ISSUE FOURTEEN MENTAL SKILLS TRAINING WITH U.S. ARMY ROTC: THE IMPLEMENTATION OF A SYSTEMATIC FOUR-STEP PROCESS - National University
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ISSUE FOURTEEN MENTAL SKILLS TRAINING WITH U.S. ARMY ROTC: THE IMPLEMENTATION OF A SYSTEMATIC FOUR-STEP PROCESS Morgan R. Eckenrod / University of Southern Mississippi Johannes Raabe / West Virginia University Danielle C. DeLisio / Infinity Mental Performance, LLC Jared A. Crain / Salesforce Military Rebecca A. Zakrajsek / University of Tennessee
ABSTRACT
The Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (ROTC) used to outline the application of a systematic
represents the largest commissioning source four-step consulting process (i.e., exploration,
in the United States Army (U.S. Army, 2019b). education, acquisition, practice; see Ravizza,
Accordingly, ROTC offers a valuable avenue 2001) to address challenges in cadets’
for the education of future military leaders physical and tactical training. Furthermore,
about mental skills early in their professional multiple lessons learned from the authors’
development (Sly et al., 2020). In addition, years of service delivery in ROTC are
ROTC programs can provide graduate students discussed. This information may be used
in sport psychology with opportunities to to assist sport psychology graduate programs
gain practical consulting experience in a in the development of mental skills training
military environment while completing their programs with ROTC cadets.
degree. The purpose of the current article
was to describe a case example that illustrates Keywords: case study, military population,
the implementation of mental skills training performance psychology, Reserve Officers’
in ROTC. More specifically, this case was Training Corps
2
MENTAL SKILLS TRAINING
WITH U.S. ARMY ROTC:
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF A
SYSTEMATIC FOUR-STEP PROCESS
As the discipline of sport psychology continues to evolve, there
has been a significant increase in the application of mental skills
training with tactical populations (Mattie et al., 2020). This trend
has been particularly prominent within the military (Meyer, 2018).
In the U.S., many mental performance consultants (MPCs) have
found employment working within the armed forces to equip military
personnel with the mental skills that allow them to perform optimally.
In fact, the U.S. Army now employs more MPCs than any other
professional sport or non-sport organization (Meyer, 2018; Voelker,
2012). A large percentage of those practitioners have been educated
and trained in sport psychology (Sly et al., 2020), which seems like
a logical extension of the field because:
Although the magnitude of stressors present in military situations
is often greater than those present in sport, issues surrounding pre-
performance preparation and training, decision-making, attitudes,
stress regulation, teamwork, leadership, situational awareness, and
other constructs studied in sport psychology are critical to high-level
performance in both arenas. (DeWiggins et al., 2010, p. 459)
With over one million soldiers in the U.S. Army (i.e., active duty,
National Guard, and Reserve combined; U.S. Army, 2017), it appears
virtually impossible to directly train all members’ mental skills.
Thus, it may be particularly beneficial to focus the application of
sport psychology services on Commissioned Officers who “are
responsible for leading and training enlisted soldiers, planning
missions, and organizing the internal and external affairs of the
Army” (U.S. Army, 2019a, para. 2). Instilling knowledge about mental
skills in these military leaders can complement the work of MPCs
because Commissioned Officers can relay information to their
subordinates (i.e., non-commissioned officers and enlisted soldiers)
and also reinforce mental preparation in their daily training. In sport
settings, MPCs often educate coaches about mental skills and help
them incorporate that knowledge into their training with athletes,
3
especially if an MPC is not consistently available missed to educate a group of individuals
(Arthur et al., 2019). By using a similar approach that represents approximately 60% of all
in ROTC, Commissioned Officers could initially future Commissioned Officers (U.S. Army,
learn more about mental skills, develop a 2019b) early in their professional development
better understanding of how to apply them and before being placed in the high stress
to military contexts, and, ultimately, teach environment of active duty. Furthermore,
them to subordinates in the absence of an there are currently over 20,000 cadets
MPC (Arthur et al., 2019). enrolled in 273 ROTC programs across the
U.S. (U.S. Army, 2019b), which can provide
While there are different paths to becoming graduate students in sport psychology
a Commissioned Officer in the U.S. Army interested in working with the armed forces
(e.g., Officer Candidate School), the Reserve with an opportunity to gain practical
Officers’ Training Corps—better known as consulting experience in a military
ROTC — represents the largest commissioning environment while receiving their formal
source with over half a million alumni since education. Such experience can help those
its inception in 1916 (U.S. Army, 2019b). In students prepare for potential employment
ROTC, individuals progress through four within the U.S. Army following the completion
years of Military Science (MS) curriculum of their degree. Therefore, the purpose of
in that they receive military education and the current article was to share a case
training from their cadre who are active- example that illustrates the implementation
duty, commissioned and non-commissioned of mental skills training in ROTC. More
officers who oversee the program operations specifically, this case was used to outline
and deliver military content (U.S. Cadet the application of a systematic four-step
Command, 2011). Simultaneously, cadets consulting process to address challenges
work towards an academic degree at their in cadets’ physical and tactical training,
host university. Accordingly, there are four such as remaining present focused on security,
classes of cadets (i.e., MSI, MSII, MSIII, coping with stress when completing a
and MSIV) that typically align with individuals’ mission, and mentally preparing for a ruck
academic standing (e.g., people in their march. In addition, multiple lessons learned
first year in the program are considered from the authors’ years of service delivery
MSI and are most commonly freshmen; in ROTC are discussed. This information
U.S. Army, 2019a). may be used to assist sport psychology
graduate programs in the development of
Despite the prominent role of ROTC in the mental skills training programs with ROTC
structure of the U.S. Army, to the authors’ cadets. Using a case study approach to
knowledge, few people have provided understand the application of mental skills
applied sport psychology services to cadets to the military context can help practitioners
in those programs. Hence, a chance is improve their accuracy of knowledge (Kulak
4& Newton, 2015), more effectively apply the Association for Applied Sport Psychology
information to a unique training setting who supervised these services.
(Perin, 2011), and encourage peer
collaboration in making decisions or IMPLEMENTING A
developing mental skills training programs SYSTEMATIC MENTAL SKILLS
for cadets (Hartfield, 2010). TRAINING PROGRAM WITH
A U.S. ARMY ROTC
BACKGROUND OF THE There are many similarities in the mental
CURRENT CASE performance demands of the sport and
The case depicted in this article was situated military contexts (DeWiggins et al., 2010).
at a university in the Southeast of the U.S. For example, both athletes and cadets must
At the time of the case, the first, second, learn to cope with performance pressures,
and third authors were all students in the anxiety, and adversity in order to be successful
institution’s sport psychology graduate in their respective achievement context
program. As the Professor of Military Science (Fitzwater et al., 2017; Hanton et al., 2005;
(PMS) at the university, the fourth author Jones et al., 2002; Mattie et al., 2020). As
oversaw the military operation of the a result, the mental skills we implemented
respective ROTC program. To gain buy-in with cadets did not differ significantly from
from the PMS, we (the first three authors) those we have discussed with clients in
regularly observed training exercises in the athletic setting. We aligned our consulting
order to get an in-depth understanding of process with Ravizza’s (2001) three-step
the environment (Shigeno et al., 2019), approach to psychological skills training
asked questions to further understand (i.e., education, acquisition, and practice)
cadets’ physical and tactical demands, and to directly address challenges in cadets’
designed our consulting plan to align with physical and tactical training. However, we
the ROTC program structure (Sharp et al., added “exploration” as an initial step in
2015). After establishing a relationship our systematic four-step process to identify
with the fourth author in his role as the unique challenges cadets experienced.
PMS, we began implementing applied sport Especially since none of us had prior
psychology services for all cadets on campus. experience working with this population,
Over the course of five years , we—with this additional step allowed us to specifically
the support of other graduate students in tailor our services to fit the context and
the sport psychology program—provided training demands of ROTC (Smith &
systematic, evidence-based mental skills McGannon, 2018). Compared with services
training to over 100 cadets per year. The we have provided in sport, we used a
fifth author was—and still is—a faculty meaningfully different approach with respect
member at the university and a Certified to the delivery and, in particular, the
Mental Performance Consultant® through application of this knowledge (i.e., how
5cadets used mental skills). Practically, our approach in our service delivery and, instead,
approach was structured to align with the tailor our mental skills training specifically
“crawl-walk-run” model of interaction used to the current challenges of the cadets with
in most military training to learn, practice, whom we worked (Henrikson et al., 2014).
and implement specific training exercises Table 1 highlights the main challenges of
(Goldberg et al., 2017). each class based on our experience as well
as associated recommendations for MPCs
First (exploration), we continuously inquired wanting to work with ROTC cadets. It is
about challenges in cadets’ physical and important to note that the information
tactical training. Throughout every semester, presented in Table 1 was based on our
we regularly talked with cadets in each MS experience working with one particular
class to find out what they were currently ROTC program; however, it seems reasonable
focusing on in their training, allowing us to think that there are meaningful similarities
to identify areas where they wanted to across battalions. For example, all ROTC
optimize their performance. We also had programs require cadets to earn a Bachelor’s
conversations with the respective cadre to degree in the major of their choosing, pass
learn more about the specific expectations all military science and leadership courses
placed on cadets. Lastly, we reviewed ROTC in the ROTC curriculum, and complete Advance
military programming (e.g., U.S. Cadet Camp and the Enhanced Skills Training
Command, 2011) to further understand the Program (Wiedemann, 2005).
unique training content of each MS class
as well as the respective learning objectives. Second (education), for each challenge that
We quickly learned that each MS class was identified in step 1, we conducted an
faces their own unique challenges and, introductory session with cadets to discuss
therefore, it was important for us to tailor basic information about a mental skill we
our mental skill sessions to address cadets’ believed would ideally help cadets cope
varying needs in their physical and tactical with the demands they experienced. This
training. For example, MSI cadets are allowed cadets to become familiar with a
challenged with transitioning into a new skill that could positively impact their
and unfamiliar environment, building performance (Ravizza, 2001). In choosing
relationships with the cadre and cadets the skill, our service delivery was conceptually
while managing stressors associated with grounded in an attentional control framework
balancing their academic and ROTC (see Wrisberg, 2007). This framework allowed
responsibilities, whereas MSIII cadets are us to help cadets “focus on only those
tasked with leading less experienced cadets thoughts, feelings, or environmental
through planned training activities for the information that are essential for effective
battalion. Thus, this initial exploration performance” (Wrisberg, 2007, p. 60) by
allowed us to avoid a “one-size-fits all” addressing essential attentional processes
6(e.g., emotional control, attentional capacity) situations (Ravizza, 2001). Similarly, the
and antecedents (e.g., feedback, instruction; “run” step of the military training approach
Wrisberg, 2007). In military training, this is focused on cadets implementing and
step (education) is often referred to as “crawl,” executing particular skills in training scenarios
whereby cadets receive thorough explanations (Goldberg et al., 2017). This process allowed
and step-by-step instruction when learning cadets to not only practice the implementation
a new skill (Goldberg et al., 2017). of the learned strategies but to also recognize
how they can facilitate their performance.
This basic introduction served as the
foundation for step three (acquisition), in CASE EXAMPLE: STRESS DURING
which we implemented more complex RANGE SHOOTING
activities, and allowed cadets to extensively
While we used our systematic four-step
apply the strategies in order to gain familiarity
consulting process to work with all MS
with them before implementing them into
classes, we will highlight a case example
their physical and tactical training (Ravizza,
in which we specifically addressed training
2001). In this process, cadets were encouraged
challenges of MSIII cadets in this article
to take previously learned strategies and
to illustrate our consulting approach.
connect them with the one they were currently
utilizing (e.g., implementing diaphragmatic
breathing while using self-talk). We also STEP 1: EXPLORATION
discussed how cadets could implement the Every year MSIII cadets attend Advance
learned strategies before, during, and after Camp, a 32-day training where they are
ROTC physical and/or tactical training or evaluated on various physical and tactical
into other domains (e.g., academic course tests. Since this event represents an important
work). In military training, this is the “walk” cornerstone in ROTC, we always
phase of cadets’ learning, in which they comprehensively debriefed it with cadets
continuously practice the new skill and upon their return to campus for the Fall
eventually begin to incorporate it into semester in order to identify challenges
previously learned training methodology that we could address in our mental skills
(Goldberg et al., 2017). training with future MSIII classes. One year,
the cadre reported observing many cadets
In the fourth stage (practice), we accompanied struggling with the range shooting test
cadets during ROTC training exercises and where cadets shoot at targets of varying
helped them integrate strategies taught in distances and are required to meet a certain
the classroom to specific tasks in the “field” score before they can move on to the next
(e.g., ruck march). This final step was used training exercise. Accordingly, in step 1
to allow the cadets to implement their (exploration), we inquired in more depth
acquired mental skills into actual performance about cadets’ experiences of shooting on
7the range. It became apparent that cadets (Sellakumar, 2015). Box breathing, also
appraised this exercise negatively because known as rhythmic breathing, requires
of the associated pressure of being individuals to, for example, inhale for a
assessed by high-ranking officers, the count of four, hold their breath for a count
high failure rate among participants, and of four, exhale for a count of four, and pause
the fear of becoming mentally and physically for a count of four (Hanton et al., 2015).
exhausted from spending multiple hours Utilizing a structured breath count can help
trying to pass the shooting evaluation. an individual slow their breathing down
This negative primary appraisal coupled while stabilizing bodily movements because
with a perceived inability to cope with the harmonious breathing patterns align
the situational demands (i.e., secondary with the ebb and flow of a particular task
appraisal) resulted in a meaningful level in a given moment (Edwards & Edwards,
of stress for most cadets and, in turn, a 2007; Mohamed et al., 2014). As such, the
decline in performance (see Lazarus, structured and steady breath count gives
2000). Yet, in their research, Ohlson and cadets more time to prepare to fire and
Hammermeister (2011) concluded that allows them to exert the energy necessary
controlling one’s anxiety may not be as to execute the task (Ortega & Wang, 2018).
important as having the ability to maintain Box breathing also allows performers to
focus when it comes to range shooting maintain a present focus (i.e., on the task
as performers can only “consciously attend without outside distraction; Hanton et al.,
to one thing at any given snapshot in 2015) by aligning the inhale, hold, and exhale
time” (p. 107). Thus, we felt it was best of their breath with important task-related
to teach cadets techniques that not only (e.g., shooting) cues (Mohamed et al., 2014).
help them appraise their performance Additionally, we believed that box breathing
context positively but also allow them to would be an ideal strategy to complement
maintain an optimal focus during task imagery, which is the process of creating
execution. Based on our in-depth or recreating the performance of a skill in
assessment of cadets’ experiences, and the mind with no related overt actions (Vealey
in line with our attentional focus framework, & Forlenza, 2015) and the more complex
we developed a uniquely tailored approach strategy we chose for step 3 (acquisition).
for steps 2, 3, and 4 that we believed That is, by reducing stress or anxiety and
would best help MSIII cadets optimize directing focus to a particular task, performers
their performance on the shooting range. are able to enhance the effectiveness of
imagery. In turn, when individuals engage
STEP 2: EDUCATION in vivid imagery, their brains interpret images
For step 2 (education), we chose box as identical to the actual situation (i.e.,
breathing, which helps performers cope functional equivalence), sending the same
with stress and anxiety in a given moment neurological signals to the muscles as if
8one was physically performing the task STEP 3: ACQUISITION When using imagery, it is important that We utilized Holmes and Collin’s (2001)
(Holmes & Collins, 2001; Jeannerod, 1994). Step 3 (acquisition) began with a brief performers include numerous senses Physical Environmental Task Timing Learning
recap of the introductory session and a and emotions in order to make the image Emotion Perspective (PETTLEP) imagery
For our introductory session (step 2), we discussion about cadets’ experience with functionally equivalent and as close to protocol to help cadets include the senses
decided to change the breath count for box the technique. Many cadets reported the actual experience as possible (Vealey and emotions necessary to make their image
breathing from the standard 4-4-4-4 to practicing box breathing numerous times & Forlenza, 2021). To illustrate our point, as specific as possible (see supplemental
4-2-4-2 for cadets (Hanton et al., 2015). before this session in order to better we had cadets engage in the lemon Table). Following the PETTLEP model, we
This decision was made to better align understand and execute the strategy imagery activity. Specifically, we guided began by actively reflecting on shooting at
cadets’ breath count with their trigger pull while others had been using this technique them through a script in which they the range with the cadets, the process
and because we received feedback from regularly. Cadets who did not practice imaged themselves in their kitchen seeing, leading up to them pulling the trigger while
the cadre that cadets are typically only able asked if we could do a box breathing smelling, touching, and tasting a lemon. including the senses and emotions needed
to steady their breath for roughly two seconds. activity to re-familiarize themselves with We used this activity to reinforce the to simulate the scenario. For example,
The cadets were supportive of this decision the technique before moving to the next importance of including as many senses cadets reported needing to feel the weapon
and believed it was important to match the skill. Once we had guided the cadets as possible, primed them for our imagery in their hand with their finger on the trigger
trigger pull with that short period of through a brief box breathing exercise, discussion and script activity, and were to align with the physical nature of the
steadiness, which could be done using a they reported feeling comfortable with given consent to move to the session movement, smelling the smoke from the
4-2-4-2 count. the skill and were ready to move to imagery. discussion and activities. bullets and feeling nervous while hearing
9themselves inhale or exhale during the process as possible to closely mirror the
trigger pull to connect to their anticipated actual task (Vealey & Forlenza, 2021). Once
emotions during the activity. They also the script concluded, cadets asked if the
believed information was needed describing timing of the script could be slowed to
the shooting range (e.g., visual details) and better align with their pace when assuming
the steps taken to assume the shooting the shooting position. This change was
position, which were added to the script. made to the final script.
We encouraged cadets to include this
additional information and/or adjust their
image to best meet their individual needs STEP 4: PRACTICE
when at the range. Step 4 (practice) was conducted directly
on the shooting range during a semi-annual
We were unable to secure a large enough physical and tactical training weekend [i.e.,
space for the imagery activity where cadets Field Training Exercise; (FTX)]. In the weeks
could assume the position they would be leading up to FTX, we encouraged cadets
in at the range, so we had cadets sit in their to consistently practice box breathing and
chair with their feet flat on the floor with imagery to prepare for the upcoming training
a prop gun positioned on their desk with exercise, including arriving at the range,
the barrel pointed forward and their finger waiting with other cadets before entering
on the trigger. We then asked cadets to the range, entering the range with their
close their eyes and engage in box breathing weapon in hand, pulling the trigger during
before guiding them through an imagery the pause at the top or bottom of their
script that we created with the help of the breath, and successfully hitting the target.
cadets. Specifically, we instructed the Throughout FTX, we were given full access
cadets to visualize being at the shooting to the shooting range before and during
range, preparing to fire their weapon. We testing, which allowed us to support the
asked the cadets to feel their finger on their cadets with their mental preparation. We
trigger, hear their breath, and smell the helped them steady their breath (using box
smoke from the gunshot residue around breathing) and execute the trigger pull
them. Then, while in their imagery, we during the pause at the top or bottom of
instructed cadets to again perform box their breath (Sellakumar, 2015). Once the
breathing (using a 4-2-4-2 count), connecting trigger was pulled, cadets were instructed
the trigger pull and release with the two to release their breath and the trigger
second hold at the top or bottom of their simultaneously (Mohamed et al., 2014). It
breath. We chose to implement a guided is important to note that this training exercise
script for the acquisition step to demonstrate requires cadets to fire continuous rounds,
the importance of including as much leaving little time in between shots to make
information and as many senses in the major adjustments. Whenever we saw
10cadets struggling with pacing their breath We believe a key component in our ability
and the trigger pull, we had the cadets take to establish this mental skills training
a step back from their assumed position after program was our consistent service
completing a round of shots and practice box delivery and the strong relationships we
breathing to help them better align their developed with various stakeholders in
breathing pattern with the steady and pull of ROTC. In order to build this rapport, we
the trigger (Edwards & Edwards, 2007). had open and honest communication
Subsequently, cadets stepped back up to the between the consultants and cadre
range and prepared to continue shooting. (Zakrajsek et al., 2013). We also
Before assuming the position and firing their purposefully and regularly met with the
weapon, we counted their inhale, hold, exhale, cadre both formally (e.g., scheduled
and hold out loud once. These instructions meetings) and informally (e.g., stopping
resulted in improved accuracy and highlighted by offices during open periods) to ask
the value of conducting step 4 in the actual for feedback regarding session delivery,
practical setting. and attend physical and tactical training
events to connect with cadets and the
REFLECTION cadre while better understanding training
demands (Sharp & Hodge, 2013; Sharp
The purpose of this article was to share one
et al., 2015).
case example that illustrates our systematic
four-step consulting process for the delivery
of mental skills training to ROTC cadets. One aspect of rapport building that we
Overall, cadets shared with us that they felt were initially unaware of but quickly
the mental skills sessions were beneficial recognized as extremely important in
and believed the strategies they learned the ROTC setting is the development of
helped them improve their physical and tactical relationships with all incoming cadre.
training. As illustrated by step one of our Spending more time with the new cadre
consulting approach, we always inquired could have allowed us more time to
about cadets’ input and the informal feedback educate them about our services and
we received allowed us to tailor our instruction how they integrate into all aspects of
toward the individual class with whom we ROTC. ROTC cadre rotate in and out of
were working (MSIII cadets) and, thus, deliver the program quite frequently and,
better services. The following section will depending on the cadre rank, experiences,
outline several lessons that we learned while and perceptions of mental skills training,
working with ROTC for multiple years. they could meaningfully change the
structure of the entire consulting program
LESSON 1: DEVELOPING by, for example, increasing or decreasing
RAPPORT AND HAVING OPEN the number of mental skills sessions we
COMMUNICATION WITH CADRE conduct. We made assumptions that all
11new cadre would simply abide by the existing organization (Shigeno et al., 2019). Accordingly,
consulting relationship and support our to demonstrate our commitment to serving
services; therefore, we believe investing the cadets and cadre, we connected our
more purposefully in building strong service delivery to the ROTC programmatic
relationships with new cadre would have structure and adjusted our schedules in order
strengthened the consistency and delivery to deliver mental skills sessions during cadets’
of the mental skills program. existing class periods (Sharp et al., 2015).
LESSON 2: FITTING MENTAL LESSON 3: PARTICIPATING IN
SKILLS TRAINING INTO CADETS ROTC TRAINING EXERCISES
CURRENT TRAINING REGIMEN We spent an extensive amount of time
We learned that cadets already have many observing PT and tactical training exercises,
competencies they must master while which lead cadre and cadets to encourage
attending MS classes, labs, and physical us to participate in different exercises,
training (PT) as well as managing a full some while cadets were in training (e.g.,
course load in their academic major. The ruck march) and others after our mental
fourth author suggested using the metaphor skills training sessions concluded (e.g.,
of a “puzzle” to describe the role of mental range shooting). It is important to note
skills within the ROTC structure, which that we ensured at all times that
proved to be extremely helpful. In essence, professional boundaries (e.g., focusing
in order to be successful in the U.S. Army, on the delivery of mental skills training
cadets need to become proficient in many services and not providing physical training
areas, which represent different puzzle recommendations) were not crossed when
pieces in their professional development. participating in training exercises by
Rather than adding a “mental skills training engaging in regular reflection with other
piece” to the puzzle, the fourth author graduate students and our faculty
characterized mental skills training as the supervisor. Since none of us had previous
glue that holds all the other puzzle pieces military experience, engaging in these
together. In other words, mental skills training exercises allowed us to learn about the
is not an additional discipline to consider training activities, gave us an opportunity
but should be integrated into all other to use military language, and helped us
aspects of their ROTC training. Researchers better tailor our mental skills sessions
have previously suggested that organizational to meet the demands of specific exercises.
commitment to mental skills training can
be improved when practitioners are consistently
available, align their approach to meet the LESSON 4:
unique demands of the performance LEARNING ROTC LANGUAGE
environment (Zakrajsek et al., 2013), and We quickly realized the value, if not necessity,
work around the schedule provided by the of learning the ROTC language. In a newsletter
12published by the Association for Applied LESSON 5: allowed us to practice the skill learned in and having more time or doing more activities
Sport Psychology, Susannah Knust (2016), PROGRAMMATIC EVALUATION the previous sessions, so we were able related to imagery could have helped us
a Certified Mental Performance Consultant® At the end of every academic year, we asked re-familiarize ourselves before we discussed better understand how to use it.”
who has been working with the military for cadets to provide responses to open-ended the new skill.” Overall, cadets impressions
many years, reported that early on she “felt questions to evaluate (a) the quality of our of the program were positive and they Across the five years that we provided these
frustrated because [she] was not fully fluent mental skills training sessions, and (b) their believed the learned information could be mental skills training services, cadets usually
in ‘Army’” (p. 2) and it was only after she understanding and implementation of learned applied to their professional careers and reported using box breathing, imagery, and
“… was relatively proficient with the Army skills into training exercises. personal lives. For example, one cadet said, goal setting most frequently and in various
language and better understood the nuances “I really enjoyed the mental skills sessions training exercises. For example, one cadet
of the culture, I was more deliberate with and learned a lot of techniques I can use said “I used box breathing while on security
units [of soldiers]” (p. 2). Therefore, we Cadets acknowledged one of the greatest in my military training and personal life.” because counting my breath helped me to
spent time learning military ranks, titles, strengths of the program was how each They also shared recommendations for the remain alert and if I lost count I recognized
and relevant language and, in particular, session built upon another because, as one future, which included the consultants I lost focus and re-started box breathing.”
acronyms that cadets and cadre used in person reported, that “helped in understanding attending and participating in more training A particular point of emphasis for our services
physical and tactical training. Learning the how the skills could be used together.” exercises (e.g., Advance Camp) and adding was MSIII cadets’ preparation for Advance
cadets’ language and using it in conversations Cadets also enjoyed the refresher activities additional practice exercises for more difficult Camp due to the importance of this event
helped us connect with them more effectively that were introduced before learning the skills (e.g., imagery). For example, one cadet in individuals’ time in ROTC. Most cadets
and allowed us to better understand the new skill. For example, one cadet said, “I said, “I wish we would have practiced reported using box breathing and imagery
language used in training exercises. liked that we did a reminder activity that imagery more. It was a harder skill to learn regularly in physical and tactical training
13exercises to help them reduce stress, refocus At the end of every academic year, we and application of learned information, build relationships with cadets and the
thinking, or prepare for upcoming training gathered information about cadets which may have allowed us to further improve cadre, which further enhanced our service
events. They also utilized goal setting understanding and implementation of learned our session content, activities, and in turn, delivery. This, in turn, helped the cadets
regularly to enhance their motivation and skills, strengths of the mental skills sessions, the program. learn how to apply mental skills to specific
improve focus. For example, one cadet said, and recommendations for service delivery. physical or tactical training exercises, which
“I set a personal goal every morning before Although we received valuable feedback CONCLUSION led to improved performance.
I began training to help me dial in on what from cadets, we believe implementing a In conclusion, following our systematic
I needed to accomplish in order to be more systematic and regular evaluation four-step consulting process allowed us to
successful during that day’s testing.” Overall, process could have allowed us to gather teach cadets about mental skills and apply
formal and informal evaluations allowed information more consistently to help us them to a specific physical or tactical training
us to better understand cadets’ experiences improve our session development, planned domain. We believe learning the details of
and adjust future course outlines and activities activities, and service delivery. Another the ROTC program structure and aligning
to enhance their understanding and limitation was not using a quantitative our consulting approach with the needs of
implementation of skills. evaluation tool to assess cadets understanding each cadet class helped us gain buy-in and
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16Table 1: Recommendations for Mental Skills Training for Each Class of ROTC Cadets
Class Background information Main challenges Recommendations for MPC
MSI • Transition into college from high school • Transition to a new environment (personally, • Help cadets identify their personal values and
• Usually freshmen academically academically, and ROTC) how they connect with their purpose in and
• May not have any military-related experience • Feeling overwhelmed with the responsibilities motivation for ROTC
or background of ROTC • Build cohesion among the class
• The focus of MSI is to familiarize cadets with • Unfamiliarity with other cadets and cadre • Begin teaching some initial mental skills:
the culture, structure, and expectations of • May not be confident about their purpose in • Stress management
ROTC and motivation for ROTC (e.g., “Why am I • Time management
• Typically no knowledge of mental skills here?”) • Goal setting
training
MSII • Usually sophomores academically • Finding a role in ROTC • Introduce more complex mental skills:
• Cadets are given basic leadership • Expectations to act and perform more • Focus
responsibilities within the battalion (they are independently • Imagery
typically in charge of one or two MSI cadets) • Exposure to first leadership experiences • Performance routines
• The focus of MSII is to learn about and • Resilience
experiment with different leadership styles • Relaxation (e.g., breathing, PMR)
• Provide background about different
leadership styles
MSIII • Usually juniors academically • Given significant leadership responsibilities • Help cadets apply the mental skills they
• Considered non-commissioned officers (NCO) within the battalion (have to shift primary learned during the previous year
within the battalion focus from themselves to other cadets) • Develop cadets’ ability as leaders
• In charge of the day-to-day operations of the • Handle day-to-day operations of the battalion • Teach effective communication strategies
battalion • Are expected to perform as a cadet
• Lead major training components of ROTC (Advanced Camp at the end of the year)
(i.e., lab and physical training)
MSIV • Usually seniors academically • Plan “big picture” of the battalion • Integrate all aspects of mental skills training
• Considered commissioned officers within the • Faced with the transition to the U.S. Army from the previous three years
battalion (i.e., active duty, National Guard, or Reserve) • Train cadets to teach mental skills to fellow
• Structure and organize all aspects of the cadets and, in their future profession,
battalion soldiers
• Oversee the training of the other classes • Provide cadets with strategies to motivate
• Commission into the U.S. Army at the rank of younger cadets
Second Lieutenant upon graduation (where • Help cadets identify a vision for what they
they will most likely be in a position to lead a want to accomplish as an officer in the U.S.
platoon) Army
• Help cadets develop their personal
leadership philosophy
• Use case studies to practice leadership
17FROM COVER
Morgan R. Eckenrod / University of Southern Mississippi
Johannes Raabe / West Virginia University
Danielle C. DeLisio / Infinity Mental Performance, LLC
Jared A. Crain / Salesforce Military
Rebecca A. Zakrajsek / University of Tennessee
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