/C and designing community-
 through which this same process of socialization,              specific responses that devalue these myths (Ruiz et
 yielding identical results, can occur (Latham 2016;            al. 2017).
 Nyangweso 2014).                                                    The purported benefits for men center around
                                                                the idea that girls who have not undergone the
 Deeply-Embedded Myths - The Traditional Male                   procedure will be uncontrollably promiscuous,
 Perspective                                                    both before and during a marriage. FGM/C is thus
      While women serve as the face of FGM/C, tasked            viewed as a way to ensure the virginity of a future
 with both the preparation and the implementation of            wife (Ruiz et al. 2017). Additionally, the aesthetics
 the procedure, an arguably more significant role lies          of uncut female genitalia, mainly the clitoris, also
 with the men who decide what type of girl is or is             explain the recurrence of the practice, as FGM/C
 not eligible for marriage (Ruiz et al. 2017). Although         allows the excision of more “masculine-appearing”
 this role is more passive in nature, determining an            sex organs (Ruiz et al. 2017). The starkly contrastive
 individual’s likelihood of entering into a suitable            nature of gender roles in these communities, as seen
 marriage is especially paramount in communities                in the musical motifs of FGM/C songs, augments the
 where girls lack the qualifications to independently           fear of a wife demonstrating masculine tendencies
 support themselves (Burrage 2015). The connection              (Wambura 2018). A final proposed benefit for men
 between FGM/C and marriage desirability stems                  is that FGM/C heightens pleasure during sexual
 from the preferences of not just the men in a girl’s           experiences (Ruiz et al. 2017).
 immediate community, but among all surrounding                      The last category of benefits, or those directed
 villages who would be included in the marriage pool            towards the community as a whole, includes largely
 (Latham 2016). Therefore, an understanding of the              the economic benefits of FGM/C ceremonies (Ruiz
 range of male justifications offered for the procedure         et al. 2017; Burrage 2015). In some communities,
 is paramount in explaining how FGM/C became so                 parents will spend an entire year’s harvest earnings on
 deeply embedded in society (Nyangweso 2014).                   a ceremony to certify their daughter’s marriageability
      After interviewing 25 men from Mali, Senegal,             (Burrage 2015). Nonetheless, as aforementioned, the
 Chad, Djibouti, Niger, Ghana, and Morocco,                     ceremonies themselves can occur without actually
 researchers have identified nine rationales for                mutilating female genitalia, suggesting that the
 FGM/C that include health, religion, and sexual                violent aspect of the practice could be eradicated
 benefits, as well as the belief that female genitalia is       without significant economic decline (Latham 2016;
 most aesthetically pleasing after the procedure (Ruiz          Nyangweso 2014).
 et al. 2017). For the purposes of this paper, I have                Although Ruiz, Martínez, and Belchí (2018)
 categorized these justifications according to which            cite demythologization as the solution to these
 party is the subject of the purported benefits. As             fallacious beliefs, they fail to explore if more reliable
 such, these justifications can be divided into those           information is unavailable or just ignored. A study
 that note benefits to women, their husbands, and the           exploring the social networks which connect sources
 surrounding community.                                         of authority on these issues (such as physicians,
      When explaining the value of the procedure for            religious leaders, and husbands of uncut women) to
 the women themselves, men commonly describe the                the typical man would offer better insight into how
 use of FGM/C in solidifying a women’s cleanliness,             demythologization might occur.
 both for the purpose of excising genitalia that
 increase a woman’s risk of infection and limit her             Intergenerational Retaliation
 ability to fully engage in religious activity (Ruiz et         Fleeing the Homeland - The Decision to Stay or Leave
 al. 2017). These supposed benefits for women can be                  An analysis of the future of an uncut woman
 proven false through textual and scientific analysis,          and her mother is needed to understand the gravity
 which is a key part of the demythologization                   of this situation, both in the context of staying or

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 leaving their homeland. In areas where FGM/C is                determining marriageability, a mother can simply
 more strictly required, women who fail to undergo              not win in choosing either future for her daughter
 the procedure will have increased difficulty entering          (Kahn 2016).
 into a marriage (Burrage 2015). Without a new male
 figure to replace the financial support of one’s father,       The Role of FGM/C Type in Defining a Woman’s
 uncut women may experience extreme isolation                   Perception
 and be potentially unable to support themselves                     The type of procedure performed, as well as the
 (Burrage 2015). Thus, while mothers can choose to              process through which it is carried out, strongly
 raise their daughters in the same community after              influences a woman’s perception of FGM/C and
 not performing the procedure, mothers will fear the            her likelihood of continuing the practice. After
 retaliation associated with forgoing group norms and           interviewing seven women who resisted FGM/C,
 continue to perform the procedure, as seen through             Sarilee Kahn (2016) notes that each reported
 Mackie’s convention theory (Hayford 2005; Farina               anticipatory fear in the days leading up to the
 and Ortensi 2014).                                             procedure. This pervasive feeling of lacking control
      Convention theory utilizes a game theory model            over daily life, while simultaneously witnessing the
 to evaluate the underlying group interdependency               state of peers who have undergone the procedure,
 of individual decisions. In the context of FGM/C,              only heightened negative feelings towards FGM/C
 though it is best for everyone to forgo the procedure,         (Kahn 2016). Feelings were additionally amplified
 this change will only occur if all villages in the             when girls did not know who had performed their
 marriage pool uniformly make this decision. Two                procedure, as mutilators often hide their faces during
 positions of equilibria therefore exist: all women are         the operation (Kahn 2016).
 uncut, and thereby equally desirable for marriage,                  Beyond the manner in which the practice
 or all women undergo FGM/C. Fear of transitioning              is carried out, the invasiveness of the procedure
 between these states of equilibria, namely depriving           increases negative emotions toward FGM/C. In
 one’s daughter of marriage through individual                  their study of twenty-eight Ethiopian women,
 abandonment of FGM/C, paralyzes movement to                    Battle, Hennink, and Yount (2017) expound upon
 the better state of equilibrium. Mackie and LeJuene            the mental and physical toll associated with each
 (2008) argue that until a large enough segment                 type of FGM/C performed. While no woman who
 of the population rebels against the procedure,                experienced Type I FGM/C described the event as
 the community will remain at this more harmful                 traumatic, the responses of women with Type II
 equilibrium position. Justifications for FGM/C                 FGM/C fluctuated more greatly, with complaints of
 describe the same sentiment as in Mackie’s theory,             bleeding, pain, and lack of mobility after the procedure
 revealing the extent to which fear of isolating one’s          (Battle et al. 2017). Reports of these physical effects
 daughter is present in pro-FGM/C rhetoric (Hayford             were amplified in the accounts of Type III women,
 2005).                                                         illustrating the great variance between experiences.
      The bleak prospects of remaining in a community           Thus, a woman’s ability to continue to accept her
 after refusing to perform FGM/C suggest migration              community’s view toward FGM/C largely depends
 is essential for rejecting the custom, but both mother         on the implementation of her individual procedure
 and daughter will be forced to make significant                at all stages (Battle et al. 2017; Kahn 2016).
 sacrifices if they move (Kahn 2016). Beyond
 the material losses associated with leaving one’s              Sexual Experience and Effect on Marital Relations
 homeland, a mother will be forced to abandon her                   Beyond the initial recovery period, FGM/C
 family, cultural background, and sometimes other               poses physical difficulties that affect the act of sexual
 children for several decades (Kahn 2016; Lien                  intercourse itself, along with a woman’s perception of
 2017). Recognizing the gravity of this decision is             the experience (Battle et al. 2017). These inhibitions
 paramount to understanding how strongly women                  can prohibit a woman from fulfilling the obligations
 must feel to leave their country, as well as why many          associated with her role as a wife, namely engaging in
 mothers believe seeking asylum is too costly. As               sexual relations with her husband (Battle et al. 2017).
 long as FGM/C remains as relevant as it is today in            Researchers find that the same patterns exist between

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 type of FGM/C performed and strength of responses.              disempowered, or traumatized based on their
 As such, while women who experienced Type I did                 coping abilities (Vloeberghs et al. 2012). “Adaptive”
 not view losing their virginity as traumatic, responses         women represented those who actively fight against
 varied wildly among women who had experienced                   FGM/C, while “disempowered” women include
 Type II and were largely negative among Type III                those who remain in their relationships and distract
 women (Battle et al. 2017). Negative perceptions                themselves from reality through television or
 of sexual intercourse mainly stemmed from the                   substances. Comprised mainly of women who had
 physical reality of either vaginal tearing among Type           undergone Type III FGM/C, “traumatized” women
 II women, or inability to penetrate amid Type III               have likely divorced their husbands and now fully
 women, accentuated by husbands manually cutting                 isolate themselves so as to avoid any triggers that
 their wives if penetration was still not possible after a       might amplify their chronic stress, depression, and/
 week (Battle et al. 2017).                                      or anxiety related to the possibility of experiencing
     The study reveals that the idea of sex was so
                                                                 sex again (Vloeberghs et al. 2012).
 traumatizing for Type III women that they would
                                                                     Thus, this study reveals an additional layer to the
 actively avoid relations by distancing themselves
                                                                 relationship between type of FGM/C and propensity
 from their husbands, such as sleeping in their
 children’s beds or encouraging other sexual partners            to conform. Just as the trauma of experiencing
 (Battle et al. 2017). These behaviors are in contrast to        Type III motivates women to take action to prevent
 that of Type I women, and, to some degree, Type II              their daughters from receiving the procedure, the
 women, who would cook a nice meal or make their                 psychosocial consequences of the practice are
 bed to initiate sex. The fact that all women could not          just as potent in traumatizing women to the point
 vocally express their opinions on sex, but instead              of complete disempowerment (Battle et al. 2017;
 are forced to engage in behaviors that might align              Vloeberghs et al. 2012). Therefore, a threshold point
 their husbands’ wants with their own, highlights the            seems to exist between the two responses, as Type
 power division among genders that is at the heart of            III is either more or less conducive to change than
 this issue (Battle et al. 2017).                                less severe procedures, depending on the individual
     Nonetheless, women’s inability to engage in                 situation (Battle et al. 2017; Vloeberghs et al. 2012).
 expected sexual behavior often leads to marital                 Further studies should be completed to isolate and
 distress. Beyond keeping multiple wives, husbands               quantify the particular point where the marginal
 may even leave their Type III wives on the basis of             benefits outweigh the costs and should include
 “bad behavior,” which seems to solely represent a               women outside of migrant populations who may
 woman’s inability to uphold societal expectations               have had less traumatic experiences.
 (Battle et al. 2017). The degree to which FGM/C
 affects a woman’s daily life is additionally exemplified        Education Level
 by Type III mothers who chose to perform Type I                     A mother’s educational background additionally
 or II on their daughters. Unable to fully exclude               predicts her likelihood to mandate the practice for her
 their daughter from the practice, changing the                  daughter, with higher levels of knowledge associated
 severity of FGM/C performed allows mothers to at                with a decreased desire to perpetuate FGM/C (Farina
 least minimize their children’s physical and mental
                                                                 and Ortensi 2014). Researchers cite three theories
 distress (Battle et al. 2017).
                                                                 that posit different explanations for this negative
                                                                 correlation (Hayford 2005; Farina and Ortensi
 Psychosocial Responses and Associated Coping
 Mechanisms                                                      2014). Convention theory, as aforementioned,
     The psychosocial stress associated with FGM/C               focuses on the influence of social norms and group
 also determines a woman’s propensity to outwardly               interactions in a mother’s decision-making process.
 retaliate against the procedure (Vloeberghs et al.              Convention theorists believe that education allows
                                                                 for increased exposure to different groups who do
 2012). Researchers focused on migrants from Egypt,
                                                                 not practice FGM/C, which increases doubt over the
 Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sierra Leone, Somalia, and Sudan
                                                                 basis for traditional practices (Hayford 2005; Boyle,
 who had experienced all types of FGM/C. The
                                                                 McMorris, and Gómez 2002). Modernization theory,
 researchers categorized women as either adaptive,

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 on the other hand, focuses on the role of education           et al. 2013). Researchers question whether the best
 in increasing women’s awareness of Western beliefs,           way to help a recent victim of FGM/C is to force
 particularly of the need for human rights and                 her family into a deeper state of poverty or send her
 autonomy over one’s health (Achia 2013). Finally,             mother, who is perhaps her strongest advocate, into
 feminist theory centers around the power of women             prison (Shell-Duncan et al. 2013).
 in a community (Hayford 2005). In this context,                   Thus, the argument for legislation lies less in
 feminist theorists argue that the higher status of            seeking retribution for past crimes, but instead in
 educated women provides them with greater faith               deterring the continuation of the practice. A three-
 in finding opportunities for their daughters beyond           year study of legislation banning FGM/C in Senegal
 marriage (Hayford 2005).                                      revealed that the prospect of legal repercussions only
      Though higher levels of education are correlated         stopped those who already had reservations about
 with ending intergenerational continuation of                 the procedure, as they now had a concrete basis for
 FGM/C, undergoing the practice also leads to a                ending their involvement (Shell-Duncan et al. 2013).
 decreased likelihood of finishing school and gaining          The remaining portions of the community, though
 the knowledge to form this conclusion (Burrage                aware of the existence of the law, continued to practice
 2015). Particularly among communities where                   FGM/C in secret. The law additionally reduced the
 FGM/C is performed during puberty, girls will                 training of the next generation of mutilators, forcing
 withdraw from school after the procedure, often               the community to bring in outside personnel (Shell-
 due to the physical and psychological toll of the             Duncan et al. 2013) Results such as these solidify
 operation itself. Without a certain level of education,       UNICEF’s position that legislation is a starting point
 the options for girls outside of marriage upon which          to begin reform, as it creates an environment more
 the feminist theory depends are largely decreased             suitable for later eradicating the procedure (Shell-
 (Burrage 2015; Hayford 2005). Thus, FGM/C                     Duncan et al. 2013).
 innately undermines a key means by which the
 practice can otherwise be minimized, creating a self-         Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
 perpetuating cycle (Burrage 2015).                                 While the impact of non-governmental
                                                               organizations (NGOs) varies depending on the
 Third-Party Influences                                        group, these third-party actors are often viewed as
 Government Involvement - Legislation                          ill-informed about the communities which they
     Though legislation banning the practice of FGM/C          seek to serve. Local women in particular believe
 is widespread, the efficacy of such prohibitions is           that organizations advise impractical actions that
 debated. Currently, 26 countries in Africa and the            will only get them expelled from their home and
 Middle East have banned the practice of FGM/C,                isolated from society (Kahn 2016). As such, none
 as well as 33 countries with high concentrations              of the women involved in Kahn’s study (2016)
 of migrants who practice the procedure (World                 reported the involvement of NGOs in their decision
 Health Organization 2018). Locating cases to                  to retaliate against FGM/C. Additional mistrust
 prosecute can be complicated, especially without              over the potentially neocolonialist intentions of
 violating doctor-patient confidentiality. Even among          NGOs, combined with cultural misunderstandings,
 countries where FGM/C is only practiced by smaller            further the perceptions of these groups acting
 migrant populations, officials struggle to acquire            as the condescending “Whiteman” tasked with
 enough evidence for prosecution as the scars from             disintegrating age-old customs (Pemunta 2011).
 the procedure heal quickly, especially when FGM/C                  The nature of typical projects taken on by NGOs
 is practiced abroad (Lien 2017). Furthermore,                 additionally facilitates poor relationships with
 consequences for violating legislation has its                communities (Pemunta 2011). Many projects focus
 own complexities, as high fines can significantly             solely on one issue, such as improving women’s
 incapacitate the poorer families that more                    education, without examining broader issues like
 traditionally practice the procedure. Furthermore,            water scarcity and malnutrition (Latham 2016).
 incarceration would largely only target women who             By maintaining such a narrow scope, NGOs are
 are the active perpetrators of FGM/C (Shell-Duncan            unable to generate results and are often ridiculed for

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 having priorities misaligned with that of community           throughout all literature is the need to involve all
 leaders (Latham 2016). Furthermore, economic                  members of the community in a discussion of an
 shortcomings and geographical barriers often limit            embedded societal institution. By offering their own
 the frequency of trips to more rural communities              opinions, community leaders can normalize such
 (Pemunta 2011). Unable to fully establish a presence          conversations as well as viewpoints that contradict
 in these areas, NGOs lose credibility, and mutilators         traditionally-held values (Andarge 2014; Latham
 confess to traveling to NGO awareness conferences,            2016, Nyangweso 2014).
 only for the sake of free lodging and meals (Pemunta
 2011).                                                        Conclusion
     Certainly, the success of NGOs, particularly                   The violent and invasive nature of FGM/C makes
 groups like Tostan, which facilitated the abandonment         it extremely easy for outsiders to vilify those involved
 of FGM/C in 5,000 Senegalese communities, should              in the custom, blaming prominent women in the
 not be discounted (Nyangweso 2014). However, this             community for being apathetic and neglectful toward
 paper specifically focuses on the factors influencing         their daughters’ strife (Burrage 2015). A deeper
 mothers’ decisions to continue the procedure. It              analysis of the underlying roots of FGM/C instead
 is crucial to understand their perception of these            reveals the complexities behind this decision process,
 organizations, regardless of whether it accurately            as the majority of variables are predetermined by the
 represents reality.                                           community’s husbands, customs, and organizational
                                                               leaders (Ruiz et al. 2017; Wambura 2016; Andarge
 Community Leaders                                             2014; Latham 2016, Nyangweso 2014). Thus, even
     While the United Nations focuses on the role of           though the elder women in a community are in charge
 governmental and nongovernmental organizations,               of performing the procedure, they actually have very
 researchers also demonstrate the influence of                 little control over the situation (Ruiz et al. 2017).
 prominent actors in each community (Latham                    The decision to continue FGM/C simply depends
 2016). In countries like Ethiopia, clan leaders are           on which sacrifices a mother deems best for her and
 deeply entrenched in all facets of their community’s          her daughter to make, as there is no current route
 daily life through their oversight over each social,          where either can leave unscathed (Burrage 2015;
 political, and economic controversy (Andarge 2014).           Hayford 2005; Kahn 2016). While international calls
 Though new government structures are leading to a             to eradicate FGM/C are well-intended, the inability
 decline in the power of clan leaders, they still hold a       of the broader community to recognize the complex
 position of prestige that could be of use in narrowing        nature of this subject prevents concrete action from
 the distance between communities and outside                  occurring (Pemunta 2011; Latham 2016).
 organizations (Andarge 2014).                                      After examining the available literature, I have
     Furthermore, the impact of religious leaders              identified two avenues for minimizing FGM/C until
 is significant, particularly in communities where             the practice can be fully eliminated, divided by their
 FGM/C is commonly justified through religious                 respective preventative and reactive nature. The
 pretexts (Andarge 2014; Latham 2016, Nyangweso                preventative proposal centers around convention
 2014). Repeated reassurance that FGM/C has no                 theorists’ argument that the driving force for FGM/C
 relation to religious devotion has significantly              is fear of condemning daughters who have not
 decreased the practice, as seen in Khuzestan (Latham          undergone the procedure to a life of social seclusion
 2016). Religious leaders are additionally less likely         (Hayford 2005; Farina and Ortensi 2014). Debasing
 to be challenged, as their opinions are considered            the connection between FGM/C and marriageability
 sacred, having evolved from a source of divine                is therefore critical as this is the main consequence
 authority (Nyangweso 2014).                                   convention theorists highlight (Hayford 2005;
     Thus, community leaders hold a significant                Farina and Ortensi 2014). Thus, the male perspective
 amount of authority over their villages, which                on FGM/C, what I argue to be the starting point of
 can be used to either debase common myths or                  the entire process, must be altered. Ruiz, Martínez,
 ease third-party relations (Andarge 2014; Latham              and Belchí (2017) address explanations that break
 2016, Nyangweso 2014). A repeated theme                       down each myth they identify about the need

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FGM/C: Key Influences on a Continued Controversial Practice

 for FGM/C. However, resentment of NGOs and                   References
 disregard of legislation suggests that community             Achia, Thomas N. 2014. “Spatial Modelling and
 leaders are the most apt conduit to spread these                Mapping of Female Genital Mutilation in Kenya.”
 notions of change (Pemunta 2011; Latham 2016). As               BMC Public Health 14:276.
 aforementioned, studies of the social networks amid
 specific communities should be completed to locate           Andarge, Masrecha Yazew. 2014. “The Difficulties of
 individuals in the position to best enact change. By            Ending Female Genital Mutilation (FGM): Case
 changing the image of the ideal bride, parents will be          of Afar Pastoralist Communities in Ethiopia.”
 able to forgo FGM/C without the fear of sacrificing             Masters thesis, Department of Developmental
 their daughter’s marriageability (Hayford 2005;                 Studies, International Institute of Social Studies,
 Farina and Ortensi 2014).                                       The Hague, Netherlands.
      While changing perceptions of marriageability
 would be effective in limiting the need for FGM/C,           Battle, Julia D., Monique M. Hennink and Kathryn
 this process would not alleviate gender divisions,               M. Yount. 2017. “Influence of Female Genital
 which are at the root of the issue. The Khuzestan
                                                                  Cutting on Sexual Experience in Southern
 example utilized throughout this paper illustrates
                                                                  Ethiopia.” International Journal of Sexual Health
 that gender inequalities do not necessarily leave a
                                                                  29(2):173-186.
 community once FGM/C is discontinued (Latham
 2016). Thus, this secondary proposal ascribes to the
                                                              Boyle, Elizabeth Heger, Barbara McMorris and
 feminist theory’s argument of creating additional
 opportunities outside marriage (Burrage 2015;                   Mayra Gómez. 2002. “Local Conformity to
 Hayford 2005). By improving education and                       International Norms: The Case of Female Genital
 employment prospects for women, mothers will not                Cutting.” International Sociology(1):5.
 feel that marriage is the only route to securing their
 daughter’s fiscal security (Burrage 2015; Hayford            Burrage, Hilary. 2015. Eradicating Female Genital
 2005). Future research should be completed to                   Mutilation. Farnham, UK: Ashgate.
 correct the current lack of quantitative data on the
 rights and capabilities of women in countries with           Farina, Patrizia, and Livia E. Ortensi. 2014. “Mother
 a high prevalence of FGM/C, allowing for more                    to Daughter Transmission of Female Genital
 targeted responses to improving conditions for                   Cutting in Egypt, Burkina Faso and Senegal.”
 women.                                                           African Population Studies 28:1119-1131.
      Regardless of the method chosen, the key to
 future movements against FGM/C is contextualizing            Hayford, Sarah R. 2005. “Conformity and Change:
 and humanizing all actors involved. The strong hold             Community Effects on Female Genital
 FGM/C has on so many communities brings into                    Cutting in Kenya.” Journal of Health and Social
 question whether the problem can be practically                 Behavior(2):121.
 addressed. However, successes in Senegal and
 Khuzestan exemplify the potential potency of                 Kahn, Sarilee. 2016. ““You See, One Day they Cut”:
 properly-designed       movements         (Nyangweso            The Evolution, Expression, and Consequences
 2014; Latham 2016). Certainly, a comprehensive                  of Resistance for Women Who Oppose Female
 understanding of the restraints on a woman’s                    Genital Cutting.” Journal of Human Behavior in
 decision-making process will allow for projects                 the Social Environment 26(7):622-635.
 that facilitate a much more organic and cohesive
 disintegration of FGM/C.                                     Latham, Susie. 2016. “The Campaign Against
                                                                 Female Genital Cutting: Empowering Women
                                                                 Or Reinforcing Global Inequity?” Ethics & Social
                                                                 Welfare 10(2):108-121.

Aisthesis						                                           8                                            Volume 10, 2019
FGM/C: Key Influences on a Continued Controversial Practice

 Lien, Inger-Lise. 2017. “Prosecution of the Offence       UNICEF. 2016. “UNICEF’s Data Work on FGM/C.”
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 Mackie, Gerry, and John LeJuene. 2009. “Social            Vloeberghs, Erick, Der K. Van, Jeroen Knipscheer
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    Practices: A New Look at the Theory.” Innocenti           Psychosocial Consequences of Female Genital
    Working Paper. Florence: UNICEF Innocenti                 Mutilation in the Netherlands.” Ethnicity &
    Research Centre.                                          Health 17(6):677-695.

 Nyangweso, Mary. 2014. Female Genital Cutting             Wambura, Joyce. 2018. “‘Earrings and Shields’:
    in Industrialized Countries. Santa Barbara, CA:          Metaphor and Gendered Discourses in Female
    Praeger.                                                 Genital Mutilation Songs in Kuria, Kenya.”
                                                             Gender & Language 12(1):87-113.
 Pemunta, Ngambouk Vitalis. 2011. Health and
    Cultural Values: Female Circumcision within the        World Health Organization. 2018. “Female Genital
    Context of HIV/AIDS in Cameroon. Newcastle               Mutilation.” Retrieved Nov. 25, 2018 (https://
    upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars.                       www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/
                                                             female-genital-mutilation).
 Prazak, Miroslava. 2016. Making the Mark. Athens,
    OH: Ohio University Press.

 Ruiz, Jiménez, Almansa Martínez, and Alcón Belchí.
    2017. “Dismantling the Man-Made Myths
    Upholding Female Genital Mutilation.” Health
    Care Women Int. 38(5):478-491.

 Shell-Duncan, Bettina. 2008. “From Health to
    Human Rights: Female Genital Cutting
    and the Politics of Intervention.” American
    Anthropologist(2):225.

 Shell-Duncan, Bettina, Katherine Wander, Ylva
    Hernlund and Amadou Moreau. 2013.
    “Legislating Change? Responses to Criminalizing
    Female Genital Cutting in Senegal.” Law &
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 Sultana, Adeba. 2011. “Patriarchy and Women’s
     Subordination.” The Arts Faculty Journal.

 UNICEF. 2018. “Female Genital Mutilation (FGM).”
   Retrieved Dec. 9, 2018 (https://data.unicef.
   org/topic/child-protection/female-genital-
   mutilation/).

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