Plastic Pollution Prevention in Pacific Island Countries: Gap analysis of current legislation, policies and plans - August 2020 - EIA ...
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Plastic Pollution Prevention in Pacific Island Countries: Gap analysis of current legislation, policies and plans August 2020
CONTENTS
Ocean List of Figures 4 Waste Prevention 34
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS List of Tables 5 Market restrictions, virgin plastics, and trade in safe plastics 34
This report was prepared by Dr Trisia National reduction targets 34
Farrelly (Massey University Political
Executive Summary 6
Ecology Research Centre [PERC], Virgin plastic use 34
New Zealand), Dr Stephanie Borrelle Key Recommendations 7
(University of Toronto, Canada) and Dr Market restrictions 35
Sascha Fuller (University of Newcastle,
Australia) for the Environmental
Acronyms 8
Promotion of traditional solutions 35
Investigation Agency (EIA).
Background 10 Waste Management 38
The team acknowledges, with gratitude,
the support of the Center for International
Aims 12 Closed loop recycling 38
Environmental Law (CIEL) and World
Wildlife Fund – Pacific; Environmental
Methods 12 Sustainable financial mechanisms and infrastructure investments 38
Law Oceania; Island Sustainability
Alliance; and participating countries.
Pacific Islands countries and documents analysed 17 Extended producer responsibility 40
Analysis 18 Economic development 40
Remediation and legacy pollution (recovery) 40
International and Regional Plastic Policy Overview 18
Transport (including reverse logistics/backloading) 41
International Policy Overview 18
Standardisation 44
Regional Policy Overview 21
National monitoring, reporting and inventories 44
Regional Plans and Strategies 24
Transparency of information, freedom of information and labelling 44
Regional Public-Private Partnerships 25
Enforcement 45
Summary 25
Definitions 45
Country Level Gap Analysis 26
Microplastics 48
Global Objectives 26
Key recommendations 52
Long-term elimination of discharges 26
Global Objectives 52
Safe circular economy for plastics 27
Long-term elimination of discharges 52
Intergenerational equity and justice 27
Safe circular economy and human health 52
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 28
Intergenerational equity and justice 52
Protection of human health 28
SDGs 52
Vertical integration 29
Protection of human health 52
Horizontal integration 29
Vertical Integration 52
Waste hierarchy 30
Horizontal integration 53
Precautionary approach 30
Precautionary approach 54
Climate Change 30
2 Environmental Investigation Agency PLASTIC POLLUTION prevention in pacific island countries 3
Waste hierarchy 54 LIST OF TABLES
Climate Change 54
Table 1: Analytical Framework including the categories, themes
and definitions based on the EIA Pillars of Action and supporting
Waste Prevention 54
documents. 16
Market restrictions, virgin plastics, and trade in safe plastics 54
Table 2: International Conventions ratified, signed or acceded by the
Pacific Island Countries examined here. Green represents the countries
Virgin plastics 54
are party to the agreement, yellow that they have participated and/or
acknowledged they will sign (but have not yet). 22
National reduction targets 54
Table 3: Regional Instruments ratified, signed or acceded by the Pacific
Waste management 55
Island Countries examined here. Green represents the countries are
party to the agreement. 26
Sustainable financial mechanisms and infrastructure investments 55
Table 4: Global Objectives gap analysis of key documents using the
Extended producer responsibility 55
analytical framework. Green indicates explicit mention of the theme
in the document; yellow indicates that the document either partially
Container deposit schemes 55
includes the theme or that it is inferred; and red indicates that that
theme is absent in the document. 32
Remediation and recovery 55
Table 5: Waste Prevention gap analysis of key documents using the
Transport/Backloading 56
analytical framework. Green indicates explicit mention of the theme
in the document; yellow indicates that the document either partially
Standardisation 56
includes the theme or that it is inferred; and red indicates that that
theme is absent in the document. 36
National monitoring, reporting and inventories 56
Table 6: Waste Management gap analysis of key documents using the
Transparency and freedom of information 56
analytical framework. Green indicates explicit mention of the theme
in the document; yellow indicates that the document either partially
Enforcement 56
includes the theme or that it is inferred; and red indicates that that
theme is absent in the document. 42
Definitions 56
Table 7: Standardisation gap analysis of key documents using the
Microplastics 57
analytical framework. Green indicates explicit mention of the theme
in the document; yellow indicates that the document either partially
Conclusion 57 includes the theme or that it is inferred; and red indicates that that
theme is absent in the document. 46
References 58
Table 8: Microplastics gap analysis of key documents using the
analytical framework. Green indicates explicit mention of the theme
Appendix 1: Documents Analysed 59 in the document; yellow indicates that the document either partially
includes the theme or that it is inferred; and red indicates that that
theme is absent in the document. 50
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: EIA Pillars of Action for a Convention on Plastic Pollution (2020) 14
Figure 2: Zero Waste Hierarchy 31
Figure 3: Pillar 1 Monitoring and Reporting 56
4 Environmental Investigation Agency CONVENTION
PLASTIC POLLUTION
ON PLASTIC
prevention
POLLUTION
in pacific island countries 5
Executive Summary Key recommendations
Pacific Island countries (PICs) contribute less than 1.3 per Global Objectives
cent of the mismanaged plastics in the world’s oceans
yet are one of the main recipients of plastics pollution • Policy frameworks prioritising prevention over waste
and its impacts. management.
• Specific references to ‘plastic pollution prevention/
The costs of plastic pollution and climate-related elimination’ within relevant policy frameworks.
impacts on these islands are massively disproportionate • Legislative mechanisms to address the
to their contributions. Plastics entering the region are intergenerational sociocultural, economic,
polluting the region’s life support systems and impacting environmental, climate change, and public health
their Indigenous peoples’ cultural, economic and social impacts of plastic pollution.
ties to the ocean.
• Intergenerational equity to include gender and informal
workers.
While the transboundary flows of plastic waste through
• Incorporation and implementation of regional and
Pacific Ocean currents is distinctly recognisable and
international obligations where possible (e.g. marine
increasingly documented, this report significantly
litter, toxic chemicals, climate change, and waste trade).
widens the scope beyond marine-based litter to consider
the impacts along the full lifecycle of plastics, from • Inter-ministerial integration and policy coherence
extraction and production to the ongoing impacts on air, specific to plastic pollution.
water and soil.
Traditional and local knowledge, values and alternatives Waste Prevention
plastic pollution. This may, in part, be the result of a
Using a gap analysis, this study aims to identify the limited access to the latest science-based evidence to plastics are underutilised across the participating • Plastic pollution policy focused high up the waste
current limitations in national plastic pollution policy for on plastic pollution as well as its interpretation. The countries. Expanding on pre-existing public-private hierarchy.
preventing plastic pollution. It also explores the potential latest information on false solutions to the plastics partnerships across the Pacific region will also support
• Importation and trade restrictions on problematic
to implement best practice for the reduction of plastic crisis, such as incineration technologies, bioplastics the prevention, reduction and repatriation or removal of
plastics and polymers (including single-use
pollution and the promotion of a safe circular plastics and downcycling, is urgently needed if the region is to plastic pollution (e.g. for collection, sorting, sanitising,
bioplastics).
economy. avoid the perverse outcomes that come with locking processing, takeback schemes and reverse logistics).
• Measurable and ambitious national reduction targets.
investment into these responses.
The findings strongly suggest that in order to address • Reduction, monitoring, and management plans for
An analytical framework was developed using publicly
these issues and prevent growing volumes of virgin plastics.
available online resources to examine national Cleaner Pacific 2025 illustrates that preventing
legislation, policies, strategies and plans relevant to plastic pollution will not be possible in the absence increasingly problematic types of plastics entering • Promotion of traditional/local alternatives.
plastic pollution in each of the countries included. The of a comprehensive policy framework which fosters the Pacific region, a global agreement is urgently • Financial mechanisms to incentivise prevention.
final framework consisted of five categories: Global sustainable consumption and production. The report needed. Only this can address the transboundary flow • National inter-ministerial plastic pollution elimination
Objectives, Waste Prevention, Waste Management, corroborates these insights by underscoring the of marine litter, safe reusable and recyclable product committees.
Microplastics and Standardisation. A total of 10 PICs importance of sustainable financing mechanisms, design and the global reduction of plastic production.
from Melanesia, Polynesia and Micronesia were transparency of information, monitoring and These responses sit outside the national and regional Microplastics
analysed. performance indicators and regional and national jurisdiction of PICs.
• Open source access to the latest science.
cooperation.
A global agreement could also provide scientific, • Product design legislation.
The core finding of this report is that while a growing
number of countries have implemented ambitious Pacific Island Countries rely heavily on imported goods financial and technical assistance to develop tailored • Market and import restrictions (e.g. for products
legislation to restrict the import and trade of the some and many of these either contain or are packaged in national action plans and policy tools to prevent plastic containing microbeads and non-durable products).
of the most problematic plastics into the region, PICs plastic. Where plastics are necessary, ‘repatriation’ pollution, develop harmonised standards for reporting • Legislated return schemes (e.g. for degradable
are failing to address plastic pollution beyond waste maybe considered an additional ‘R’ to the ‘3Rs’ seen in and monitoring at national levels and the required agricultural films).
management. Many countries have ratified, signed or many of the documents analysed in this study. This industry standards to ensure a safe circular economy for • Monitoring, management, and reporting systems for
acceded to regional and global instruments, protocols would see a range of ‘takeback’ schemes whereby all plastics. plastic pellets.
and conventions related to plastics pollution. However, the plastics that enter the region were repatriated by
the implementation of these obligations is rarely producers at the end of their useful life. Furthermore, Over the years, PICs have repeatedly demonstrated Standardisation
reflected in country-level policy frameworks. Where the legal regulation of a broad set of priority plastic leadership in international fora on environmental issues,
• National monitoring, reporting and inventories
the transposition of an international convention into products (e.g. single-use plastics including polyvinyl leading the world in a call for the standalone Sustainable
specifically for plastics.
national law is made, these are usually aimed at waste chloride [PVC]] and polystyrene [PS and EPS], whiteware, Development Goal for the ocean, SDG14 and advancing
international progress towards addressing the climate • 10-digit globally harmonised system (GHS) for customs
management – when plastics have already become tyres and e-waste). Priority products enacted under
crisis. tariff codes to restrict problematic plastics imports.
waste or pollution – rather than preventative measures. a legislative instrument could trigger government-
mandated extended producer responsibility schemes • Freedom of information enacted all along the supply
Plastic pollution is often subsumed within the broad with the flexibility to accommodate additional priority As with climate change, tackling plastic pollution chain, from production to packaging and point of sale
category of ‘waste management’ and a range of terms products as the need arose. requires an urgent and coordinated global response that (including ecolabeling).
associated with plastics lacked standardised definitions reflects the needs of countries most directly affected • Standardised definitions.
and best practice. As a result, current policy does There may be a case for an eco-levy on all single-use by it. This report takes fundamental steps towards • Harmonised monitoring / reporting.
not protect the health of Pasifika peoples (including plastics to financially support and incentivise a shift analysing the gaps in the region and making concrete • Extended producer responsibility certified schemes.
consumers and workers) and the environment from to refillables/reusables and safe product design. A recommendations for how these challenges can be • Strengthen compliance and enforcement.
the chemical and physical harms specific to plastic range of mandatory measures with inbuilt financial overcome through strategic and ambitious policy-
pollution. Microplastics was only noted in one of the mechanisms could aid in setting and meeting ambitious making.
national documents analysed and few linkages were and measurable national plastic pollution elimination
made between human health, climate change and targets.
6 Environmental Investigation Agency PLASTIC POLLUTION prevention in pacific island countries 7
ACRONYMS
MWAP Solomon Islands National Waste SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
ADB Asian Development Bank EIA Environmental Investigation
Management Action Plan
Agency
SIDS Small Island Developing States
AHOEEG Ad Hoc Open-Ended Expert Group
NDCs Nationally Determined
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
Contributions SPREP Secretariat of the Pacific Regional
ALDFG Abandoned, Lost or otherwise
Environment
Discarded Fishing Gear EPR Extended Producer Responsibility
NIAS Non-Intentionally Added
Substances STaRS National Strategy for Responsible
ARF Advanced Recycling Fee GEF Global Environmental Facility
Sustainable Development for
PACPOL Pacific Oceans Pollution Papua New Guinea
BMW International Convention on the GESAMP Joint Group of Experts on the
Prevention
Control and Management of Ship’s Scientific Aspects of Marine
Programme SWAT The Solid Waste Agency of Tuvalu
Ballast Water and Sediments Environmental Protection
(now the Department of Waste
PBBs Polybrominated Biphenyls Management [DWM)
BPA Bisphenol A GHGs Greenhouse Gas Emissions
PCBs Polychlorinated Biphenyls UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the
BPS Bisphenol S GPA Global Programme of Action for
Law of the Sea
the Protection of the Marine
PCTs Polychlorinated Terphenyls
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity Environment from Land Based
UNEA United Nations Environment
Activities
PERC Political Ecology Research Centre Assembly
CDS Container deposit scheme
GPML Global Partnership on Marine
PET Polyethylene Terepthalate UNEP The United Nations Environment
CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons Litter
Programme
PFOA Perfluorooctanoic Acid
CIEL Center for International HBCD hexabromocyclododecane
UNFCCC The United Nations Framework
Environmental Law
PIC Pacific Island Country Convention on Climate Change
IMO International Maritime
CLiP Commonwealth Litter Programme Organisation
PNG Papua New Guinea UPOPS Unintentional Persistent Organic
Pollutants
CMM Conservation Management ISO International Organisation for
POLP Pacific Ocean Litter Project
Measure Standardization
WCPFC Convention for the Conservation
POPs Persistent Organic Pollutants and Management of Highly
CROP Council of Regional Organisations JICA Japan International Cooperation
Migratory Fish Stocks in the
in the Pacific Agency
PRIF Pacific Regional Infrastructure Western and Central Pacific Ocean
Facility (WCPFC Convention)
DWM Department of Waste KSWMP Kiribati’s Solid Waste
Management Management Plan
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride WRC Nairobi International Convention
on the Removal of Wrecks
ECAL Environment and Climate LDPE Low Density Polyethylene
PwC PricewaterhouseCoopers
Adaptation Levy
WWF World Wildlife Fund
MARPOL International Convention for the
SAMOA Small Island Developing States
EDCs Endocrine disrupting chemicals Prevention of Pollution from Ships
Accelerated Modalities of Action
EDO Environment Defenders Office MLAP Pacific Marine Litter Action Plan
8 Environmental Investigation Agency PLASTIC POLLUTION prevention in pacific island countries 9
Plastic production is increasing at alarming rates, set to quadruple by marine plastics (Markic et al 2018). While the risk natural resources of the Pacific. Tourism, including
Background by 2050. Up to 12 million tonnes of plastic leak into our oceans
each year, and 51 trillion plastic particles are already present in the
marine environment
to marine fauna from ingestion and entanglement of
plastics are now well-documented, the full extent of
cruise ships and beachside resorts, contributes
significantly to all PIC economies. The Cook Islands
harms from micro- and nano-sized plastics to fauna, is the most dependent on tourism, which contributes
The Pacific is the world’s largest ocean, covering 30 Henderson Island in the Pitcairn Group, for example, flora, biodiversity, food safety and human health are 87 per cent of GDP (SPTO, 2020). However, tourism
million square kilometres (nearly 15 per cent of the contains an estimated 37.7 million items of plastic nascent yet growing fields of research. There is growing also generates a significantly amount more waste per
Earth’s surface). It comprises approximately 25,000 debris, giving it the dubious honour of being the island evidence that edible plants have the potential to take up capita than residents (Mohee et al. 2015). Many resorts
islands that are home to 2.3 million people. For with the world’s greatest density of marine plastic litter. microplastics (Conti et al 2020; Li et al 2019). ‘Agriplastics’ and tourist sites import a high volume of packaged
thousands of years, the people of the Pacific region Marine plastic densities have been found to be high on or agricultural plastics have the potential to contaminate products to meet tourists’ requirements. Paradoxically,
have been sustained by the rich natural resources of sea floors throughout the region. These marine plastic crops. They include microplastics found in slow- plastic pollution from any source presents economic
their marine environment. Pasifika peoples depend on pollution inflows threaten ecological and human health release and sewage sludge fertilisers, as well as from threats to the tourism sector, which relies heavily of the
the ocean for food, transport, traditional practices and and economic systems (Lachmann et al. 2017); they place degraded agricultural films such as plastic mulch, plastic perception of the region as a “Pristine Paradise” (e.g.,
economic opportunity. Plastic pollution adversely affects additional burdens on already over-stretched waste greenhouses and silage wraps. Plastics are also known Government of Palau Tourism Slogan). For the tourism
the health of Pasifika peoples and the biodiversity of management infrastructure and cannot be captured by to raft pathogens and invasive species, thus threatening industry to thrive in the region, PICs will need to ensure
marine and terrestrial ecosystems. country-level policy mechanisms alone. bio- and food security in a region that is heavily their environments are clean, healthy and functioning
dependent on the sea as a source of food and sustainable (Lachmann et al. 2017).
Pacific Island Countries (PICs) are vulnerable to Unregulated inflows of plastics not only carry macro- livelihoods (Rodriquez et al 2019; Miller et al 2018).
plastic pollution due to their expansive coastlines or mega-sized plastics, but also micro- and nano-sized Like all nations, PICs face the challenge of managing
– the total coastline of Pacific island countries is plastic particles. A 2011 study found more than 700 items The increase in the generation of domestic plastic these increasing volumes of plastic pollution. PICs are
57,797km (Andrew et al 2019) – and position within the of macroplastic debris in 3300m2 of the shallow lagoon pollution in PICs further threatens livelihoods and Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and characterised
trade winds and at the outer edges of oceanic gyres. of the Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands environments. PICs have seen a significant shift away as small, isolated and resource-limited island states
Remote islands are often exposed to marine plastic (or 234,000 items per sq km) and more than 780 plastic from traditionally locally grown and fished food sources that face ‘specific social, economic and environmental
pollution disproportionate to their size and domestic items in 3900m2 on the exposed reef (more than 200,000 toward cash cropping and commercial fishing (Friel vulnerabilities’ (UN-OHRLLS 2011). PICs are limited in
contributions, with the source and responsibility often items per sq km) (Richards & Beger, 2011). Microplastics et al., 2013, p. 126). This, combined with the trend in land size (only two per cent of the Pacific region is land
originating thousands of kilometres away. Offshore density found on Easter Island shores average 800 items rapidly growing urban communities and increasing mass) and, therefore, limited in terms of landfill capacity
sources of marine plastic debris, e.g., abandoned, lost per m2. Studies involving samples taken in the ocean preferences for imported, processed and pre-packaged and site suitability (Mohee et al 2015). This, coupled with
or otherwise discarded fishing gear (ALDFG), and other region between New Zealand, Samoa, Tahiti and Rapa foods, leads to growing volumes of disposable packaging the fact that populations are geographically dispersed,
plastic pollution carried on ocean currents from other Nui found microplastics in 97 per cent of 33 of the 34 waste and other plastics requiring safe management means most PICs lack regular and accessible domestic
nations can represent the most significant types of fish species examined, compared to a global trend of 67 post-consumption (SPREP 2016). Many PICs are over- collection and sorting services, infrastructure and
debris on these islands (Richardson et al. 2017). The per cent: stark evidence that the marine environment dependent on income from tourists who are attracted regional networks. Further, many municipal dumpsites
beaches of the World Heritage-listed and uninhabited of the Pacific region is disproportionately impacted to the high biodiversity, cultural diversity, heritage and are open and unsanitary and burning in open pits is
10 Environmental Investigation Agency PLASTIC POLLUTION prevention in pacific island countries 11
standard waste management practice. Poor waste • low and irregular international traffic offer poor
management results in ecological damage and poses opportunities for reverse logistics and take-back/
human health risks, particularly when plastic and other end-of life logistics;
toxic wastes escape poorly controlled landfills or are
burnt. Consequences include the toxic contamination of • fragile natural environments with low resilience
water, air and soil from residual ash (Verma et al 2016). to natural disasters, climate disruption and
uncontrollable marine debris inflows
Recycling is also restricted in PICs due to intra- and
inter-island logistical and transport challenges, lack of Aims
collection and sorting facilities, limited port capacity in Global policy and the work on plastic pollution now
some countries, lack of backloading/reverse logistics acknowledge the limitations of focusing purely on
agreements and difficulty in securing and retaining preventing and mitigating ‘marine litter’, considering
markets for post-consumer materials. approximately 80 per cent of marine litter comes from
In addition to these constraints, the Pacific region, land-based sources and all plastics are produced on
with its many low-lying islands and atolls, is one of land. This report significantly widens the scope beyond
the most vulnerable regions in the world to climate marine-based litter to consider the impacts along the
change-induced sea level rise, storm surges and other full life cycle of plastics: from extraction to ongoing
increasingly frequent weather events. Due to limited impacts on air, water and soil. Using a gap analysis, this
suitable land, landfills and dumpsites are often situated study aims to identify the following in national plastic
near human settlements and fragile ecosystems. This pollution policy frameworks in PICs:
offers landfill leachate a direct pathway to soils, marine 1. limitations in the ability to prevent plastic pollution;
ecosystems and freshwater sources. Landfills and
dumpsites are also often located in flat coastal areas 2. potential to implement an adaptation of Pillar Two of
most exposed to weather events and rising sea levels a multilateral plastic pollution convention proposed
(Mimura et al., 2007). Extreme weather events aggravate by the Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA)
the pre-existing environmental impacts of poorly sited (2020).
and managed landfills (Farrelly, Stupples, and Schneider,
2016), which are likely to increase in frequency and This is phase one of a two-phase research project. Phase
intensity as climate change progresses. Drinking water two will extend the scope beyond document analysis
potability can also be threated through climate change to incorporate qualitative data from interviews with
impacts, including rising sea levels. This can occur when country delegates. Phase two aims to contextualise the
strangulation, entanglement and ingestion. Plastic Programme (CLiP): Vanuatu and Solomon Islands.
saltwater flows into unconfined aquifers in low lying gaps identified in phase one by providing insights into
pollution is also concerned with the organisms or novel University of Wollongong Australia, Wollongong,
areas and where groundwater discharges to streams the following:
ecosystems associated with plastic pollution, including Australia;
(WHO 2017). the pathogens and invasive species that can raft on
- current capacities to prevent and mitigate plastic
plastics, and the microbial communities that can form • Raubenheimer, K., N. Oral, and A. McIlgorm (2017).
The key constraints for sustainable development in pollution;
on plastics. These pathogens and microbial communities Combating Marine Plastic Litter and Microplastics:
relation to plastic pollution for PICs include the following: An Assessment of the Effectiveness of Relevant
- expectations for in an international legally binding associated with plastic pollution can threaten
• rapidly growing urban populations and growing plastic pollution convention; biodiversity and marine-based food systems. Plastics International, Regional and Sub regional Governance
dependence on tourism and growing dependence on pollution also captures plastic alternatives such as Strategies and Approaches. UNEP/EA.3/INF/5, UN
- readiness to implement a proposed multilateral bioplastics and plastic management technologies, such Environment.
processed and pre-packaged foods;
plastic pollution convention; as chemical recycling and waste-to-energy incineration.
• small domestic markets and dependence on a few In this study, ‘Global Objectives’ include cross-cutting
- support needed from regional networks, private The gap analysis methodology involved desktop research objectives and principles. The national actions that
external import markets;
sector and the global community to prevent plastic using publicly available online resources. An analytical are more likely to prevent the flow of plastics into
• limitations of suitable sites for landfill, few sanitary pollution in the region and to implement such a framework initially based on ‘Pillar Two: Plastic Pollution the economy are categorised as ‘Waste Prevention’.
landfills and high costs of improvements to current convention in national and regional policy and Prevention’ of the Environmental Investigation Agency’s Virgin plastics are not produced in PICs, so this
sites; legislation. (EIA’s) proposed ‘Pillars of Action’ (2020) (Figure 1) was category is entitled ‘reduction in virgin plastics’
developed to examine national legislation and policies (related to manufacturing). Actions that contribute to
• high costs for energy, infrastructure, transportation, Methods the prevention of further damage once plastics have
relevant to plastic pollution in each Pacific country. Pillar
communication, maintenance and servicing to already entered the environment are located under
In this study, the term ‘plastic pollution’ captures not Two presents measures to reduce plastic pollution and to
implement waste services more widely and to ‘Waste Management’. ‘Agriplastics’ are added under
only the physical properties of plastics but also plastic promote a safe circular plastics economy.
expand recycling networks; ‘Microplastics’ to capture microplastics found in
feedstocks (fossil fuel and bio-based); monomers (the
building blocks of plastic polymers) and additives The analytical framework was adapted iteratively. The agricultural products such as slow-release fertilisers
• uncontrolled inflow of plastic marine debris arriving
(such as plasticisers, flame retardants and stabilisers); final framework (Table 1) was informed by preliminary most likely to threaten terrestrial food security. ‘Product
from distant shores;
the risks borne by associated chemicals such as document analysis, regular research team discussions design and additive restrictions’ are separated out under
• a narrow resource base restricting access to the persistent organic pollutants [POPs] that are adsorbed and the following documents: the broader theme ‘Standardisation’. Additional themes
benefits of economies of scale; by hydrophobic plastics and the furans and dioxins that have been added to ‘Standardisation’, including ‘national
• Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA) (June monitoring, reporting and inventories’, ‘transparency
are released when plastics are burnt; and the methane 2020). Convention on Plastic Pollution: Toward a
• low volume of recyclables, poor quality materials, a and chlorine plastics have the propensity to ‘offgas’ and and freedom of information’ and ‘enforcement’ (since
growing range of material including (an increasing New Global Agreement to Address Plastic Pollution. monitoring and reporting to check compliance are
contribute to GHG emissions and damage the ozone London, UK: EIA;
range of hard-to-recycle or unrecyclable hazardous layer. minimum requirements of enforcement). ‘Definitions’
materials) and low global demand for recyclable and ‘transport’ emerged as additional key themes across
• Raubenheimer, Karen (2019). Desktop studies on
materials; The prevention of plastic pollution is also concerned the country documents. Definitions are located under
Principles of Waste Management and Funding
with harms caused by the physical properties of plastics, Mechanisms in Relation to the Commonwealth Litter ‘Standardisation’ and transport is located under ‘Waste
including coral reef and vessel damage and fauna Management’.
12 Environmental Investigation Agency PLASTIC POLLUTION prevention in pacific island countries 13
Figure 1: EIA Pillars of Action for a Convention on Plastic Pollution (2020)
Pillars of Action
Member States have identified several areas where activities are needed, which can be broadly placed into four
pillars of action that form the structural and conceptual framework for the Convention on Plastic Pollution:
CONVENTION ON PLASTIC POLLUTION
PILLAR 1 PILLAR 2 PILLAR 3 PILLAR 4
MONITORING AND REPORTING PLASTIC POLLUTION PREVENTION COORDINATION TECHNICAL AND FINANCIAL SUPPORT
Monitoring and reporting on the state of the Measures to reduce plastic pollution and Coordination with other international and Technical support to policymakers and
environment and implementation promote a safe circular economy for plastics regional instruments on relevant topics financial support to developing countries
Harmonisation Global objectives Sea-based sources (including fishing gear) Scientific Assessment Panel
• Definitions • Long-term elimination of discharges • International Maritime Organization (IMO) • Periodic comprehensive assessments
• Methodologies (monitoring, reporting) • Safe circular economy for plastics • Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) • Ad hoc reports
• Standardised formats National action plans Plastic waste trade Socio-Economic Assessment Panel
Environmental monitoring • Policies and legislation: • Basel Convention • Periodic comprehensive assessments
• Baselines (seafloor, seawater, shoreline, - targets and market restrictions • Organisation for Economic Co-operation • Ad hoc reports
biota, freshwater, soils) - waste prevention and management and Development (OECD) and regional
instruments Implementing and bilateral agencies
• Indicator species - recycling and secondary markets
• Technical assistance:
• Evolution of plastic pollution in marine and • Sustainable financing mechanisms Chemicals and additives
other environments - capacity-building and training
• Infrastructure investments • Stockholm Convention
- policy development
National data reporting • Strategic Approach to Integrated Chemical
• International and regional commitments - monitoring and reporting
• National inventories and sources: Management (SAICM)
Microplastics • Best practices and knowledge exchanges
- virgin plastic production and use Biodiversity
• Intentionally added (e.g. microbeads,
- recycled plastic production and use • Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Financial resources and mechanism
fertilisers)
- plastic-waste management • Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) • Enabling activities:
• Wear and tear (e.g. tyres, textiles)
- plastic-waste trade • International Whaling Commission (IWC) - capacity-building and training
• Mismanagement (e.g. pellets)
- land-based sources - policy development
Standardisation Climate change
- sea-based sources - monitoring and reporting
• Labelling • United Nations Framework Convention on
- microplastics Climate Change (UNFCCC) - institutional strengthening
• Product design and additive restrictions - Pilot and demonstration projects
• Evolution of circular economy and leakage • Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
• Certification schemes (IPCC)
Reporting on national action • Incremental costs
• Voluntary industry standards Agriculture
• Submission of national action plans Implementation and compliance mechanism
Virgin plastic production and use • Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) • Implementation guidance
• Periodic review and update
• Controls and quality standards Cross-regional knowledge exchange • Assistance for countries in non-compliance
Periodic comprehensive assessments
Remediation and legacy pollution • Regional seas conventions and programmes
• Progress toward global objectives
• Protocols and guidelines • Regional fisheries management
• Scientific and socio-economic reviews
organisations
14 Environmental Investigation Agency PLASTIC POLLUTION prevention in pacific island countries 15
Table 1: Analytical Framework including the categories, themes and definitions based on the EIA Pillars of Action and supporting documents.
Category Themes Definition Category Themes Definition
Long-term elimination of Product design Eco- and bio- benign product design.
Sustainable, long-term solutions.
discharges
Polymer restrictions Restrictions on the importation and trade of certain polymers.
Safe circular economy for A circular economy has minimal waste and reuses raw materials again and again. Any materials
plastics circulating in the economy are safe by design, allowing their introduction into the economy and Additive restrictions Restrictions on the importation and use of toxic additives and monomers, such as those catego-
their reuse without risks for human health and the environment. This includes keeping ‘substanc- rised as EDCs, POPs, and carcinogens.
es of very high concern’ (e.g. POPs as plastic additives) out of the circular economy and ultimately
aims to eliminate them entirely. Voluntary certification Compliance to certification schemes such as ISO for home compost-ability; and products and
schemes and industry stan- services certified ‘zero waste to landfill’. Businesses commit to reducing plastics throughout their
Intergenerational equity and Ensures future generations flourish as a result of the current policy, legislation and action. dards supply chain.
justice
Mandatory product steward- Government mandated participation in accredited schemes for the stewardship of plastic products.
SDGs Progresses the UN Sustainable Development Goals: ship
Target 3: Good health and well-being Standardisation
Target 6: Clean water and sanitation National monitoring and Tracking of production, trade, consumption, and recycled content, final treatment. National reduc-
Target 11: Sustainable cities and communities reporting, national inventories tion targets with agreed timelines.
Target 12: Responsible consumption and production and reduction targets
Global objectives Target 13: Climate action
Transparency & Freedom of Information is readily available to the consumer. Information could include recycled content, recy-
Target 14: Life below water (protection of the seas and oceans)
information (consumer justice, clability, appropriate disposal, compost-ability, additives, GHGs, and hazard potential.
Target 15: Life on land (restore ecosystems and preserve diversity).
labelling)
Protection of human health The connection between plastics and human health is explicit and/or provisions made.
Compliance measures (mon- Minimum requirements, monitoring and reporting. Mechanisms for managing suspected or identi-
Vertical integration Responds to regional and international obligations. itoring and reporting) and fied instances of non-compliance such as financial penalties, imprisonment, or confiscation.
enforcement
Horizontal Integration Evidence of coherence between legislation, and national policies, plans and strategies (inter-minis-
terial cooperation). Definitions Standardised definitions. E.g., ‘reusable’, ‘compostable’, ‘recyclable’, ‘biodegradable’.
Precautionary approach Lack of scientific data or certainty is not a reason for not acting to prevent serious or irreversible
damage.
Pacific Islands countries and documents analysed • the Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute
Waste hierarchy There is either explicit reference to the waste hierarchy and/or a focus on the top of the waste (PacLII);
hierarchy (refuse, reduce, reuse, redesign). The documents analysed in this report (Appendix
Climate Change The connection between plastic pollution and climate change is made explicit and/or provisions
1) were limited to country-level legislation, policies, • Pacific Region Infrastructure Facility (2018) Pacific
are made. plans and strategies relevant to plastic pollution in 10 Region Solid Waste Management and Recycling
Trade in non-hazardous, recy- Import and export bans and restrictions, minimum environmental standards for plastics imports
PICs which are confronted with similar constraints Country and Territory Profiles. Pacific Region
clable and reusable plastics and exports, fees on problematic imported plastic. to their sustainable development efforts in relation to Infrastructure Facility (PRIF). Sydney, Australia;
plastic pollution and its ecological, social and economic
National reduction targets Measurable plastic pollution reduction targets and timelines.
impacts: • Peel, J., L. Godden, A. Palmer, R. Gardner, and
Virgin plastic use Controls and standards to reduce virgin plastics entering the economy (e.g. caps). R. Markey-Towler (2020). Stocktake of Existing
Waste prevention - Melanesia: The Republic of Fiji, Papua New Guinea, and Pipeline Legislation in the 15 PacWastePlus
Market Restrictions Prohibitions on certain polymers (including bioplastics) and additives and controls on the use of
Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs), Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), and carcinogens. Solomon Islands, Vanuatu; Participating Countries. University of Melbourne,
Melbourne, Australia;
Promotion of traditional/local E.g., woven reusable bags to replace single-use plastic bags, leaf wraps for food, and the promotion - Polynesia: The Independent State of Samoa, the
solutions of traditional/local knowledge.
Kingdom of Tonga, Tuvalu; • Raubenheimer, Karen (2019). Desktop studies on
principles of waste management and funding
Closed loop recycling (primary Secondary (‘cascade’ markets) recycling is also known as ‘downcycling’ from a higher value product - Micronesia: The Republic of Kiribati, the Republic of mechanisms in relation to the Commonwealth Litter
market) or secondary markets to a lower grade product. E.g., from a PET bottle into a less/non- recyclable product such as carpet. the Marshall Islands, the Republic of Palau. Programme (CLiP): Vanuatu and Solomon Islands.
Government infrastructure The government invests in accessible and regular separate waste collection, recycling, reuse, and
These countries were selected due to their participation University of Wollongong Australia, Wollongong,
investments preventative measures.
in the United Nations Environmental Assembly (UNEA) Australia;
Legal basis for sustainable Examples include waste-management fees, deposit-refund schemes, extended producer responsi-
financing mechanisms/mar- bility (EPR) schemes, licensing schemes, plastic taxes and levies, advanced disposal fees, polluter (Marine Litter and Microplastics Resolution) process. • national official online sources of legislation. For
ket-based instruments pays, and user pays. In addition, delegates from the participating countries example, the Laws of Fiji.
Waste Management Recognised impact on eco- An explicit link is made between the impact of plastic pollution on economic development (e.g. had previously expressed interest in, or support for,
nomic development tourism, safe and secure employment opportunities, agriculture). This might also factor in the eco- a multilateral plastic pollution convention. These Additional documents and reference sources were
nomic cost of not preventing plastic pollution/inaction. Plastic pollution is presented as a potential expressions of interest resulted in the establishment accessed to check that all multi-lateral environmental
business risk.
of an advocacy group led by EIA and the Centre agreements and regional agreements relevant to plastic
Remediation and legacy Includes protocols and guidelines to recover legacy plastics (e.g., marine debris) to be safely reused, for International Environmental Law (CIEL) and pollution for each of the countries studied were captured
pollution recycled or repurposed and remediation of landfills (e.g. following storm damage).
supported by representatives from WWF (Pacific), the in the report:
Transport Transport infrastructure; access; port capacity; backloading (filling empty trucks and/or shipping International POPS Elimination Network (IPEN) and
containers with waste on their return to point of origin/producers); and reverse logistics (shipping
Massey University’s Political Ecology Research Centre (a • InforMEA;
the product back to the producer post-consumption for recycling or reuse).
principle investigator of this study) and Environmental • Karasik, R., T. Vegh, Z. Diana, J. Bering, J. Caldas,
Intentionally added (e.g., Restrictions on the importation and trade of products with added microbeads. Law Oceania Consultancy.
microbeads) A. Pickle, D. Rittschof, and J. Virdin. 2020. 20 Years
The following sources and documents were cross- of Government Responses to the Global Plastic
Wear and tear (e.g., tyres, Restrictions on the importation of plastic products with high wear and tear.
textiles) referenced to ensure the most current legislation, Pollution Problem: The Plastics Policy Inventory. NI X
Microplastics
policies, plans and strategies relevant to plastic pollution 20-05. Durham, NC: Duke University;
Agriplastics Management and prevention of plastics used in agriculture such as plastic mulch and microbeads
in controlled-release fertilizers. were captured in each country gap analysis: • Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA). (April
Management (e.g., pellets) Handling guidelines or restrictions. • Duke University Plastics Policy Inventory; 2020). Islands of Opportunity: Toward a Global
Agreement on Plastic Pollution for Pacific Island
• FAOLEX; Countries and Territories;
• ECOLEX;
16 Environmental Investigation Agency PLASTIC POLLUTION prevention in pacific island countries 17
• Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA) (June 2. each document was reviewed to determine its marine litter action plans and assesses the effectiveness ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity (Table 2).
2020). Convention on Plastic Pollution: Toward a instruments and mechanisms for plastic pollution of regional and sub-regional governance strategies, with The Aichi Biodiversity Targets, developed in accordance
new global agreement to address plastic pollution. prevention and whether these focused on the top the aim of identifying gaps and solutions. It also supports with the CBD include references to reducing pollution to
London, UK: EIA; of the waste hierarchy (prevention): refuse, rethink, the establishment of public awareness campaigns levels that “are not detrimental” to marine wildlife and
reduce, redesign and reuse. From this, documents and encourages public-private partnerships to find ecosystems in Target 8.
• SPREP (2019). PACPOL Strategy and Workplan were selected that were considered ‘key’ to solutions to marine litter. A key outcome of the GPML is
prepared by Asia-Pacific ASA (APASA) for the preventing plastic pollution in each country; the establishment of the Open-Ended Expert Group on The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aim to
Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment. Marine Litter and Microplastics at UNEA-3. GPML also promote sustainability in the use of natural resources,
Apia, Samoa: SPREP; 3. next, a granular thematic analysis of the key has plans to develop a “Plastics Management Strategy protection of ecological life support systems and ending
documents was undertaken using the key words for SIDS and Islands”. The GPML aligns closely with the poverty and inequalities. The SDGs provide important
• SPREP (2016). Cleaner Pacific 2025: Pacific Regional and themes derived from the analytical framework framing for addressing cross-cutting issues in the Pacific
Waste and Pollution Management Strategy 2016– UNEP Regional Seas Programme (summarised below).
(Tables 4-8). Synonyms and synonymic phrases region that simultaneously need to be addressed in order
2025. Apia, Samoa: SPREP; in the themes were examined for their application The Honolulu Strategy (2011) was developed under to achieve effective plastic pollution prevention. Goal
• Commonwealth Marine Economies Programme within and across national legislation, policies, and the umbrella of the GPML at the fifth International 12: Responsible Consumption and Production relates to
(2018). Pacific Marine Climate Change Report Card. plans; Marine Debris Conference. This voluntary strategy the production of disposable plastic products. Goal 14:
provides a global framework for a collaborative effort Life Under Water specifically states the need to combat
Analysis 4. based on the definitions provided in the analytical to “reduce the ecological, human health, and economic marine pollution of all kinds. However, several other
framework (Table 1), green indicates explicit mention impacts of marine debris worldwide”. To support policy targets under other SDGs are also pertinent to plastic
The gap analysis review process comprised five of the theme in the document, yellow indicates that development, the Honolulu Strategy draws on polluter production, use and disposal:
components: the document either partially includes the theme or pays and EPR principles, outlining best practices and a
that it is inferred and red indicates that that theme is set of goals and strategies that are broadly applicable, Target 3: Good health and well-being
1. keyword search of documents. Documents were absent in the document; regardless of country-specific conditions or challenges. • 3.3 By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis,
searched for the following terms: ‘waste’, ‘plastic’,
5. country delegates were emailed to request validation The Honolulu Strategy has three key goals: malaria and neglected tropical diseases and
‘refuse’, ‘garbage’, ‘litter’, ‘pollution’, ‘microplastic’,
‘marine debris’, ‘hazardous waste’ ‘emission’ and of the selected documents. The analysis was 1. reduce amount and impact of land-based sources of combat hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other
‘contaminant’ to find references to plastic pollution; validated through an internal peer review process. marine debris introduced into the sea; communicable diseases.
2. reduce amount and impact of sea-based sources • 3.9 By 2030, substantially reduce the number of
International and regional plastic policy of marine debris including solid waste; lost cargo;
abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear
deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and
air, water and soil pollution and contamination.
overview (ALDFG); and abandoned vessels; • 3.3 By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis,
malaria and neglected tropical diseases and
3. reduce amount and impact of accumulated marine
debris on shorelines, in benthic habitats and in combat hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other
While several PICs are leading the world in activities in 2013, addresses ocean-based litter pollution and communicable diseases.
pelagic waters.
to regulate plastic pollution by implementing national prohibits the discharge of all plastics from ships
bans and levies, solving the issue of plastic pollution in (IMO 2017b); Each of the goals provide a list of strategies and Target 6: Clean water and sanitation
the Pacific requires national, regional and international indicators to direct the development of policies that
coordination and support. There are existing legal • The London Convention, or Convention on the • 6.1 By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access
work towards achieving these goals. The Secretariat of to safe and affordable drinking water for all.
frameworks at multiple levels of governance to Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of
the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP)
prevent and manage plastic waste and marine litter Wastes and Other Matter 1972, adopted in 1975,
administers the GPML and the Honolulu Strategy in • 6.3 By 2030, improve water quality by reducing
in the Pacific. Here, we present a brief summary of the “promotes the control of marine pollution from
the Pacific Islands region. It also develops the Pacific pollution, eliminating dumping and minimising
instruments the study countries have signed, ratified human activities and aims at preventing pollution
Regional Action Plan on Marine Litter 2018-25 as part of release of hazardous chemicals and materials,
or acceded to that are relevant to plastic pollution of the ocean from the dumping of wastes and
this agreement. halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and
prevention and mitigation in the Pacific Region (Tables 2 other matter” (IMO 2017c). The London Convention
Protocol 1996 is a legally binding protocol for the substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse
and 3). Existing global agreements on the protection of marine globally.
“[p]revention of marine pollution by dumping ecosystems and biodiversity also have direct relevance
International policy overview of wastes and other matter”. This later protocol to the issue of plastic pollution. For example, the Target 11: Sustainable cities and communities
includes guidance on polluter pays mechanisms for Convention on Biological Diversity (1993) (CBD) is a
The first international legally binding instrument addressing marine litter. • 11.6: By 2030, reduce the adverse per capita
binding international instrument for the “conservation
relevant to plastic waste and marine debris in the Pacific environmental impact of cities, including by paying
of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its
region is the 1982 United Nations Convention on the The Global Programme of Action for the Protection of special attention to waste management.
components and the fair and equitable sharing of the
Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) which entered into force in the Marine Environment from Land Based Activities
benefits arising out the utilisation of genetic resources”.
1994 with 167 state parties (see Table 2 for ratified PICs). (GPA) adopted in 1995 is a voluntary, action-orientated Target 12: Responsible consumption and production
The impacts of plastic pollution on biological diversity
UNCLOS is a binding international instrument that programme aimed at reducing the degradation of the
were recognised in the CBD early on. The 2012 CBD • 12.1: Implement the 10-year framework of
requires parties to adopt regulations and laws to control marine environment from land-based activities. There
Technical Series No 67 Report: Impacts of marine debris programmes on sustainable consumption and
pollution of the marine environment from land-based are several Global Partnerships that focus on specific
on biodiversity: current status and potential solutions production.
sources of pollution as well as pollution from ships. activities or impacts. The Global Partnership on Marine
covered the state of knowledge on the impacts of
UNCLOS outlines best practices; however, it does not Litter (2012) (GPML) is a voluntary agreement specifically
plastics, including ALDFG and microplastics on marine • 12.2: By 2030, achieve the sustainable management
provide guidance on Extended Producer Responsibility aimed at reducing and managing marine litter. The key
life and ecosystems, and gave an overview on multilevel and efficient use of natural resources.
(EPR) or polluter pays mechanisms, that is, when policy recommendations from the GPML for the long-
legal instruments on solutions. The report highlighted
external costs are incorporated into products and carried term are aimed at the top of the waste hierarchy: phasing • 12.4: By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound
the potential of EPR (including container deposit
by producers to address marine pollution. There are out microbeads, significant reductions in single-use management of chemicals and all wastes throughout
schemes), eco-labelling, user-pays approaches, bans,
two specific legally binding instruments within the plastics, upstream reductions (but also acknowledges their life cycle.
producer responsibility and a precautionary approach.
framework of UNCLOS relating to plastic pollution: the need for short-term improvements in waste
A key aspect of the CBD generally is the inclusion of • 12.5 By 2030, substantially reduce waste generation
management), avoiding replacing single-use plastics
• the International Convention for the Prevention of promoting inter- and intra-generational equity in all through prevention, reduction, recycling, and reuse.
with ‘biodegradable’ alternatives, harmonisation and
Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) 1973, amended in efforts to conserve biological diversity and ecological
standardisation of government monitoring frameworks.
1978. Annex V of MARPOL, which came into force integrity. All countries participating in this study have
The GPML provides support to member states to develop
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