Opening doors Understanding and overcoming the barriers to university access - Part one: The root causes of under-representation
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Part one: The root causes of under-representation Opening doors Understanding and overcoming the barriers to university access
Acknowledgements
The Director General of the Russell Group, Dr Wendy Piatt, would like to thank
Thomas Murphy, Elizabeth Woodfield, Nick Ratcliffe, Dr Tim Bradshaw and
Fiona Macleod at the Russell Group for their work on this publication.
The Russell Group would also like to thank:
Dan Abramson Kathleen Hood
King’s College London University of Edinburgh
Mathematics School
Richard Kemp
Dr Annalisa Alexander University of Leeds
Imperial College London
Dr Samina Khan
Lucy Backhurst University of Oxford
Newcastle University
Stephanie Lee
Professor Trevor Bailey University of Manchester
University of Exeter
Tom Levinson
Louise Banahene University of Cambridge
University of Leeds
Rachel Lister
Paul Blagburn University of Cambridge
University of Warwick
Melissa Mead
Julie Bond University of Oxford
University of Liverpool
Robyn Pearce-Jones
Anne-Marie Canning University of Oxford
King’s College London
Zoe Pither
Laura Cattell University of Bristol
University of Liverpool
Tara Prayag
Lucy Collins University of Oxford
University of Bristol
Emma Reay
Dr Sally Curtis Newcastle University
University of Southampton
Gail Rothnie
Dr Will Curtis University of Birmingham
University of Warwick
Anne Setright
Professor Sir David Eastwood Queen Mary University of London
University of Birmingham
Jo Sharp
Professor Anthony Finkelstein University of Liverpool
University College London
James Slattery
Alison Gregory University of Oxford
University of Manchester
Dr Penelope Griffin
University of Nottingham
2
Contents
Foreword 4
Executive summary 6
1 Attainment gaps 12
2 Reasons behind 18
attainment gaps
3 Making informed choices 24
4 Problems of poor advice 32
and misconceptions
Concluding remarks 38
References 40
Russell Group universities 42
Opening doors: understanding and overcoming the barriers to university access 3
Foreword
Ensuring our doors are wide open to able
students from all backgrounds really matters
to us. That’s why Russell Group universities
are investing a huge amount of time, effort
and resources and developing pioneering
schemes to help close the access gap. And
real progress has been made over the last
few years: for example, in 2013 students
eligible for free school meals (FSM) were
39% more likely to win places at leading
universities than they were in 2011 . The 1
proportion of students from state schools
and colleges increased from 68.3% to 75%
between 1997 and 2013.
But precisely because broadening Low attainment at school is the
access matters so much to Russell key reason why too few students
Group universities, we are far from from disadvantaged backgrounds
complacent or content with progress apply to a leading university. The
to date. There is still much further problem is stubbornly linked to social
to go in solving the problem of the class and parental education. But
under-representation from poorer while attainment is a big piece of
backgrounds in higher education. the puzzle, choice of subject and
qualification are also important. It will
The root causes of the problem
take time, commitment and sustained
are many and complex. They are
action to raise pupils’ aspirations,
founded in a child’s earliest years
increase attainment and improve
and compounded at each stage of
the advice and guidance offered.
a young person’s life. Indeed, there
Progress is being made, as the box
is evidence to show educational
to the right shows, but this is an
disadvantage starts, not with the
entrenched problem for which
UCAS form, but in the cradle.
there is no quick fix.
The aim of this two-part report is to
While we can’t solve deep-rooted
explore the root causes of the under-
problems in society, universities
representation of students from
undoubtedly have an important
disadvantaged backgrounds at our
role to play. That’s why the second
universities, and to show what Russell
section of this report looks at some
Group universities are doing to help.
successful examples of how Russell
In this first section we set out Group universities are working with
the barriers that are preventing schools and colleges to help raise
these pupils from going to leading attainment, aspirations, and improve
universities. information, advice and guidance.
4
Huge investment and progress
has been made…
£234million
In 2015-16, the 20 Russell Group universities in
England alone will be investing £234 million in
scholarships, fee waivers, bursaries and outreach
activities aimed at the most disadvantaged –
with additional investments being made across
the Devolved Administrations.
We want every student with
3/4
In 2012-13 three quarters of
2.7x
Looking across all
the qualifications, potential and young full time first-degree universities, application rates
determination to succeed at entrants at Russell Group from disadvantaged groups
a Russell Group university to universities were from state in England are at record
have the opportunity to do so, schools and colleges. This levels. In 2004, demand from
whatever their background. figure has increased from 18 year olds in advantaged
68.3% in 1997, when these areas was 4.3 times greater
Having access to leading figures were first collected.2 than in disadvantaged areas.
universities is important for This had fallen to 2.7 times
young people, because they greater in 2013.3
deserve every opportunity to
succeed in life. It is important
for our universities, because
1in5 39%
we want the best possible
students. And it is important
for our society, because we
want to make the most of
our young talent.
Around one in five first- Students eligible for free
degree entrants at Russell school meals (FSM) are more
Group universities in 2012- likely than ever to attend
13 were from lower socio- highly-selective institutions.
economic groups. In 2013 FSM-eligible pupils
Dr Wendy Piatt were 39% more likely to enter
Director General & Chief Executive, high tariff institutions than
Russell Group they were in 2011.
Professor Sir David Eastwood
Chair, Russell Group
Opening doors: understanding and overcoming the barriers to university access 5
Executive summary 6
Summary of This report explores the root causes
of the under-representation of
of formal education already score
substantially lower in development
Part one: students from poorer backgrounds tests than their peers.
at leading universities, and shows
The root causes that these causes are varied,
These gaps continue to widen, with
children from homes of higher socio-
of under- complex, and interlinked.
economic status having double
representation Low attainment at school is a the vocabulary of their low-status
key reason why too few students counterparts by the age of three.
from disadvantaged backgrounds
Research suggests that infants
apply to leading universities. The
from low socio-economic
attainment gap starts early and
backgrounds who achieved
widens as the student progresses
promising early test scores are
through their school years. It
less likely to continue along this
continues to A-level, the point
trajectory, on average being
at which a young person usually
overtaken in cognitive performance
applies to university.
by their better-off peers.
The attainment gap is affected by
Pre-school
numerous factors including parental
education, school type and ethnicity. Involvement in pre-school is key:
There is still much more to be done having attended any pre-school is
to address these deeper issues, and a positive predictor of total GCSE
universities cannot hope to solve scores at age 16, of more full
this alone. GCSE entries, of better grades in
English and maths and of a higher
Subject and qualification choice is
probability of achieving 5 A*-C
important too. Yet, even with good
GCSEs including English and maths.
grades in the right subjects for the
degree course, disadvantaged However, the most vulnerable
students are less likely to apply families and those at the most risk
to top universities. Poor advice of poverty are the least likely to take
and sometimes poor quality of up their entitlement to free early
applications are adding to the learning and childcare places.
problem. Primary school
On top of this, there has been much The primary school attainment gap
misinformation about the effect of is only now beginning to close.
graduate contributions in England But there is still a significant gap
on access, which threatens to create between the test results of 11-year-
barriers where none should exist. olds eligible for Free School Meals
The attainment gap starts (FSM) compared to all other pupils.
early and is stubbornly Test results for more than half a
linked to social class and million 11-year-olds (Key Stage 2)
parental education show 74% of pupils receiving Free
Early years School Meals (FSM) achieved the
expected level (level 4) or above
Inadequate stimulation or barriers
in maths compared to 87% of all
to opportunities for productive
other pupils.
learning can lead to sizeable and
persistent gaps in attainment. At Secondary school
18 months, children of parents with What is really disappointing is that
lower incomes and lower levels inequalities continue to widen
Opening doors: understanding and overcoming the barriers to university access 7
Summary of in secondary school, so that the
two thirds of FSM pupils who beat
School type
Despite huge efforts across the
Part one: the odds to be in the top fifth of
education sector, there is still an
performers at age 11, are not among
continued… the top fifth of performers by the
attainment gap between state and
independent schools.
time they reach GCSE; then half of
these do not go on to university. In 2013/14, 28.4% of students in
independent schools achieved three
High-achieving students from the
A*-A grades at A-level compared
most deprived families perform
with 10% at state funded schools,
worse than lower-achieving students
8.4% at sixth-form colleges, and
from the least deprived families by
4.3% at other Further Education
Key Stage 4. Conversely, lower-
(FE) sector colleges.
achieving affluent children ‘catch
up’ with higher-achieving deprived With this gap in attainment by school
children between Key Stage 2 and 4. type as context, we are able to
That some of our brightest students understand the reasons behind the
do not achieve their full potential at over-representation of students from
GCSE level has an impact on their independent schools compared to
subsequent achievement at A-level those from state schools at selective
and therefore entry to university. universities.
There is also strong evidence that Within the diverse state sector there
even among those with similar is a marked and stubborn attainment
attainment up to age 16, new gap between selective and non-
gaps can still emerge during the selective schools. Selective state
transition to advanced level. Young school students are more than twice
people from low-income groups as likely to achieve grades AAB or
who achieve five or more GCSEs at better at A-level than comprehensive
grades A*-C are less likely to get the school pupils.
equivalent of two or more A-levels Ethnicity
than their better-off counterparts
with the same grades at GCSE. Attainment continues to vary
widely by ethnicity. At A-level the
There are many complex gap between those achieving the
and interlinked reasons highest grades from different ethnic
behind the persistent backgrounds is substantial.
inequality in attainment
between students The consequence is a much smaller
pool of highly-qualified students
Teaching quality from certain ethnic backgrounds
There is a strong relationship from which selective universities
between quality of teaching and can recruit, and there is evidence
the attainment levels achieved by to suggest that minority ethnic
students. Expectations also matter: students apply in much greater
in the best performing schools, there proportions to certain courses –
is a culture of teachers expecting the which also tend to be the most
best from every child, regardless of over-subscribed.
their background. But some teachers Putting attainment into context
and some schools fall short of
adopting such a culture. Grades are an excellent and reliable
indicator of a student’s academic
ability and overwhelmingly, evidence
8
suggests prior attainment is the best guidance (IAG) throughout state
predictor of degree success. schools, but there is widespread
concern that poor advice may be
But grades are not the only
contributing to the low progression
source of information used in the
rates in many comprehensive schools
admissions process at Russell Group
and further education colleges.
universities. Other factors are taken
into account in determining ability Some teachers harbour
and potential, including personal misconceptions about Russell
statements, teacher references and Group universities, reporting
contextual information. that they would not encourage
disadvantaged pupils to apply to
Making informed choices
Russell Group institutions, and
Subject choice, especially at some are uncomfortable talking
advanced level, can have a large to students about the differences
impact on which degree courses will between universities.
be open to students when it comes
Graduate contributions to
to applying to a competitive course.
higher education need to be
Some students are still not getting explained better
the right advice and guidance on the
Participation in higher education
subjects, or qualifications, to study –
continues to rise among young
resulting in many good students not
applicants, including those from
gaining the qualifications they need
disadvantaged backgrounds.
for their choice of course.
But it is also clear that there is still
Awareness of the importance of
much misinformation about graduate
subject choice is higher than it was,
contributions. It is essential that
but there is more to be done in
potential students know that going
some schools.
to a good university is a sound
Problems of poor advice investment, with no up-front fees,
and misconceptions repayments only when they are
Disadvantaged students are less affordable and generous help with
likely to apply to leading universities living costs. Money worries should
not stop anyone from applying to a
State school students are much less Russell Group university.
likely to apply to leading universities
than students at independent Conclusion
schools with equally good grades. It will take time, commitment and
Addressing this complex issue sustained action to raise pupils’
requires input from many different aspirations, increase attainment and
stakeholders, including schools, improve the advice and guidance
parents and universities. offered. Progress is being made, but
There is also evidence to suggest this is an entrenched problem for
that students from state schools which there is no quick fix.
apply disproportionately to the most While we can’t solve deep-rooted
competitive degree courses. problems in society, universities
Better quality information, advice can and do play an important role
and guidance is needed in helping to tackle the under-
representation of students from
There are many good examples of disadvantaged backgrounds.
effective information, advice and
Opening doors: understanding and overcoming the barriers to university access 9
Summary of Russell Group universities have
been investing an increasing
thousands of young people and
teachers in the UK.
Part two: amount of time, effort and resources
Information, advice
to help more students from
How Russell Group under-represented groups apply
and guidance
universities are successfully to our universities. We The quality of information, advice
have developed a wide range of and guidance given to students
working to help programmes and initiatives to help ahead of their application to
solve the problem tackle some of the many underlying university varies significantly
barriers to access. between schools and colleges.
of under- Russell Group universities know
In part two of this report we present
representation some of the many successful
that lack of relevant information –
or worse, misinformation – can
examples of how Russell Group
cloud the picture and create
universities are working with
‘false barriers’ to access.
schools and colleges to help raise
attainment, aspirations, improve This is why the Russell Group and
information, advice and guidance its member universities invest
and support students. significant time and resources in
developing and delivering high
Individual universities face different
quality information, advice and
challenges, and tailor their approach
guidance initiatives.
to admissions, access and widening
participation accordingly. So the Raising aspirations
Russell Group solutions are Raising aspirations and increasing
diverse – there is no ‘one size awareness of higher education
fits all’ approach. from an early age is key to ensuring
Universities in the UK are sometimes talented students know that a place
urged to emulate the access at a Russell Group university is well
and admissions practices of elite within their grasp.
institutions in the United States. Choosing the right subjects
However, it is important to be
cautious when drawing comparisons It is really important for all young
between the higher education people – especially those whose
systems in the USA and the UK. parents didn’t go to university – to
Importing US approaches would not have clear information about how
be the best solution to the challenges the subjects they choose to study
that UK universities face. can affect their options at university
and their chances in life.
Raising attainment
Russell Group universities are
Russell Group universities work working hard, individually and
extensively with schools and together, to ensure that the link
colleges of all types, across the between subject choice and future
UK, to support teachers to identify opportunities is understood by
and support the students with the students, teachers and parents alike,
potential to develop academically but this is an on-going challenge.
– and to raise the attainment of
pupils, particularly those from Advice on applications
disadvantaged backgrounds. Russell Group universities are keen
Collectively, Russell Group to ensure that no barriers to access,
universities’ students and staff have either real or perceived, exist in their
an enormous reach, working with admissions processes.
10Admissions staff and tutors are right qualifications from applying
£234m
skilled at using a wide range of to a Russell Group university.
methods to seek out high quality
Generous bursaries and
candidates and in particular to
scholarships enable our leading
identify where, because of personal
universities to attract talented
In 2015-16, the 20 Russell Group circumstances, an individual’s
students, from a wide range of
universities in England alone grades might not fully reflect
will be investing £234 million different backgrounds. Bursaries
their potential.
in scholarships, fee waivers, help to overcome some barriers
bursaries and outreach activities The personal statement, teacher caused by a lack of information
aimed at the most disadvantaged references and predicted grades and preconceptions. They help
– with additional investments can provide valuable additional encourage students to apply for a
being made across the Devolved insights. Some universities also use course and institution best suited to
Administrations. interviews and extra tests to ensure their abilities and that will maximise
that pupils with real potential can their life chances. They also play a
be identified from among a field of role in helping students with limited
highly qualified candidates, who funds to get the most out of the
may all look outstanding on paper. university experience for example by
enabling them to buy the right books
Alternative routes to
and equipment, join in on social
Russell Group universities
events and reduce the need to
Not all students enter Russell Group find paid work.
universities through a ‘traditional’
However, student support is not
route. Russell Group universities
just financial. Peer support and
have developed a number of routes
on-course mentoring provided at
for students who wish to apply to
our institutions keep students from
a course, but who may not fulfil the
under-represented groups on track
‘typical’ A-level entry criteria due to
during the first year of their course.
the challenging circumstance they
faced in their lives. Conclusion
One example is offering extended The examples we highlight in
degree programmes taken over part two of this report only scratch
a longer period than standard the surface. There is a much
degrees, allowing students more wider range of work going on at
time to develop knowledge and Russell Group universities to raise
confidence. Foundation degrees attainment, improve information,
allow students without traditional advice and guidance, and support
qualifications to be taught in a students than we could ever hope
further education college, before to capture in a short publication.
making the transition to studying
We are committed to opening doors
at undergraduate level.
to students from disadvantaged
Student support backgrounds. We want every
student with the qualifications,
There has been much
potential and determination
misinformation about the effect
to succeed at a Russell Group
of fees in England on access.
university to have the opportunity to
With no up-front fees, repayments do so, whatever their background.
only when they are affordable
and generous help with living
costs available, money worries
shouldn’t stop anyone with the
Opening doors: understanding and overcoming the barriers to university access 111 Attainment gaps 12
The attainment gap starts early, and
is stubbornly linked to social class
and parental education
If we are to dismantle the barriers There is a body of compelling likely on average to continue along
to university access, it is vital to evidence which demonstrates just this trajectory, tending to fall back
understand and address the root how early the problem begins. In relative to their better-off peers.
causes. Without a doubt, the key 2009, the then Department for While it may be difficult to assess the
reason why too few students from Children, Schools and Families ability of infants in controlled tests
disadvantaged backgrounds apply described the relationship between reliably8, the results of this research
to leading universities is their lower deprivation and educational are still striking.
attainment at school. Attainment is attainment as: “substantial and
influenced by various factors over pervasive.”5 It is also by no means a The graph below illustrates
a person’s lifetime, but especially problem which is isolated to the UK.6 the effect: on average, high-
in the early years. scoring poorer children will be
Even from a very early age, children
Educational disadvantage starts from disadvantaged backgrounds ‘overtaken’ by lower scoring
long before school. It begins with have poorer cognitive skills than better-off children before they
a mother’s health at pregnancy. At their more advantaged peers. enter secondary school.
this vital time, health inequalities Feinstein’s (2003) research7 suggests
such as smoking, poor diet and that while not all children from low
depression can have a significant socio-economic backgrounds will
and negative impact on a child’s have lower than average attainment,
early development4, affecting infants from these backgrounds with
educational progress later in life. promising early test scores are less
Attainment gap between children with varying ability
and socioeconomic status (SES)7
100%
90%
80%
70%
Attainment percentile
High ability, high SES
60%
High ability, low SES
50%
Low ability, high SES
40%
Low ability, low SES
30%
20%
10%
0%
22 42 62 82 102 122
Age (months)
Opening doors: understanding and overcoming the barriers to university access 13The first few years of life lay down The importance of pre-school to
strong or weak foundations for a later educational attainment is According to the Department
child’s subsequent development. demonstrated by a 2014 study15 which for Education, the test results
During their first year, infants’ showed that having attended any for more than half a million
brains rapidly create pathways, or pre-school16 was a positive predictor 11-year-olds (key stage 2) show
synapses. In a child’s second year of GCSE scores at age 16; more full 74% of pupils receiving Free
of life these synapses begin to be GCSE entries; better grades in English School Meals (FSM) achieved
‘pruned’ – pathways that are used are & maths and a higher probability of the expected level (level 4) or
strengthened, and those that aren’t achieving 5 A*-C GCSEs including above in maths compared to
are discarded.9 English & maths. 87% of all other pupils.19
Inadequate stimulation or barriers
to opportunities for productive The effect of attending any
learning can lead to sizeable and pre-school compared to none
persistent gaps in attainment. At 18 is equivalent to achieving an
months old, children of parents with additional seven grades at
lower incomes and lower levels of GCSE. For example, this could
formal education are already scoring mean the difference between
substantially lower in development attaining seven GCSE grades at
tests than their peers. These gaps B, compared to seven at grade C.
continue to widen, with children from
homes with higher socio-economic
Students’ examination attainment
status having double the vocabulary
is also strongly influenced by the
of their low-status counterparts by
education level of their parents. When
the age of three.10
taking account of other background
Early learning is key to a child’s characteristics, students with highly
development. Children who qualified parents have a much higher
receive pre-school, or ‘early years’ attainment – equivalent to two
education, enter school at a GCSE grades higher and four extra
cognitive advantage, and the longer full GCSE exam entries.17 Indeed,
children have been in pre-school, parents’ highest qualification level
the greater the advantage. Children has been shown to be the strongest
who began pre-school education net predictor of better attainment
aged two were ahead of children in GCSE English and maths, and
who began at three, and maintained of achieving the key benchmark
that gain at school entry.11 indicator of five A*-C grade GCSEs
including English and maths.
However, evidence shows that the
most vulnerable families and those It is clear that by the time a
at the most risk of poverty are the disadvantaged child starts primary
least likely to take up their entitlement school many factors will have
to free early learning and childcare influenced their attainment. But while
places.12 Students from less well-off the primary school gap in attainment
backgrounds are less ‘school-ready’, is now beginning to close18, a
and continue to slip behind their significant gap still persists between
peers throughout primary school.13 the test results of 11-year-olds eligible
for Free School Meals (FSM) and
In Scotland, data from a longitudinal
those of all other pupils.
study14 showed that children from
high-income households significantly
outperform those from low-income
households in vocabulary and
problem solving at both ages three
and five. By age five, the scores
corresponded to a 13-month gap in
vocabulary development.
14The gap widens The attainment gap between FSM and
throughout non-FSM pupils achieving five or more
secondary school A*-C graded GCSEs (or equivalent)
including English and maths has
Worryingly, these inequalities continue narrowed by just one percentage
to widen as pupils go through point between 2008/09 and 2012/13
secondary school: the two thirds of (see graph below).22
pupils on Free School Meals who
beat the odds to reach the top fifth of The failure of our brightest students
performers at age 11 are not among to achieve their full potential
the top fifth of performers at GCSE, at GCSE level is likely to have
and half do not go on to university. an impact on their subsequent
achievement at A-level and entry
Lower-achieving children from more to university as a student’s highest
advantaged backgrounds catch up grades at GCSE are often a predictor
with higher-achieving less well-off of the highest grades at A-level.23
children between Key Stages 2 and
4, and by Key Stage 4 (students In England, an attainment gap at
aged 14-16), previously high GCSE, between students eligible for
achievers from poorer backgrounds Free School Meals and those who
have fallen behind. 20 are not, exists across all regions.
On average the gap is around 30
percentage points: so, for example
In England in 2012, only 38% of
35.5% of FSM students in north-
disadvantaged pupils achieved
west England achieve five plus A*-C
five good GCSEs, including
grades at GCSE (including English
English and Maths, or equivalent
and maths), compared to 65% of
qualifications, compared to 65%
students who are not eligible for
of other pupils.21
FSM. Compared to other regions,
London appears to have been much
more successful in closing this gap,
with more than 51% of FSM pupils
achieving the GCSE benchmark.24
Percentage gaining 5 or more A*-C grades (including English and Maths) at GCSE
70
60
50
26.7%
attainment gap
Percentage (%)
40
30
20
10 Non-FSM
FSM
0
2008/09 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13
Source: Department for Education statistics, GCSE and equivalent attainment by pupil characteristics in England 2012/13. Modelling: The Russell Group
Opening doors: understanding and overcoming the barriers to university access 15In Wales, 21% of young people This shows that not only is the pool
receiving FSM in 2011 achieved the of Free School Meal-eligible students
equivalent of five or more higher- achieving the very best grades very
grade GCSEs, including English (or small, but in 2010/11 non-FSM A-level
Welsh) and mathematics compared students were more than twice as
with 55% not receiving FSM.25 likely as their FSM-eligible peers to
get the very best grades.
There is also evidence that even
among those with similar attainment up It is perhaps not surprising, looking
to age 16, new gaps can still emerge at ‘snapshot’ destination data from
during the transition to advanced level. the Department for Education28,
Young people from low-income groups that we then see FSM students are
who achieve five or more GCSEs at under-represented at Russell Group
grades A*-C are less likely to get the universities:
equivalent of two or more A-levels than
their better-off counterparts with the Of the 13,540 Free School Meal
same grades at GCSE.26 pupils who went to a UK higher
education institution, 1,240
(9%) went to Russell Group
By the time students universities.
reach advanced-level,
the attainment gap is Of the 163,010 non-FSM pupils
substantial. who went to a UK higher
education institution, 33,970
At each stage of secondary
(21%) went to Russell Group
education, the pool of highly
universities.
qualified disadvantaged students
from which highly selective
universities can recruit shrinks.
As shown by the graphic opposite,
for non-FSM eligible pupils, of those
162,609 pupils who took three or
more A-levels in 2010/11, 22,353
achieved three or more A*-A grades.
Fewer than 8,500 students
eligible for Free School Meals
took three A-levels. Of these
students, only 546 achieved
three or more A* or A grades.27
16Attainment gap at advanced level between
non-Free School Meal (FSM) pupils and FSM pupils
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
Number of students (thousands)
100
Number of non-FSM
pupils achieving 3 or more
A-levels at any grade:
90
162,609
80
70
60
50
40
30
Number of FSM pupils
achieving 3 or more
20 A-levels at any grade:
Number of non-FSM
pupils achieving 3 or
more A-levels at A*-A:
8,459
10
22,353 Number of FSM pupils
achieving 3 or more
A-levels at A*-A:
0
Non-FSM FSM 546
Opening doors: understanding and overcoming the barriers to university access 172 Reasons behind attainment gaps 1818
School and teacher quality remains
variable and this affects attainment too
The answer to why these inequalities In its state of the nation report32
persist lies in many contributing the Social Mobility and Child
factors. This section examines Poverty Commission argued that
just some of the factors that are disadvantaged students are not
particularly significant, but it is by no getting their fair share of high quality
means comprehensive. teachers. In the North East, fewer
than a third of schools in the most
There is a body of evidence to
deprived areas had teaching rated
suggest that social class influences
as ‘good’ or ‘outstanding’ compared
a parent’s choice of school for
with 85% in the least deprived, and
their child, and a school’s type and
77% in the most deprived areas of
performance, in turn, is known to
London. Highly qualified teachers
influence a child’s attainment. For
are unevenly spread across our
example, research has found that
schools. For example, research
pupils eligible for Free School Meals
by the Centre for Education and
(FSM) attend ‘worse’ schools than
Employment Research at the
pupils living on the same street who
University of Buckingham found
are not FSM eligible.29
that in more than a quarter of state
A reason for this may be found in a schools in England and Wales, one
2014 review of research literature30 in four or fewer of physics teachers
which showed that middle class had studied the subject to any level
parents tend to value school at university. In contrast, none of
performance and peer group, the grammar schools, sixth-form
whereas lower socio-economic status colleges or FE colleges, and only
parents may look for accessibility, 7.8% of the up-to-18 independent
friendliness of staff and support for schools were in this position.33
those of lower ability. This, according
There is a strong relationship
to the research, may lead lower
between quality of teaching and
socio-economic status groups to
the attainment levels achieved by
‘select themselves out’ of high
students. Expectations also matter.
performing schools to avoid possible
In the best performing schools, there
rejection or failure. Middle class
is a culture of teachers expecting
parents, through their own personal
the best from every child, regardless
networks, also tend to have a better
of their background. But some
‘know-how’ with regard to accessing
teachers and some schools fall short
information on school quality.
of adopting such a culture.34 Making
Quality of teaching is one of the progress towards raising attainment
most reliable international indicators will require every teacher to have
of a thriving and successful high expectations of all their pupils.
education sector.31 Once at
secondary school, a lack of high
quality teachers can exacerbate
existing social, economic and family
reasons why a young person might
not attain highly at school.
Opening doors: understanding and overcoming the barriers to university access 19There is still a large Students from independent schools
attainment gap by are approximately three times more
school type likely to achieve three A*-A grades at
A-level than students at state-funded
Unfortunately, and despite huge schools. In 2013/14, 28.4% of students
efforts across the secondary in independent schools achieved
education sector, there is still an three A*-A grades at A-level. In state
attainment gap between state and schools, 10% of students achieved
independent schools. But while school three A*-A grades. The figure was
type is often used as a proxy for social 8.4% at sixth-form colleges, and
class, it is important to acknowledge 4.3% at other Further Education
ABB
that this is an imperfect measure, likely (FE) sector colleges.36
to conceal the diversity of both state
and private sector institutions. Within the state school sector,
students in comprehensive schools
are significantly less likely than
BBC
In 2014 of all GCSE and IGCSE
exam entries from schools those at selective state schools to
which are members of the achieve three A*-A grades at A-level.
Independent Schools Council 35 : In 2012/13 just 8.1% of students in
comprehensive schools achieved
• 32.7% received the A* grade, three A*-A grades compared to
compared to the UK average 27.0% of students from selective Independent school students
of 6.7% state schools. enter higher education with
better A-level grades than
• 60.6% were graded A* or A The graph below shows this those from state schools. The
compared to the UK average attainment gap over time, clearly average A-level attainment of
of 21.3% illustrating how independent school students from independent
• 94.4% were graded A*-C students have, for a number of years, schools is ABB, whereas for
compared to the UK average consistently outperformed those in those from other schools and
of 68.8% other types of schools. colleges it is BBC. 37
Percentage of candidates achieving 3 or more A grades (and A* from 2009/10)
by school type from 1995/96 to 2013/14 (provisional), and attainment gap
between comprehensive and independent school candidates
35
30
Percentage (%)
20.8%
25
20 attainment gap between
independent and
comprehensive schools
15
10
Comprehensive
5
Selective
0
Independent
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
/10
/ 11
/ 12
/ 13
v)
6
7
8
9
0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
ro
/9
/9
/9
/9
/0
10
12
00
11
09
06
07
02
03
01
04
08
05
96
(p
97
98
95
99
Sixth form college
/ 14
–
–
6
8
13
/0
/0
05
07
Year Other FE sector colleges
20Attainment continues to Again, these figures show that
vary widely by ethnicity there is a smaller pool of highly-
qualified students from certain ethnic
Attainment also varies by ethnicity. In backgrounds from which selective
2012/13, pupils in England from White universities can recruit.
backgrounds performed broadly
in line with the national average at Russell Group universities work
GCSE level, while Chinese pupils and in a range of ways to help raise
Asian or mixed background pupils primary and secondary attainment
continued to perform above the and support teaching. Some of
national average. Pupils from a Black these are explored in the raising
background had shown the most attainment case examples in
improvement on previous years, part two of this report.
but remain low-performing.
At A-level the gap between those
achieving the highest grades
from different ethnic backgrounds
is substantial.
In 2011/12 only 3.5% of A-level (or
other level 3 equivalent) students
from Black backgrounds achieved
three A*-A grades. This compares to
26.9% of Chinese students, 11.1% of
Mixed Race students, 10.2% of White
students, and 9.5% of Asian students.
In 2011/12, the following percentages of students from
different ethnic backgrounds achieved three A*-A grades:
26.9% 11.1% 10.2% 9.5% 3.5%
Chinese Mixed/multiple White Asian Black
Opening doors: understanding and overcoming the barriers to university access 21Putting attainment For many years Russell Group
into context universities have made targeted use
of ‘contextual information’ to help
Prior attainment is key when it inform their admissions processes
comes to assessing applications and access programmes. This
from prospective students. Russell means that they draw on a range
Group universities want all their of information, for example school
students to succeed, and demanding performance, socio-economic or
entry requirements help to ensure geographical data, or whether
that a student is well prepared to get the student has spent time in
the best out of and excel on their care, to help put the candidate’s
chosen course. qualifications into the broader
Grades are an excellent and reliable context in which they were achieved.
indicator of a student’s academic However, Russell Group universities
ability and overwhelmingly the do not use contextual information
evidence suggests prior attainment is in a mechanistic or ‘blanket’ way,
the best predictor of degree success. and they do not place too much
In national research about the effect weight on one indicator. This means
of schooling on degree success, that admissions decisions are
Higher Education Funding Council not made on the basis of a single
for England (HECFE) noted that: piece of contextual information.
The evidence to support treating
‘...no other single item of candidates very differently in the
information provides a better admissions process through the
indication of how a student will routine ‘automatic’ use of differential
get on.’ 41 offers is simply not robust enough.
More than 80% of students with
grades AAB or above at A-level gain
a first or upper-second class degree.
“Modern economics, like physics, requires a
Approximately 50% or fewer of those broad range of knowledge and skills with
with CCC or lower do so.42
maths in particular being an intrinsic tool
But grades are not the only
source of information used in the for analysis. Taking a scientific approach
admissions process at Russell to current economic issues requires formal
Group universities. Other factors are
taken into account in determining modelling of economic relationships and
ability and potential, including
personal statements and teacher
testing hypotheses against data. Therefore,
references which can provide mastery of economics requires not merely
valuable additional insights about
the applicant. Some universities also
a narrow knowledge of a few aspects
use interviews and extra tests to of mathematics, but true fluency and
ensure that pupils with real potential
are identified. So raw grades are confidence in the subject as indicated by
considered by Russell Group high achievement at GCE A-level.”
universities,not just on their own,
but in a broader context. Undergraduate admissions tutor for economics,
London School of Economics and Political Science
22to get the balance right to ensure
Most recently, a study has fairness to all candidates. This is not
shown that around one in 10 an easy or straightforward task –
pupils from non-selective state which is why a range of factors are
schools will go on to do better usually taken into consideration,
at university relative to pupils often when weighing up candidates
from selective independent with the same excellent grades.
schools who had the same prior
attainment levels.43 This finding Where universities do use
has led to the suggestion that contextual information it is in
students from non-selective specific circumstances, such as:
schools may have more potential To help select which students could
to do very well at university be eligible for foundation degrees
than their independent school or other alternative entry routes
counterparts, and should
therefore routinely be given To help decide whether a student
less demanding offers for should be interviewed or set
university entry. additional assignments
To help in ‘confirmation’ decisions,
when a student may have narrowly
Routine use of differential offers missed the grades in their offer
raises serious questions about
To help determine whether a student
fairness, and would not be in line
is eligible for an ‘alternative offer’
with two key principles that underpin
scheme where, as well as a standard
the use of contextual information
course offer, a student may be given
in admissions decisions – that it
an alternative and lower offer too.
should be ‘research-based’ and
This approach is exemplified by the
‘justifiable’.44 Significantly, the study
‘Access to Leeds’ scheme described
found that the small proportion
in the second part of this report.
of non-selective state school
students who outperformed their When contextual information is used
independent school peers did so to give lower offers, it is usually
with the same, rather than lower because candidates have been
grades. Using contextual data in asked to demonstrate their strengths
assessing applications needs to be through other means such as extra
done carefully; it is very important tests and extended essays.
Opening doors: understanding and overcoming the barriers to university access 23
233 Making informed choices 24
Looking at attainment data alone
gives a good idea of the scale of the
problem of under-representation,
but, while attainment is a big piece of
the puzzle, subject and qualification
choice is important too
Subject choice, especially at It is still the case that some students
advanced level, can have a large are not getting the right advice
impact on which degree courses will and guidance on the subjects to
be open to students when it comes study, with the result that many
to applying to a competitive course good students haven’t gained the
at a selective university. qualifications they need for the
course they want to apply for.
Many courses at university level
build on skills and in some cases, Admissions staff in several of the
knowledge which students gain most selective universities report that
while still at school. Where this is the it is commonplace for able candidates
case, universities need to make sure to seek places on degrees for which
that all the students they admit have they are not qualified. The Russell
prepared themselves in the best way Group’s online publication Informed
to cope with their chosen course. For Choices seeks to address this
this reason, some university courses problem, and is discussed in more
may require students to have studied detail in the second part of this report.
a specific subject prior to entry. There
Qualification and subject choice at
are some advanced-level subjects that
Key Stage 4 is also fundamental to
are required more often than others
participation in higher education,
as prerequisites for entry to degree
as 2014 research by the Institute for
courses, and the Russell Group refers
Fiscal Studies and the University of
to these as facilitating subjects.
Warwick suggests: 45
Subjects the Russell Group Subjects the Russell Group “Good grades in highly-
identify as facilitating subjects are: identify as facilitating subjects regarded subjects and
are: Maths and further maths; qualifications at Key Stage
MATHS Physics; Biology; Chemistry;
History; Geography; Modern
4 are not only associated
with a higher probability of
FURTHER MATHS and classical languages; staying in education beyond
PHYSICS English Literature. the age of 16 and doing well
BIOLOGY Looking at STEM A-levels
at Key Stage 5, but we find
that they also continue to be
CHEMISTRY in particular, Maths A-level
significantly associated with
HISTORY is commonly required for
Economics degrees across the
HE participation decisions and
GEOGRAPHY Russell Group. Many Engineering
university outcomes even after
accounting for subsequent
MODERN AND courses require both Maths
and Physics; and some Biology
measures of attainment.”
CLASSICAL degrees require both Biology Institute for Fiscal Studies
LANGUAGES and Chemistry at A-level. and the University of Warwick
ENGLISH
LITERATURE
Opening doors: understanding and overcoming the barriers to university access 25Awareness of the importance of
subject choice and university entry
requirements is higher than it was,
but there is more to be done in
some schools
The increasing take-up of facilitating
subjects, as shown in the below
graph, is welcome, as is the recent
reversal in the trend of entering
students early for GCSE exams.
Some schools had used an ‘early
entry’ policy for GCSE exams
to allow students to take more
GCSEs in their final year, but
by banking a ‘good enough’
result early on, schools had
been disadvantaging some
pupils by not allowing them
to reach their full potential. In
terms of admission to many
Russell Group degree courses
the difference between a C and
a B grade at GCSE maths, for
example, can be very important.
26Department for Education graph showing entries in facilitating and
non-facilitating A-level subjects by 16 to 19 year olds since 1996,
all schools and colleges in England
450,000
400,000 Facilitating
350,000 Non-facilitating
Number of entries
300,000
250,000
200,000
150,000
100,000
50,000
0
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
96
97
98
99
00
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
19
19
19
19
20
Year
In 2013/14, A-level entries in traditional In languages, while independent
science subjects – which are often schools made up 14.5% of A-level
required for entry to degree courses entries overall, they accounted for
– increased by 2.0% combined, when 27.9% of entries in French, 24.4%
compared with 2012/13. Entries in in German, and 28.4% in Spanish.47
mathematics and further mathematics In classical languages the proportion
also increased, with maths rising by is much higher.
0.9% and further maths by 1.5%.46
However, we know that students
at independent schools account
for a disproportionately large
percentage of these entries. As the
graph overleaf shows, in 2013/14,
independent schools made up 14.5%
of A-level entries overall, but they
accounted for 19.3% of entries in
physics, 17.7% of entries in chemistry
and 15.3% of entries in biology.
Independent schools also accounted
for more than a quarter (27.7%) of
entries in further maths.
Opening doors: understanding and overcoming the barriers to university access 27Percentage of A-level entries from independent school pupils
100
90
80
70
60
Percentage (%)
50
40
30
20
10
0
ek
s
hy
ry
h
ch
an
sh
s
t in
es
tr y
s
s
s
ge
ic
ic
ic
ct
is
to
nc
ni
ap
en
m
re
La
is
ys
at
at
gl
je
ua
is
pa
er
em
G
ie
m
m
En
ub
gr
Fr
Ph
H
ng
G
sc
he
he
S
eo
ls
Ch
la
al
at
at
Al
G
n
ic
m
M
er
og
er
od
ol
r th
m
Bi
Fu
er
th
O
The blue line above shows independent schools made up 14.5% of A-level entries overall
Although the English school
performance table measures We know that independent and
regarding achievement in facilitating selective state school students
subjects are imperfect48, they shed are much more likely to achieve
some light on the take-up of and AAB in two or more facilitating
achievement in facilitating subjects subjects:
by school type. • In 2013/14 13.2% of state
school students achieved
grades AAB or better at
A-level, of which at least two
were in facilitating subjects.
For independent schools
the figure was 34.5%.49
• In 2013/14 10.3% of
comprehensive school
students achieved grades
AAB or better at A-level,
of which at least two were
in facilitating subjects. For
sixth-form colleges the figure
was 9.6%, and for selective
state schools the figure
was 32.2%.50
28Percentage of students achieving AAB or better at A-level,
of which two or more are in facilitating subjects
40
35
30
Percentage (%)
25
20
15
10
5
0
ls
s
s
s
s
s
ge
ol
ge
ol
ol
oo
ho
ho
ho
lle
lle
ch
sc
sc
sc
co
co
ts
ed
e
ve
en
rm
FE
at
si
nd
st
nd
fo
er
en
fu
h-
e
pe
th
eh
iv
e-
xt
O
de
ct
pr
at
Si
le
In
St
m
Se
Co
Qualification choice is also important
As well as subject choice, The same data shows that 35%
qualification choice is critical when of 18-year-old English domiciled
it comes to preparing a successful students accepted to low tariff
application for a competitive institutions held BTEC qualifications,
university course. compared to only 3% who were
accepted to higher tariff institutions.
For example, not all vocational
qualifications prepare students While BTECs are the right choice
adequately for courses at Russell for some students, it is worrying
Group universities and some that students, particularly from
students feel they are not receiving disadvantaged backgrounds, may
the right advice about which be turning their backs on A-levels,
subjects and qualifications leave without realising that this may close
more doors open later on in life. doors to competitive university
courses further down the line.
Evidence from UCAS suggests
BTECs are becoming increasingly
popular, and that students studying
BTECs are more likely to come from
areas of low participation in higher
education (POLAR2 quintiles 1 and 2)
than applicants holding A-levels.52
Opening doors: understanding and overcoming the barriers to university access 29High attainment in the right subjects
for the degree course is fundamental
to opening doors, but even with good
grades, disadvantaged students
are less likely to apply to leading
universities
Pupils from top independent schools The Sutton Trust suggests that
make twice as many applications to such differences cannot be
the most selective universities as explained solely by the ability
their equally well-qualified peers range, but may be influenced by
from the best comprehensives. parental background, geography
and curriculum, as well as by the
“The single most important factor
information, advice and guidance
determining the probability that
offered. The complexity of the issues
students obtained a place on
that need addressing regarding
one of the most academically
access is such that many different
demanding degree courses was
stakeholders need to be involved.
the student’s own A level (or
Universities alone cannot find a
equivalent) results. Beyond this,
solution for these problems. But the
the differences, by type of school
evidence from the Sutton Trust also
or college, in participation rates on
gives reason to be optimistic – it
the most academically demanding
shows that something can be done.
courses can be largely explained
by differences in the number and Research on the London Challenge,
patterns of applications from published by the Social Mobility
different types of school or college. and Child Poverty Commission,
found that much of the ‘London
Pupils from independent schools in
effect’ – the rapid increase in
the top fifth of schools according
GCSE attainment of poor children
to average A level attainment,
in London observed since 2004
on average made twice as
– can be traced back to earlier
many applications to ‘Sutton 13’
improvements in attainment in
universities than their peers from
primary schools.55 This demonstrates
comprehensive schools with similar
that a concerted effort, if targeted
overall levels of attainment.” 54
early enough, can make a difference
Even schools with pupils achieving in raising attainment among the
very similar UCAS tariff points most disadvantaged.
produce strikingly different
Part two of this report looks at
outcomes. For example, in two
some of the ways Russell Group
comprehensives in the north of
universities are working to
England with identical results, one
challenge negative perceptions
sent 57% of UCAS applicants to
and encourage applications.
selective universities, the other
just 27%.
30Under-represented students
are more likely to apply to more
competitive degree courses
As well as advanced-level UCAS data shows that between
subject choices, degree subject 2007 and 2009, 36% of all
choice inevitably has a bearing applicants to study medicine at UK
on the likelihood of an applicant universities were students from
being admitted, especially at BME backgrounds. Within the same
highly selective and competitive years, 30% of all applicants to study
institutions. law at UK universities and 30% of
all applicants to study business and
There is evidence to suggest that
administration courses were also
students from state schools may
students from BME backgrounds.
apply disproportionately to the most
competitive courses. This is the case The fact that BME students tend to
at the University of Oxford, where apply in much greater proportions
between 2010 and 2012, 35% of to the most competitive courses
applications by UK domiciled state means that many very able students
school students were for the five find that they are unsuccessful in
most oversubscribed subjects at the securing a place.56
university. This compared to 29% of
independent school applications.
There is also evidence to suggest
that students from ethnic minority
groups apply in much greater
proportions to certain courses.
In some cases progression for
Black and Minority Ethnic (BME)
students to university may be
linked to cultural factors, which may
be experienced as, for instance,
parental pressure to study a
particular subject that leads to
a professional qualification.
Opening doors: understanding and overcoming the barriers to university access 31
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