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Plastic Pollution Prevention in Pacific Island Countries: Gap analysis of current legislation, policies and plans - August 2020 - EIA ...
Plastic Pollution
Prevention in Pacific
Island Countries:
Gap analysis of current
legislation, policies and
plans

August 2020
Plastic Pollution Prevention in Pacific Island Countries: Gap analysis of current legislation, policies and plans - August 2020 - EIA ...
CONTENTS

           Ocean                              List of Figures                                                          4        Waste Prevention                                                    34

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS                              List of Tables                                                               5     Market restrictions, virgin plastics, and trade in safe plastics   34

This report was prepared by Dr Trisia                                                                                            National reduction targets                                         34
Farrelly (Massey University Political
                                              Executive Summary                                                            6
Ecology Research Centre [PERC],                                                                                                  Virgin plastic use                                                 34
New Zealand), Dr Stephanie Borrelle           Key Recommendations                                                          7
(University of Toronto, Canada) and Dr                                                                                           Market restrictions                                                35
Sascha Fuller (University of Newcastle,
Australia) for the Environmental
                                              Acronyms                                                                     8
                                                                                                                                 Promotion of traditional solutions                                 35
Investigation Agency (EIA).
                                              Background                                                              10        Waste Management                                                    38
The team acknowledges, with gratitude,
the support of the Center for International
                                              Aims                                                                    12         Closed loop recycling                                              38
Environmental Law (CIEL) and World
Wildlife Fund – Pacific; Environmental
                                              Methods                                                                 12         Sustainable financial mechanisms and infrastructure investments 38
Law Oceania; Island Sustainability
Alliance; and participating countries.
                                              Pacific Islands countries and documents analysed                        17         Extended producer responsibility                                   40

                                              Analysis                                                                18         Economic development                                               40

                                                                                                                                 Remediation and legacy pollution (recovery)                        40
                                              International and Regional Plastic Policy Overview                      18
                                                                                                                                 Transport (including reverse logistics/backloading)                41
                                              International Policy Overview                                           18
                                                                                                                                Standardisation                                                     44
                                              Regional Policy Overview                                                21
                                                                                                                                 National monitoring, reporting and inventories                     44
                                              Regional Plans and Strategies                                           24
                                                                                                                                 Transparency of information, freedom of information and labelling 44
                                              Regional Public-Private Partnerships                                    25
                                                                                                                                 Enforcement                                                        45
                                              Summary                                                                 25
                                                                                                                                 Definitions                                                        45
                                              Country Level Gap Analysis                                              26
                                                                                                                                Microplastics                                                       48
                                              Global Objectives                                                       26
                                                                                                                                Key recommendations                                                 52
                                               Long-term elimination of discharges                                    26
                                                                                                                                Global Objectives                                                   52
                                               Safe circular economy for plastics                                     27
                                                                                                                                 Long-term elimination of discharges                                52
                                               Intergenerational equity and justice                                   27
                                                                                                                                 Safe circular economy and human health                             52
                                               Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)                                   28
                                                                                                                                 Intergenerational equity and justice                               52
                                               Protection of human health                                             28
                                                                                                                                 SDGs                                                               52
                                               Vertical integration                                                   29
                                                                                                                                 Protection of human health                                         52
                                               Horizontal integration                                                 29
                                                                                                                                 Vertical Integration                                               52
                                               Waste hierarchy                                                        30
                                                                                                                                 Horizontal integration                                             53
                                               Precautionary approach                                                 30
                                                                                                                                 Precautionary approach                                             54
                                               Climate Change                                                         30

   2                                                                                  Environmental Investigation Agency       PLASTIC POLLUTION prevention in pacific island countries                  3
Plastic Pollution Prevention in Pacific Island Countries: Gap analysis of current legislation, policies and plans - August 2020 - EIA ...
Waste hierarchy                                                                54     LIST OF TABLES

     Climate Change                                                                 54
                                                                                          Table 1: Analytical Framework including the categories, themes
                                                                                          and definitions based on the EIA Pillars of Action and supporting
    Waste Prevention                                                                54
                                                                                          documents.                                                            16
     Market restrictions, virgin plastics, and trade in safe plastics               54
                                                                                          Table 2: International Conventions ratified, signed or acceded by the
                                                                                          Pacific Island Countries examined here. Green represents the countries
     Virgin plastics                                                                54
                                                                                          are party to the agreement, yellow that they have participated and/or
                                                                                          acknowledged they will sign (but have not yet).                       22
     National reduction targets                                                     54
                                                                                          Table 3: Regional Instruments ratified, signed or acceded by the Pacific
    Waste management                                                                55
                                                                                          Island Countries examined here. Green represents the countries are
                                                                                          party to the agreement.                                               26
     Sustainable financial mechanisms and infrastructure investments 55
                                                                                          Table 4: Global Objectives gap analysis of key documents using the
     Extended producer responsibility                                               55
                                                                                          analytical framework. Green indicates explicit mention of the theme
                                                                                          in the document; yellow indicates that the document either partially
     Container deposit schemes                                                      55
                                                                                          includes the theme or that it is inferred; and red indicates that that
                                                                                          theme is absent in the document.                                       32
     Remediation and recovery                                                       55
                                                                                          Table 5: Waste Prevention gap analysis of key documents using the
     Transport/Backloading                                                          56
                                                                                          analytical framework. Green indicates explicit mention of the theme
                                                                                          in the document; yellow indicates that the document either partially
    Standardisation                                                                 56
                                                                                          includes the theme or that it is inferred; and red indicates that that
                                                                                          theme is absent in the document.                                       36
     National monitoring, reporting and inventories                                 56
                                                                                          Table 6: Waste Management gap analysis of key documents using the
     Transparency and freedom of information                                        56
                                                                                          analytical framework. Green indicates explicit mention of the theme
                                                                                          in the document; yellow indicates that the document either partially
     Enforcement                                                                    56
                                                                                          includes the theme or that it is inferred; and red indicates that that
                                                                                          theme is absent in the document.                                       42
     Definitions                                                                    56
                                                                                          Table 7: Standardisation gap analysis of key documents using the
    Microplastics                                                                   57
                                                                                          analytical framework. Green indicates explicit mention of the theme
                                                                                          in the document; yellow indicates that the document either partially
    Conclusion                                                                      57    includes the theme or that it is inferred; and red indicates that that
                                                                                          theme is absent in the document.                                       46
    References                                                                      58
                                                                                          Table 8: Microplastics gap analysis of key documents using the
                                                                                          analytical framework. Green indicates explicit mention of the theme
    Appendix 1: Documents Analysed                                                  59    in the document; yellow indicates that the document either partially
                                                                                          includes the theme or that it is inferred; and red indicates that that
                                                                                          theme is absent in the document.                                       50
    LIST OF FIGURES

    Figure 1: EIA Pillars of Action for a Convention on Plastic Pollution (2020)     14

    Figure 2: Zero Waste Hierarchy                                                   31

    Figure 3: Pillar 1 Monitoring and Reporting                                     56

4                                                   Environmental Investigation Agency    CONVENTION
                                                                                          PLASTIC POLLUTION
                                                                                                      ON PLASTIC
                                                                                                            prevention
                                                                                                                 POLLUTION
                                                                                                                        in pacific island countries                   5
Plastic Pollution Prevention in Pacific Island Countries: Gap analysis of current legislation, policies and plans - August 2020 - EIA ...
Executive Summary                                                                                                                                                                               Key recommendations
Pacific Island countries (PICs) contribute less than 1.3 per                                                                                                                                    Global Objectives
cent of the mismanaged plastics in the world’s oceans
yet are one of the main recipients of plastics pollution                                                                                                                                        • Policy frameworks prioritising prevention over waste
and its impacts.                                                                                                                                                                                  management.
                                                                                                                                                                                                • Specific references to ‘plastic pollution prevention/
The costs of plastic pollution and climate-related                                                                                                                                                elimination’ within relevant policy frameworks.
impacts on these islands are massively disproportionate                                                                                                                                         • Legislative mechanisms to address the
to their contributions. Plastics entering the region are                                                                                                                                          intergenerational sociocultural, economic,
polluting the region’s life support systems and impacting                                                                                                                                         environmental, climate change, and public health
their Indigenous peoples’ cultural, economic and social                                                                                                                                           impacts of plastic pollution.
ties to the ocean.
                                                                                                                                                                                                • Intergenerational equity to include gender and informal
                                                                                                                                                                                                  workers.
While the transboundary flows of plastic waste through
                                                                                                                                                                                                • Incorporation and implementation of regional and
Pacific Ocean currents is distinctly recognisable and
                                                                                                                                                                                                  international obligations where possible (e.g. marine
increasingly documented, this report significantly
                                                                                                                                                                                                  litter, toxic chemicals, climate change, and waste trade).
widens the scope beyond marine-based litter to consider
the impacts along the full lifecycle of plastics, from                                                                                                                                          • Inter-ministerial integration and policy coherence
extraction and production to the ongoing impacts on air,                                                                                                                                          specific to plastic pollution.
water and soil.
                                                                                                                                 Traditional and local knowledge, values and alternatives       Waste Prevention
                                                               plastic pollution. This may, in part, be the result of a
Using a gap analysis, this study aims to identify the          limited access to the latest science-based evidence               to plastics are underutilised across the participating         • Plastic pollution policy focused high up the waste
current limitations in national plastic pollution policy for   on plastic pollution as well as its interpretation. The           countries. Expanding on pre-existing public-private              hierarchy.
preventing plastic pollution. It also explores the potential   latest information on false solutions to the plastics             partnerships across the Pacific region will also support
                                                                                                                                                                                                • Importation and trade restrictions on problematic
to implement best practice for the reduction of plastic        crisis, such as incineration technologies, bioplastics            the prevention, reduction and repatriation or removal of
                                                                                                                                                                                                  plastics and polymers (including single-use
pollution and the promotion of a safe circular plastics        and downcycling, is urgently needed if the region is to           plastic pollution (e.g. for collection, sorting, sanitising,
                                                                                                                                                                                                  bioplastics).
economy.                                                       avoid the perverse outcomes that come with locking                processing, takeback schemes and reverse logistics).
                                                                                                                                                                                                • Measurable and ambitious national reduction targets.
                                                               investment into these responses.
                                                                                                                                 The findings strongly suggest that in order to address         • Reduction, monitoring, and management plans for
An analytical framework was developed using publicly
                                                                                                                                 these issues and prevent growing volumes of                      virgin plastics.
available online resources to examine national                 Cleaner Pacific 2025 illustrates that preventing
legislation, policies, strategies and plans relevant to        plastic pollution will not be possible in the absence             increasingly problematic types of plastics entering            • Promotion of traditional/local alternatives.
plastic pollution in each of the countries included. The       of a comprehensive policy framework which fosters                 the Pacific region, a global agreement is urgently             • Financial mechanisms to incentivise prevention.
final framework consisted of five categories: Global           sustainable consumption and production. The report                needed. Only this can address the transboundary flow           • National inter-ministerial plastic pollution elimination
Objectives, Waste Prevention, Waste Management,                corroborates these insights by underscoring the                   of marine litter, safe reusable and recyclable product           committees.
Microplastics and Standardisation. A total of 10 PICs          importance of sustainable financing mechanisms,                   design and the global reduction of plastic production.
from Melanesia, Polynesia and Micronesia were                  transparency of information, monitoring and                       These responses sit outside the national and regional          Microplastics
analysed.                                                      performance indicators and regional and national                  jurisdiction of PICs.
                                                                                                                                                                                                • Open source access to the latest science.
                                                               cooperation.
                                                                                                                                 A global agreement could also provide scientific,              • Product design legislation.
The core finding of this report is that while a growing
number of countries have implemented ambitious                 Pacific Island Countries rely heavily on imported goods           financial and technical assistance to develop tailored         • Market and import restrictions (e.g. for products
legislation to restrict the import and trade of the some       and many of these either contain or are packaged in               national action plans and policy tools to prevent plastic        containing microbeads and non-durable products).
of the most problematic plastics into the region, PICs         plastic. Where plastics are necessary, ‘repatriation’             pollution, develop harmonised standards for reporting          • Legislated return schemes (e.g. for degradable
are failing to address plastic pollution beyond waste          maybe considered an additional ‘R’ to the ‘3Rs’ seen in           and monitoring at national levels and the required               agricultural films).
management. Many countries have ratified, signed or            many of the documents analysed in this study. This                industry standards to ensure a safe circular economy for       • Monitoring, management, and reporting systems for
acceded to regional and global instruments, protocols          would see a range of ‘takeback’ schemes whereby all               plastics.                                                        plastic pellets.
and conventions related to plastics pollution. However,        the plastics that enter the region were repatriated by
the implementation of these obligations is rarely              producers at the end of their useful life. Furthermore,           Over the years, PICs have repeatedly demonstrated              Standardisation
reflected in country-level policy frameworks. Where            the legal regulation of a broad set of priority plastic           leadership in international fora on environmental issues,
                                                                                                                                                                                                • National monitoring, reporting and inventories
the transposition of an international convention into          products (e.g. single-use plastics including polyvinyl            leading the world in a call for the standalone Sustainable
                                                                                                                                                                                                  specifically for plastics.
national law is made, these are usually aimed at waste         chloride [PVC]] and polystyrene [PS and EPS], whiteware,          Development Goal for the ocean, SDG14 and advancing
                                                                                                                                 international progress towards addressing the climate          • 10-digit globally harmonised system (GHS) for customs
management – when plastics have already become                 tyres and e-waste). Priority products enacted under
                                                                                                                                 crisis.                                                          tariff codes to restrict problematic plastics imports.
waste or pollution – rather than preventative measures.        a legislative instrument could trigger government-
                                                               mandated extended producer responsibility schemes                                                                                • Freedom of information enacted all along the supply
Plastic pollution is often subsumed within the broad           with the flexibility to accommodate additional priority           As with climate change, tackling plastic pollution               chain, from production to packaging and point of sale
category of ‘waste management’ and a range of terms            products as the need arose.                                       requires an urgent and coordinated global response that          (including ecolabeling).
associated with plastics lacked standardised definitions                                                                         reflects the needs of countries most directly affected         • Standardised definitions.
and best practice. As a result, current policy does            There may be a case for an eco-levy on all single-use             by it. This report takes fundamental steps towards             • Harmonised monitoring / reporting.
not protect the health of Pasifika peoples (including          plastics to financially support and incentivise a shift           analysing the gaps in the region and making concrete           • Extended producer responsibility certified schemes.
consumers and workers) and the environment from                to refillables/reusables and safe product design. A               recommendations for how these challenges can be                • Strengthen compliance and enforcement.
the chemical and physical harms specific to plastic            range of mandatory measures with inbuilt financial                overcome through strategic and ambitious policy-
pollution. Microplastics was only noted in one of the          mechanisms could aid in setting and meeting ambitious             making.
national documents analysed and few linkages were              and measurable national plastic pollution elimination
made between human health, climate change and                  targets.
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Plastic Pollution Prevention in Pacific Island Countries: Gap analysis of current legislation, policies and plans - August 2020 - EIA ...
ACRONYMS

                                                                                                          MWAP		        Solomon Islands National Waste       SDGs		       Sustainable Development Goals
    ADB 		     Asian Development Bank               EIA 		 Environmental Investigation
                                                                                                          		            Management Action Plan
                                                    		Agency
                                                                                                                                                             SIDS		       Small Island Developing States
    AHOEEG     Ad Hoc Open-Ended Expert Group
                                                                                                          NDCs		 Nationally Determined
                                                    EPA 		      Environmental Protection Agency
                                                                                                          		Contributions                                    SPREP		 Secretariat of the Pacific Regional
    ALDFG		    Abandoned, Lost or otherwise
                                                                                                                                                             		Environment
    		         Discarded Fishing Gear               EPR		       Extended Producer Responsibility
                                                                                                          NIAS 		 Non-Intentionally Added
                                                                                                          		Substances                                       STaRS		      National Strategy for Responsible
    ARF		      Advanced Recycling Fee               GEF		       Global Environmental Facility
                                                                                                                                                             		           Sustainable Development for
                                                                                                          PACPOL Pacific Oceans Pollution 		                 		           Papua New Guinea
    BMW		      International Convention on the      GESAMP Joint Group of Experts on the
                                                                                                          		Prevention
    		         Control and Management of Ship’s     		     Scientific Aspects of Marine
                                                                                                          		Programme                        SWAT		 The Solid Waste Agency of Tuvalu
    		         Ballast Water and Sediments          		Environmental Protection
                                                                                                                                             		     (now the Department of Waste
                                                                                                          PBBs		 Polybrominated Biphenyls    		Management [DWM)
    BPA		      Bisphenol A                          GHGs		      Greenhouse Gas Emissions
                                                                                                          PCBs		        Polychlorinated Biphenyls            UNCLOS       United Nations Convention on the
    BPS 		     Bisphenol S                          GPA		 Global Programme of Action for
                                                                                                                                                             		           Law of the Sea
                                                    		    the Protection of the Marine
                                                                                                          PCTs		        Polychlorinated Terphenyls
    CBD		      Convention on Biological Diversity   		    Environment from Land Based
                                                                                                                                                             UNEA		 United Nations Environment
                                                    		Activities
                                                                                                          PERC 		       Political Ecology Research Centre    		Assembly
    CDS		      Container deposit scheme
                                                    GPML 		 Global Partnership on Marine
                                                                                                          PET 		        Polyethylene Terepthalate            UNEP		 The United Nations Environment
    CFCs		     Chlorofluorocarbons                  		Litter
                                                                                                                                                             		Programme
                                                                                                          PFOA 		       Perfluorooctanoic Acid
    CIEL		 Center for International 		              HBCD		      hexabromocyclododecane
                                                                                                                                                             UNFCCC       The United Nations Framework
    		Environmental Law
                                                                                                          PIC		         Pacific Island Country               		           Convention on Climate Change
                                                    IMO		 International Maritime
    CLiP		     Commonwealth Litter Programme        		Organisation
                                                                                                          PNG 		        Papua New Guinea                     UPOPS		 Unintentional Persistent Organic
                                                                                                                                                             		Pollutants
    CMM 		 Conservation Management 		               ISO		 International Organisation for
                                                                                                          POLP 		       Pacific Ocean Litter Project
    		Measure                                       		Standardization
                                                                                                                                                             WCPFC		 Convention for the Conservation
                                                                                                          POPs		        Persistent Organic Pollutants        		      and Management of Highly
    CROP 		    Council of Regional Organisations    JICA		 Japan International Cooperation
                                                                                                                                                             		      Migratory Fish Stocks in the
    		         in the Pacific                       		Agency
                                                                                                          PRIF 		 Pacific Regional Infrastructure            		      Western and Central Pacific Ocean
                                                                                                          		Facility                                         		(WCPFC Convention)
    DWM 		 Department of Waste 			                  KSWMP Kiribati’s Solid Waste
    		Management                                    		Management Plan
                                                                                                          PVC 		        Polyvinyl Chloride                   WRC		        Nairobi International Convention
                                                                                                                                                             		           on the Removal of Wrecks
    ECAL		 Environment and Climate 		               LDPE		      Low Density Polyethylene
                                                                                                          PwC 		        PricewaterhouseCoopers
    		Adaptation Levy
                                                                                                                                                             WWF 		       World Wildlife Fund
                                                    MARPOL      International Convention for the
                                                                                                          SAMOA         Small Island Developing States
    EDCs		     Endocrine disrupting chemicals       		          Prevention of Pollution from Ships
                                                                                                          		            Accelerated Modalities of Action
    EDO 		     Environment Defenders Office         MLAP 		     Pacific Marine Litter Action Plan

8                                                                    Environmental Investigation Agency    PLASTIC POLLUTION prevention in pacific island countries                                           9
Plastic Pollution Prevention in Pacific Island Countries: Gap analysis of current legislation, policies and plans - August 2020 - EIA ...
Plastic production is increasing at alarming rates, set to quadruple         by marine plastics (Markic et al 2018). While the risk            natural resources of the Pacific. Tourism, including
Background                                                  by 2050. Up to 12 million tonnes of plastic leak into our oceans
                                                            each year, and 51 trillion plastic particles are already present in the
                                                            marine environment
                                                                                                                                         to marine fauna from ingestion and entanglement of
                                                                                                                                         plastics are now well-documented, the full extent of
                                                                                                                                                                                                           cruise ships and beachside resorts, contributes
                                                                                                                                                                                                           significantly to all PIC economies. The Cook Islands
                                                                                                                                         harms from micro- and nano-sized plastics to fauna,               is the most dependent on tourism, which contributes
The Pacific is the world’s largest ocean, covering 30       Henderson Island in the Pitcairn Group, for example,                         flora, biodiversity, food safety and human health are             87 per cent of GDP (SPTO, 2020). However, tourism
million square kilometres (nearly 15 per cent of the        contains an estimated 37.7 million items of plastic                          nascent yet growing fields of research. There is growing          also generates a significantly amount more waste per
Earth’s surface). It comprises approximately 25,000         debris, giving it the dubious honour of being the island                     evidence that edible plants have the potential to take up         capita than residents (Mohee et al. 2015). Many resorts
islands that are home to 2.3 million people. For            with the world’s greatest density of marine plastic litter.                  microplastics (Conti et al 2020; Li et al 2019). ‘Agriplastics’   and tourist sites import a high volume of packaged
thousands of years, the people of the Pacific region        Marine plastic densities have been found to be high on                       or agricultural plastics have the potential to contaminate        products to meet tourists’ requirements. Paradoxically,
have been sustained by the rich natural resources of        sea floors throughout the region. These marine plastic                       crops. They include microplastics found in slow-                  plastic pollution from any source presents economic
their marine environment. Pasifika peoples depend on        pollution inflows threaten ecological and human health                       release and sewage sludge fertilisers, as well as from            threats to the tourism sector, which relies heavily of the
the ocean for food, transport, traditional practices and    and economic systems (Lachmann et al. 2017); they place                      degraded agricultural films such as plastic mulch, plastic        perception of the region as a “Pristine Paradise” (e.g.,
economic opportunity. Plastic pollution adversely affects   additional burdens on already over-stretched waste                           greenhouses and silage wraps. Plastics are also known             Government of Palau Tourism Slogan). For the tourism
the health of Pasifika peoples and the biodiversity of      management infrastructure and cannot be captured by                          to raft pathogens and invasive species, thus threatening          industry to thrive in the region, PICs will need to ensure
marine and terrestrial ecosystems.                          country-level policy mechanisms alone.                                       bio- and food security in a region that is heavily                their environments are clean, healthy and functioning
                                                                                                                                         dependent on the sea as a source of food and sustainable          (Lachmann et al. 2017).
Pacific Island Countries (PICs) are vulnerable to           Unregulated inflows of plastics not only carry macro-                        livelihoods (Rodriquez et al 2019; Miller et al 2018).
plastic pollution due to their expansive coastlines         or mega-sized plastics, but also micro- and nano-sized                                                                                         Like all nations, PICs face the challenge of managing
– the total coastline of Pacific island countries is        plastic particles. A 2011 study found more than 700 items                    The increase in the generation of domestic plastic                these increasing volumes of plastic pollution. PICs are
57,797km (Andrew et al 2019) – and position within the      of macroplastic debris in 3300m2 of the shallow lagoon                       pollution in PICs further threatens livelihoods and               Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and characterised
trade winds and at the outer edges of oceanic gyres.        of the Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands                        environments. PICs have seen a significant shift away             as small, isolated and resource-limited island states
Remote islands are often exposed to marine plastic          (or 234,000 items per sq km) and more than 780 plastic                       from traditionally locally grown and fished food sources          that face ‘specific social, economic and environmental
pollution disproportionate to their size and domestic       items in 3900m2 on the exposed reef (more than 200,000                       toward cash cropping and commercial fishing (Friel                vulnerabilities’ (UN-OHRLLS 2011). PICs are limited in
contributions, with the source and responsibility often     items per sq km) (Richards & Beger, 2011). Microplastics                     et al., 2013, p. 126). This, combined with the trend in           land size (only two per cent of the Pacific region is land
originating thousands of kilometres away. Offshore          density found on Easter Island shores average 800 items                      rapidly growing urban communities and increasing                  mass) and, therefore, limited in terms of landfill capacity
sources of marine plastic debris, e.g., abandoned, lost     per m2. Studies involving samples taken in the ocean                         preferences for imported, processed and pre-packaged              and site suitability (Mohee et al 2015). This, coupled with
or otherwise discarded fishing gear (ALDFG), and other      region between New Zealand, Samoa, Tahiti and Rapa                           foods, leads to growing volumes of disposable packaging           the fact that populations are geographically dispersed,
plastic pollution carried on ocean currents from other      Nui found microplastics in 97 per cent of 33 of the 34                       waste and other plastics requiring safe management                means most PICs lack regular and accessible domestic
nations can represent the most significant types of         fish species examined, compared to a global trend of 67                      post-consumption (SPREP 2016). Many PICs are over-                collection and sorting services, infrastructure and
debris on these islands (Richardson et al. 2017). The       per cent: stark evidence that the marine environment                         dependent on income from tourists who are attracted               regional networks. Further, many municipal dumpsites
beaches of the World Heritage-listed and uninhabited        of the Pacific region is disproportionately impacted                         to the high biodiversity, cultural diversity, heritage and        are open and unsanitary and burning in open pits is
10                                                                                                  Environmental Investigation Agency   PLASTIC POLLUTION prevention in pacific island countries                                                                   11
Plastic Pollution Prevention in Pacific Island Countries: Gap analysis of current legislation, policies and plans - August 2020 - EIA ...
standard waste management practice. Poor waste                    • low and irregular international traffic offer poor
management results in ecological damage and poses                   opportunities for reverse logistics and take-back/
human health risks, particularly when plastic and other             end-of life logistics;
toxic wastes escape poorly controlled landfills or are
burnt. Consequences include the toxic contamination of            • fragile natural environments with low resilience
water, air and soil from residual ash (Verma et al 2016).           to natural disasters, climate disruption and
                                                                    uncontrollable marine debris inflows
Recycling is also restricted in PICs due to intra- and
inter-island logistical and transport challenges, lack of       Aims
collection and sorting facilities, limited port capacity in     Global policy and the work on plastic pollution now
some countries, lack of backloading/reverse logistics           acknowledge the limitations of focusing purely on
agreements and difficulty in securing and retaining             preventing and mitigating ‘marine litter’, considering
markets for post-consumer materials.                            approximately 80 per cent of marine litter comes from
In addition to these constraints, the Pacific region,           land-based sources and all plastics are produced on
with its many low-lying islands and atolls, is one of           land. This report significantly widens the scope beyond
the most vulnerable regions in the world to climate             marine-based litter to consider the impacts along the
change-induced sea level rise, storm surges and other           full life cycle of plastics: from extraction to ongoing
increasingly frequent weather events. Due to limited            impacts on air, water and soil. Using a gap analysis, this
suitable land, landfills and dumpsites are often situated       study aims to identify the following in national plastic
near human settlements and fragile ecosystems. This             pollution policy frameworks in PICs:
offers landfill leachate a direct pathway to soils, marine        1. limitations in the ability to prevent plastic pollution;
ecosystems and freshwater sources. Landfills and
dumpsites are also often located in flat coastal areas            2. potential to implement an adaptation of Pillar Two of
most exposed to weather events and rising sea levels                 a multilateral plastic pollution convention proposed
(Mimura et al., 2007). Extreme weather events aggravate              by the Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA)
the pre-existing environmental impacts of poorly sited               (2020).
and managed landfills (Farrelly, Stupples, and Schneider,
2016), which are likely to increase in frequency and            This is phase one of a two-phase research project. Phase
intensity as climate change progresses. Drinking water          two will extend the scope beyond document analysis
potability can also be threated through climate change          to incorporate qualitative data from interviews with
impacts, including rising sea levels. This can occur when       country delegates. Phase two aims to contextualise the
                                                                                                                                   strangulation, entanglement and ingestion. Plastic                  Programme (CLiP): Vanuatu and Solomon Islands.
saltwater flows into unconfined aquifers in low lying           gaps identified in phase one by providing insights into
                                                                                                                                   pollution is also concerned with the organisms or novel             University of Wollongong Australia, Wollongong,
areas and where groundwater discharges to streams               the following:
                                                                                                                                   ecosystems associated with plastic pollution, including             Australia;
(WHO 2017).                                                                                                                        the pathogens and invasive species that can raft on
                                                                  - current capacities to prevent and mitigate plastic
                                                                                                                                   plastics, and the microbial communities that can form             • Raubenheimer, K., N. Oral, and A. McIlgorm (2017).
The key constraints for sustainable development in                  pollution;
                                                                                                                                   on plastics. These pathogens and microbial communities              Combating Marine Plastic Litter and Microplastics:
relation to plastic pollution for PICs include the following:                                                                                                                                          An Assessment of the Effectiveness of Relevant
                                                                  - expectations for in an international legally binding           associated with plastic pollution can threaten
  • rapidly growing urban populations and growing                   plastic pollution convention;                                  biodiversity and marine-based food systems. Plastics                International, Regional and Sub regional Governance
    dependence on tourism and growing dependence on                                                                                pollution also captures plastic alternatives such as                Strategies and Approaches. UNEP/EA.3/INF/5, UN
                                                                  - readiness to implement a proposed multilateral                 bioplastics and plastic management technologies, such               Environment.
    processed and pre-packaged foods;
                                                                    plastic pollution convention;                                  as chemical recycling and waste-to-energy incineration.
  • small domestic markets and dependence on a few                                                                                                                                                 In this study, ‘Global Objectives’ include cross-cutting
                                                                  - support needed from regional networks, private                 The gap analysis methodology involved desktop research          objectives and principles. The national actions that
    external import markets;
                                                                    sector and the global community to prevent plastic             using publicly available online resources. An analytical        are more likely to prevent the flow of plastics into
  • limitations of suitable sites for landfill, few sanitary        pollution in the region and to implement such a                framework initially based on ‘Pillar Two: Plastic Pollution     the economy are categorised as ‘Waste Prevention’.
    landfills and high costs of improvements to current             convention in national and regional policy and                 Prevention’ of the Environmental Investigation Agency’s         Virgin plastics are not produced in PICs, so this
    sites;                                                          legislation.                                                   (EIA’s) proposed ‘Pillars of Action’ (2020) (Figure 1) was      category is entitled ‘reduction in virgin plastics’
                                                                                                                                   developed to examine national legislation and policies          (related to manufacturing). Actions that contribute to
  • high costs for energy, infrastructure, transportation,      Methods                                                                                                                            the prevention of further damage once plastics have
                                                                                                                                   relevant to plastic pollution in each Pacific country. Pillar
    communication, maintenance and servicing to                                                                                                                                                    already entered the environment are located under
                                                                In this study, the term ‘plastic pollution’ captures not           Two presents measures to reduce plastic pollution and to
    implement waste services more widely and to                                                                                                                                                    ‘Waste Management’. ‘Agriplastics’ are added under
                                                                only the physical properties of plastics but also plastic          promote a safe circular plastics economy.
    expand recycling networks;                                                                                                                                                                     ‘Microplastics’ to capture microplastics found in
                                                                feedstocks (fossil fuel and bio-based); monomers (the
                                                                building blocks of plastic polymers) and additives                 The analytical framework was adapted iteratively. The           agricultural products such as slow-release fertilisers
  • uncontrolled inflow of plastic marine debris arriving
                                                                (such as plasticisers, flame retardants and stabilisers);          final framework (Table 1) was informed by preliminary           most likely to threaten terrestrial food security. ‘Product
    from distant shores;
                                                                the risks borne by associated chemicals such as                    document analysis, regular research team discussions            design and additive restrictions’ are separated out under
  • a narrow resource base restricting access to the            persistent organic pollutants [POPs] that are adsorbed             and the following documents:                                    the broader theme ‘Standardisation’. Additional themes
    benefits of economies of scale;                             by hydrophobic plastics and the furans and dioxins that                                                                            have been added to ‘Standardisation’, including ‘national
                                                                                                                                     • Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA) (June              monitoring, reporting and inventories’, ‘transparency
                                                                are released when plastics are burnt; and the methane                  2020). Convention on Plastic Pollution: Toward a
  • low volume of recyclables, poor quality materials, a        and chlorine plastics have the propensity to ‘offgas’ and                                                                          and freedom of information’ and ‘enforcement’ (since
    growing range of material including (an increasing                                                                                 New Global Agreement to Address Plastic Pollution.          monitoring and reporting to check compliance are
                                                                contribute to GHG emissions and damage the ozone                       London, UK: EIA;
    range of hard-to-recycle or unrecyclable hazardous          layer.                                                                                                                             minimum requirements of enforcement). ‘Definitions’
    materials) and low global demand for recyclable                                                                                                                                                and ‘transport’ emerged as additional key themes across
                                                                                                                                     • Raubenheimer, Karen (2019). Desktop studies on
    materials;                                                  The prevention of plastic pollution is also concerned                                                                              the country documents. Definitions are located under
                                                                                                                                       Principles of Waste Management and Funding
                                                                with harms caused by the physical properties of plastics,              Mechanisms in Relation to the Commonwealth Litter           ‘Standardisation’ and transport is located under ‘Waste
                                                                including coral reef and vessel damage and fauna                                                                                   Management’.

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Figure 1: EIA Pillars of Action for a Convention on Plastic Pollution (2020)

Pillars of Action
Member States have identified several areas where activities are needed, which can be broadly placed into four
pillars of action that form the structural and conceptual framework for the Convention on Plastic Pollution:

                                                                                                   CONVENTION ON PLASTIC POLLUTION

                   PILLAR 1                                                                 PILLAR 2                                                     PILLAR 3                                           PILLAR 4
           MONITORING AND REPORTING                                              PLASTIC POLLUTION PREVENTION                                          COORDINATION                             TECHNICAL AND FINANCIAL SUPPORT

     Monitoring and reporting on the state of the                                 Measures to reduce plastic pollution and                Coordination with other international and                  Technical support to policymakers and
         environment and implementation                                         promote a safe circular economy for plastics               regional instruments on relevant topics                 financial support to developing countries

  Harmonisation                                                                Global objectives                                        Sea-based sources (including fishing gear)              Scientific Assessment Panel
     • Definitions                                                              •   Long-term elimination of discharges                  • International Maritime Organization (IMO)              • Periodic comprehensive assessments
     • Methodologies (monitoring, reporting)                                    •   Safe circular economy for plastics                   • Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)               • Ad hoc reports
     • Standardised formats                                                    National action plans                                    Plastic waste trade                                     Socio-Economic Assessment Panel
  Environmental monitoring                                                      • Policies and legislation:                              • Basel Convention                                       • Periodic comprehensive assessments
     • Baselines (seafloor, seawater, shoreline,                                    - targets and market restrictions                    • Organisation for Economic Co-operation                 • Ad hoc reports
       biota, freshwater, soils)                                                    - waste prevention and management                      and Development (OECD) and regional
                                                                                                                                           instruments                                          Implementing and bilateral agencies
     • Indicator species                                                            - recycling and secondary markets
                                                                                                                                                                                                  • Technical assistance:
     • Evolution of plastic pollution in marine and                             • Sustainable financing mechanisms                      Chemicals and additives
       other environments                                                                                                                                                                           - capacity-building and training
                                                                                • Infrastructure investments                             • Stockholm Convention
                                                                                                                                                                                                    - policy development
  National data reporting                                                                                                                • Strategic Approach to Integrated Chemical
                                                                                • International and regional commitments                                                                            - monitoring and reporting
     • National inventories and sources:                                                                                                   Management (SAICM)
                                                                               Microplastics                                                                                                      • Best practices and knowledge exchanges
        - virgin plastic production and use                                                                                             Biodiversity
                                                                                • Intentionally added (e.g. microbeads,
        - recycled plastic production and use                                                                                            • Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)             Financial resources and mechanism
                                                                                  fertilisers)
        - plastic-waste management                                                                                                       • Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)                  • Enabling activities:
                                                                                • Wear and tear (e.g. tyres, textiles)
        - plastic-waste trade                                                                                                            • International Whaling Commission (IWC)                   - capacity-building and training
                                                                                • Mismanagement (e.g. pellets)
        - land-based sources                                                                                                                                                                        - policy development
                                                                               Standardisation                                          Climate change
        - sea-based sources                                                                                                                                                                         - monitoring and reporting
                                                                                • Labelling                                              • United Nations Framework Convention on
        - microplastics                                                                                                                    Climate Change (UNFCCC)                                  - institutional strengthening
                                                                                • Product design and additive restrictions                                                                          - Pilot and demonstration projects
     • Evolution of circular economy and leakage                                                                                         • Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
                                                                                • Certification schemes                                    (IPCC)
  Reporting on national action                                                                                                                                                                    • Incremental costs
                                                                                • Voluntary industry standards                          Agriculture
     • Submission of national action plans                                                                                                                                                      Implementation and compliance mechanism
                                                                               Virgin plastic production and use                         • Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)               • Implementation guidance
     • Periodic review and update
                                                                                • Controls and quality standards                        Cross-regional knowledge exchange                         • Assistance for countries in non-compliance
  Periodic comprehensive assessments
                                                                               Remediation and legacy pollution                          • Regional seas conventions and programmes
     • Progress toward global objectives
                                                                                • Protocols and guidelines                               • Regional fisheries management
     • Scientific and socio-economic reviews
                                                                                                                                           organisations

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Plastic Pollution Prevention in Pacific Island Countries: Gap analysis of current legislation, policies and plans - August 2020 - EIA ...
Table 1: Analytical Framework including the categories, themes and definitions based on the EIA Pillars of Action and supporting documents.

 Category               Themes                           Definition                                                                                                Category           Themes                            Definition

                        Long-term elimination of                                                                                                                                      Product design                    Eco- and bio- benign product design.
                                                         Sustainable, long-term solutions.
                        discharges
                                                                                                                                                                                      Polymer restrictions              Restrictions on the importation and trade of certain polymers.
                        Safe circular economy for        A circular economy has minimal waste and reuses raw materials again and again. Any materials
                        plastics                         circulating in the economy are safe by design, allowing their introduction into the economy and                              Additive restrictions             Restrictions on the importation and use of toxic additives and monomers, such as those catego-
                                                         their reuse without risks for human health and the environment. This includes keeping ‘substanc-                                                               rised as EDCs, POPs, and carcinogens.
                                                         es of very high concern’ (e.g. POPs as plastic additives) out of the circular economy and ultimately
                                                         aims to eliminate them entirely.                                                                                             Voluntary certification           Compliance to certification schemes such as ISO for home compost-ability; and products and
                                                                                                                                                                                      schemes and industry stan-        services certified ‘zero waste to landfill’. Businesses commit to reducing plastics throughout their
                        Intergenerational equity and     Ensures future generations flourish as a result of the current policy, legislation and action.                               dards                             supply chain.
                        justice
                                                                                                                                                                                      Mandatory product steward-        Government mandated participation in accredited schemes for the stewardship of plastic products.
                        SDGs                             Progresses the UN Sustainable Development Goals:                                                                             ship
                                                         Target 3: Good health and well-being                                                                      Standardisation
                                                         Target 6: Clean water and sanitation                                                                                         National monitoring and           Tracking of production, trade, consumption, and recycled content, final treatment. National reduc-
                                                         Target 11: Sustainable cities and communities                                                                                reporting, national inventories   tion targets with agreed timelines.
                                                         Target 12: Responsible consumption and production                                                                            and reduction targets
 Global objectives                                       Target 13: Climate action
                                                                                                                                                                                      Transparency & Freedom of         Information is readily available to the consumer. Information could include recycled content, recy-
                                                         Target 14: Life below water (protection of the seas and oceans)
                                                                                                                                                                                      information (consumer justice,    clability, appropriate disposal, compost-ability, additives, GHGs, and hazard potential.
                                                         Target 15: Life on land (restore ecosystems and preserve diversity).
                                                                                                                                                                                      labelling)
                        Protection of human health       The connection between plastics and human health is explicit and/or provisions made.
                                                                                                                                                                                      Compliance measures (mon-         Minimum requirements, monitoring and reporting. Mechanisms for managing suspected or identi-
                        Vertical integration             Responds to regional and international obligations.                                                                          itoring and reporting) and        fied instances of non-compliance such as financial penalties, imprisonment, or confiscation.
                                                                                                                                                                                      enforcement
                        Horizontal Integration           Evidence of coherence between legislation, and national policies, plans and strategies (inter-minis-
                                                         terial cooperation).                                                                                                         Definitions                       Standardised definitions. E.g., ‘reusable’, ‘compostable’, ‘recyclable’, ‘biodegradable’.

                        Precautionary approach           Lack of scientific data or certainty is not a reason for not acting to prevent serious or irreversible
                                                         damage.
                                                                                                                                                                   Pacific Islands countries and documents analysed                                • the Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute
                        Waste hierarchy                  There is either explicit reference to the waste hierarchy and/or a focus on the top of the waste                                                                                            (PacLII);
                                                         hierarchy (refuse, reduce, reuse, redesign).                                                              The documents analysed in this report (Appendix
                        Climate Change                   The connection between plastic pollution and climate change is made explicit and/or provisions
                                                                                                                                                                   1) were limited to country-level legislation, policies,                         • Pacific Region Infrastructure Facility (2018) Pacific
                                                         are made.                                                                                                 plans and strategies relevant to plastic pollution in 10                          Region Solid Waste Management and Recycling
                        Trade in non-hazardous, recy-    Import and export bans and restrictions, minimum environmental standards for plastics imports
                                                                                                                                                                   PICs which are confronted with similar constraints                                Country and Territory Profiles. Pacific Region
                        clable and reusable plastics     and exports, fees on problematic imported plastic.                                                        to their sustainable development efforts in relation to                           Infrastructure Facility (PRIF). Sydney, Australia;
                                                                                                                                                                   plastic pollution and its ecological, social and economic
                        National reduction targets       Measurable plastic pollution reduction targets and timelines.
                                                                                                                                                                   impacts:                                                                        • Peel, J., L. Godden, A. Palmer, R. Gardner, and
                        Virgin plastic use               Controls and standards to reduce virgin plastics entering the economy (e.g. caps).                                                                                                          R. Markey-Towler (2020). Stocktake of Existing
 Waste prevention                                                                                                                                                    - Melanesia: The Republic of Fiji, Papua New Guinea,                            and Pipeline Legislation in the 15 PacWastePlus
                        Market Restrictions              Prohibitions on certain polymers (including bioplastics) and additives and controls on the use of
                                                         Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs), Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), and carcinogens.                 Solomon Islands, Vanuatu;                                                     Participating Countries. University of Melbourne,
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     Melbourne, Australia;
                        Promotion of traditional/local   E.g., woven reusable bags to replace single-use plastic bags, leaf wraps for food, and the promotion        - Polynesia: The Independent State of Samoa, the
                        solutions                        of traditional/local knowledge.
                                                                                                                                                                       Kingdom of Tonga, Tuvalu;                                                   • Raubenheimer, Karen (2019). Desktop studies on
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     principles of waste management and funding
                        Closed loop recycling (primary   Secondary (‘cascade’ markets) recycling is also known as ‘downcycling’ from a higher value product          - Micronesia: The Republic of Kiribati, the Republic of                         mechanisms in relation to the Commonwealth Litter
                        market) or secondary markets     to a lower grade product. E.g., from a PET bottle into a less/non- recyclable product such as carpet.         the Marshall Islands, the Republic of Palau.                                  Programme (CLiP): Vanuatu and Solomon Islands.
                        Government infrastructure        The government invests in accessible and regular separate waste collection, recycling, reuse, and
                                                                                                                                                                   These countries were selected due to their participation                          University of Wollongong Australia, Wollongong,
                        investments                      preventative measures.
                                                                                                                                                                   in the United Nations Environmental Assembly (UNEA)                               Australia;
                        Legal basis for sustainable      Examples include waste-management fees, deposit-refund schemes, extended producer responsi-
                        financing mechanisms/mar-        bility (EPR) schemes, licensing schemes, plastic taxes and levies, advanced disposal fees, polluter       (Marine Litter and Microplastics Resolution) process.                           • national official online sources of legislation. For
                        ket-based instruments            pays, and user pays.                                                                                      In addition, delegates from the participating countries                           example, the Laws of Fiji.
 Waste Management       Recognised impact on eco-        An explicit link is made between the impact of plastic pollution on economic development (e.g.            had previously expressed interest in, or support for,
                        nomic development                tourism, safe and secure employment opportunities, agriculture). This might also factor in the eco-       a multilateral plastic pollution convention. These                           Additional documents and reference sources were
                                                         nomic cost of not preventing plastic pollution/inaction. Plastic pollution is presented as a potential    expressions of interest resulted in the establishment                        accessed to check that all multi-lateral environmental
                                                         business risk.
                                                                                                                                                                   of an advocacy group led by EIA and the Centre                               agreements and regional agreements relevant to plastic
                        Remediation and legacy           Includes protocols and guidelines to recover legacy plastics (e.g., marine debris) to be safely reused,   for International Environmental Law (CIEL) and                               pollution for each of the countries studied were captured
                        pollution                        recycled or repurposed and remediation of landfills (e.g. following storm damage).
                                                                                                                                                                   supported by representatives from WWF (Pacific), the                         in the report:
                        Transport                        Transport infrastructure; access; port capacity; backloading (filling empty trucks and/or shipping        International POPS Elimination Network (IPEN) and
                                                         containers with waste on their return to point of origin/producers); and reverse logistics (shipping
                                                                                                                                                                   Massey University’s Political Ecology Research Centre (a                        • InforMEA;
                                                         the product back to the producer post-consumption for recycling or reuse).
                                                                                                                                                                   principle investigator of this study) and Environmental                         • Karasik, R., T. Vegh, Z. Diana, J. Bering, J. Caldas,
                        Intentionally added (e.g.,       Restrictions on the importation and trade of products with added microbeads.                              Law Oceania Consultancy.
                        microbeads)                                                                                                                                                                                                                  A. Pickle, D. Rittschof, and J. Virdin. 2020. 20 Years
                                                                                                                                                                   The following sources and documents were cross-                                   of Government Responses to the Global Plastic
                        Wear and tear (e.g., tyres,      Restrictions on the importation of plastic products with high wear and tear.
                        textiles)                                                                                                                                  referenced to ensure the most current legislation,                                Pollution Problem: The Plastics Policy Inventory. NI X
 Microplastics
                                                                                                                                                                   policies, plans and strategies relevant to plastic pollution                      20-05. Durham, NC: Duke University;
                        Agriplastics                     Management and prevention of plastics used in agriculture such as plastic mulch and microbeads
                                                         in controlled-release fertilizers.                                                                        were captured in each country gap analysis:                                     • Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA). (April
                        Management (e.g., pellets)       Handling guidelines or restrictions.                                                                        • Duke University Plastics Policy Inventory;                                    2020). Islands of Opportunity: Toward a Global
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     Agreement on Plastic Pollution for Pacific Island
                                                                                                                                                                     • FAOLEX;                                                                       Countries and Territories;

                                                                                                                                                                     • ECOLEX;
16                                                                                                                       Environmental Investigation Agency        PLASTIC POLLUTION prevention in pacific island countries                                                                                                    17
Plastic Pollution Prevention in Pacific Island Countries: Gap analysis of current legislation, policies and plans - August 2020 - EIA ...
• Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA) (June                   2. each document was reviewed to determine its                  marine litter action plans and assesses the effectiveness     ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity (Table 2).
       2020). Convention on Plastic Pollution: Toward a                    instruments and mechanisms for plastic pollution             of regional and sub-regional governance strategies, with      The Aichi Biodiversity Targets, developed in accordance
       new global agreement to address plastic pollution.                  prevention and whether these focused on the top              the aim of identifying gaps and solutions. It also supports   with the CBD include references to reducing pollution to
       London, UK: EIA;                                                    of the waste hierarchy (prevention): refuse, rethink,        the establishment of public awareness campaigns               levels that “are not detrimental” to marine wildlife and
                                                                           reduce, redesign and reuse. From this, documents             and encourages public-private partnerships to find            ecosystems in Target 8.
     • SPREP (2019). PACPOL Strategy and Workplan                          were selected that were considered ‘key’ to                  solutions to marine litter. A key outcome of the GPML is
       prepared by Asia-Pacific ASA (APASA) for the                        preventing plastic pollution in each country;                the establishment of the Open-Ended Expert Group on           The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aim to
       Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment.                                                                                 Marine Litter and Microplastics at UNEA-3. GPML also          promote sustainability in the use of natural resources,
       Apia, Samoa: SPREP;                                              3. next, a granular thematic analysis of the key                has plans to develop a “Plastics Management Strategy          protection of ecological life support systems and ending
                                                                           documents was undertaken using the key words                 for SIDS and Islands”. The GPML aligns closely with the       poverty and inequalities. The SDGs provide important
     • SPREP (2016). Cleaner Pacific 2025: Pacific Regional                and themes derived from the analytical framework                                                                           framing for addressing cross-cutting issues in the Pacific
       Waste and Pollution Management Strategy 2016–                                                                                    UNEP Regional Seas Programme (summarised below).
                                                                           (Tables 4-8). Synonyms and synonymic phrases                                                                               region that simultaneously need to be addressed in order
       2025. Apia, Samoa: SPREP;                                           in the themes were examined for their application            The Honolulu Strategy (2011) was developed under              to achieve effective plastic pollution prevention. Goal
     • Commonwealth Marine Economies Programme                             within and across national legislation, policies, and        the umbrella of the GPML at the fifth International           12: Responsible Consumption and Production relates to
       (2018). Pacific Marine Climate Change Report Card.                  plans;                                                       Marine Debris Conference. This voluntary strategy             the production of disposable plastic products. Goal 14:
                                                                                                                                        provides a global framework for a collaborative effort        Life Under Water specifically states the need to combat
Analysis                                                                4. based on the definitions provided in the analytical          to “reduce the ecological, human health, and economic         marine pollution of all kinds. However, several other
                                                                           framework (Table 1), green indicates explicit mention        impacts of marine debris worldwide”. To support policy        targets under other SDGs are also pertinent to plastic
The gap analysis review process comprised five                             of the theme in the document, yellow indicates that          development, the Honolulu Strategy draws on polluter          production, use and disposal:
components:                                                                the document either partially includes the theme or          pays and EPR principles, outlining best practices and a
                                                                           that it is inferred and red indicates that that theme is     set of goals and strategies that are broadly applicable,      Target 3: Good health and well-being
     1. keyword search of documents. Documents were                        absent in the document;                                      regardless of country-specific conditions or challenges.        • 3.3 By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis,
        searched for the following terms: ‘waste’, ‘plastic’,
                                                                        5. country delegates were emailed to request validation         The Honolulu Strategy has three key goals:                        malaria and neglected tropical diseases and
        ‘refuse’, ‘garbage’, ‘litter’, ‘pollution’, ‘microplastic’,
        ‘marine debris’, ‘hazardous waste’ ‘emission’ and                  of the selected documents. The analysis was                    1. reduce amount and impact of land-based sources of            combat hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other
        ‘contaminant’ to find references to plastic pollution;             validated through an internal peer review process.                marine debris introduced into the sea;                       communicable diseases.

                                                                                                                                          2. reduce amount and impact of sea-based sources              • 3.9 By 2030, substantially reduce the number of

International and regional plastic policy                                                                                                    of marine debris including solid waste; lost cargo;
                                                                                                                                             abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear
                                                                                                                                                                                                          deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and
                                                                                                                                                                                                          air, water and soil pollution and contamination.

overview                                                                                                                                     (ALDFG); and abandoned vessels;                            • 3.3 By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis,
                                                                                                                                                                                                          malaria and neglected tropical diseases and
                                                                                                                                          3. reduce amount and impact of accumulated marine
                                                                                                                                             debris on shorelines, in benthic habitats and in             combat hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other
While several PICs are leading the world in activities                    in 2013, addresses ocean-based litter pollution and                                                                             communicable diseases.
                                                                                                                                             pelagic waters.
to regulate plastic pollution by implementing national                    prohibits the discharge of all plastics from ships
bans and levies, solving the issue of plastic pollution in                (IMO 2017b);                                                  Each of the goals provide a list of strategies and            Target 6: Clean water and sanitation
the Pacific requires national, regional and international                                                                               indicators to direct the development of policies that
coordination and support. There are existing legal                      • The London Convention, or Convention on the                                                                                   • 6.1 By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access
                                                                                                                                        work towards achieving these goals. The Secretariat of            to safe and affordable drinking water for all.
frameworks at multiple levels of governance to                            Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of
                                                                                                                                        the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP)
prevent and manage plastic waste and marine litter                        Wastes and Other Matter 1972, adopted in 1975,
                                                                                                                                        administers the GPML and the Honolulu Strategy in               • 6.3 By 2030, improve water quality by reducing
in the Pacific. Here, we present a brief summary of the                   “promotes the control of marine pollution from
                                                                                                                                        the Pacific Islands region. It also develops the Pacific          pollution, eliminating dumping and minimising
instruments the study countries have signed, ratified                     human activities and aims at preventing pollution
                                                                                                                                        Regional Action Plan on Marine Litter 2018-25 as part of          release of hazardous chemicals and materials,
or acceded to that are relevant to plastic pollution                      of the ocean from the dumping of wastes and
                                                                                                                                        this agreement.                                                   halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and
prevention and mitigation in the Pacific Region (Tables 2                 other matter” (IMO 2017c). The London Convention
                                                                          Protocol 1996 is a legally binding protocol for the                                                                             substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse
and 3).                                                                                                                                 Existing global agreements on the protection of marine            globally.
                                                                          “[p]revention of marine pollution by dumping                  ecosystems and biodiversity also have direct relevance
International policy overview                                             of wastes and other matter”. This later protocol              to the issue of plastic pollution. For example, the           Target 11: Sustainable cities and communities
                                                                          includes guidance on polluter pays mechanisms for             Convention on Biological Diversity (1993) (CBD) is a
The first international legally binding instrument                        addressing marine litter.                                                                                                     • 11.6: By 2030, reduce the adverse per capita
                                                                                                                                        binding international instrument for the “conservation
relevant to plastic waste and marine debris in the Pacific                                                                                                                                                environmental impact of cities, including by paying
                                                                                                                                        of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its
region is the 1982 United Nations Convention on the                   The Global Programme of Action for the Protection of                                                                                special attention to waste management.
                                                                                                                                        components and the fair and equitable sharing of the
Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) which entered into force in                   the Marine Environment from Land Based Activities
                                                                                                                                        benefits arising out the utilisation of genetic resources”.
1994 with 167 state parties (see Table 2 for ratified PICs).          (GPA) adopted in 1995 is a voluntary, action-orientated                                                                         Target 12: Responsible consumption and production
                                                                                                                                        The impacts of plastic pollution on biological diversity
UNCLOS is a binding international instrument that                     programme aimed at reducing the degradation of the
                                                                                                                                        were recognised in the CBD early on. The 2012 CBD               • 12.1: Implement the 10-year framework of
requires parties to adopt regulations and laws to control             marine environment from land-based activities. There
                                                                                                                                        Technical Series No 67 Report: Impacts of marine debris           programmes on sustainable consumption and
pollution of the marine environment from land-based                   are several Global Partnerships that focus on specific
                                                                                                                                        on biodiversity: current status and potential solutions           production.
sources of pollution as well as pollution from ships.                 activities or impacts. The Global Partnership on Marine
                                                                                                                                        covered the state of knowledge on the impacts of
UNCLOS outlines best practices; however, it does not                  Litter (2012) (GPML) is a voluntary agreement specifically
                                                                                                                                        plastics, including ALDFG and microplastics on marine           • 12.2: By 2030, achieve the sustainable management
provide guidance on Extended Producer Responsibility                  aimed at reducing and managing marine litter. The key
                                                                                                                                        life and ecosystems, and gave an overview on multilevel           and efficient use of natural resources.
(EPR) or polluter pays mechanisms, that is, when                      policy recommendations from the GPML for the long-
                                                                                                                                        legal instruments on solutions. The report highlighted
external costs are incorporated into products and carried             term are aimed at the top of the waste hierarchy: phasing                                                                         • 12.4: By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound
                                                                                                                                        the potential of EPR (including container deposit
by producers to address marine pollution. There are                   out microbeads, significant reductions in single-use                                                                                management of chemicals and all wastes throughout
                                                                                                                                        schemes), eco-labelling, user-pays approaches, bans,
two specific legally binding instruments within the                   plastics, upstream reductions (but also acknowledges                                                                                their life cycle.
                                                                                                                                        producer responsibility and a precautionary approach.
framework of UNCLOS relating to plastic pollution:                    the need for short-term improvements in waste
                                                                                                                                        A key aspect of the CBD generally is the inclusion of           • 12.5 By 2030, substantially reduce waste generation
                                                                      management), avoiding replacing single-use plastics
     • the International Convention for the Prevention of                                                                               promoting inter- and intra-generational equity in all             through prevention, reduction, recycling, and reuse.
                                                                      with ‘biodegradable’ alternatives, harmonisation and
       Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) 1973, amended in                                                                                   efforts to conserve biological diversity and ecological
                                                                      standardisation of government monitoring frameworks.
       1978. Annex V of MARPOL, which came into force                                                                                   integrity. All countries participating in this study have
                                                                      The GPML provides support to member states to develop
18                                                                                                 Environmental Investigation Agency   PLASTIC POLLUTION prevention in pacific island countries                                                                19
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