DRAFT REPORT OF COMEST ON "WATER ETHICS: OCEAN, FRESHWATER, COASTAL AREAS"
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SHS/COMEST-10EXT/18/2
Paris, 5 July 2018
Original: English
DRAFT REPORT OF COMEST ON
“WATER ETHICS: OCEAN, FRESHWATER, COASTAL AREAS”
Within the framework of its work programme for 2018-2019, COMEST
decided to continue its work from 2016-2017 on “water ethics: ocean,
freshwater, coastal areas”, with the participation of UNESCO’s
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) and International
Hydrological Programme (IHP).
At the 9th (Ordinary) Session of the COMEST in September 2015, the
Commission established a Working Group to develop an initial reflection on
this topic. The COMEST Working Group met in Kuwait in April 2016 to
define the structure and content of its text. Based on this work, a preliminary
draft report was prepared and discussed during the 9th Extraordinary
Session of COMEST in September 2016. The COMEST Working Group
then met in Senegal in May 2017, with the participation of IHP and IOC, to
discuss the revised text, and to further develop the preliminary draft report
after the meeting. The revised preliminary draft report was discussed during
the 10th (Ordinary) Session of COMEST in September 2017. The COMEST
Working Group met again in Oslo in May 2018 to prepare a final draft of the
report. This document contains the final draft report that will be discussed
and proposed for adoption by the Commission during the 10th Extraordinary
Session of COMEST that will take place from 10 to 14 September 2018 at
UNESCO Headquarters in Paris.
This document also does not pretend to be exhaustive and does not
necessarily represent the views of the Member States of UNESCO or the
Member States of the IOC and the IOC Secretariat.
–2–
DRAFT REPORT OF COMEST ON
“WATER ETHICS: OCEAN, FRESHWATER, COASTAL AREAS”
TABLE OF CONTENT
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
PART 1: WATER ON EARTH
I. INTRODUCTION
I.1. A Cultural History of Water
I.2. Water on Earth
I.3. The Global Water Cycle
I.4. The Ecosystem
I.5. Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources
I.6. Pollution
II. OCEAN
II.1. General Comments
II.2. Problems Specific to the Ocean
II.2.1. Pressures on the Aquatic Ecosystems
II.2.2. Pollution
II.2.3. Climate Change
II.2.4. Transportation
II.2.5. Piracy, Vandalism and Scavenging
II.3. Ocean Governance
II.4. Case Study 1: The Global Ocean
III. FRESHWATER and DRINKING WATER
III.1. Recognizing the Centrality of Water
III.2. Water Security: A Global Water Crisis
III.3. Emerging Challenges related to Fresh- and Drinking Water
III.3.1. Climate Change
III.3.2. Population Growth, Urbanization and Consumption
Patterns
III.3.3. Deterioration of Infrastructure
III.3.4. Freshwater Pollution
III.3.5. Transboundary Water Conflicts
III.3.6. Energy and Water
III.3.7. Agriculture and Water–3–
III.4. Drinking Water
III.4.1. Privatization of Drinking Water and Water Services
III.4.2. Water Scarcity and Accessibility
III.4.3. Health and Sanitation
III.4.4. Case Study 2: From Political Commitments on
Transboundary Water Cooperation to On-ground Actions in
Southern Africa
IV. COASTAL AREAS
IV.1. Specificity of Coastal Areas
IV.2. Problems Specific to the Coastal Areas
IV.3. Ethical Issues related to the Coastal Areas
IV.3.1. Case Study 3: Resilience, Adaptation and Mitigation in
Saint Louis, Senegal
PART 2: ETHICAL FRAMEWORKS
V. ETHICAL FRAMEWORKS FOR WATER ON EARTH
V.1. Sustainable Development Goals and Water
V.2. Ethical Frameworks for Water
VI. GUIDING PRINCIPLES
VI.1. Human Dignity and Human Rights
VI.2. Solidarity
VI.3. Common Good
VI.4. Frugality
VI.5. Sustainability
VI.6. Justice
VI.7. Justice and International Transboundary Waters
VI.8. Gender Equity
VI.9. Research Integrity
VI.10. Sharing Knowledge and Technology (Capacity Building)
VII. RECOMMENDATIONS
VIII. CONCLUSIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANNEX: COMPOSITION OF THE COMEST WORKING GROUP ON WATER ETHICS–4–
DRAFT REPORT OF COMEST ON
“WATER ETHICS: OCEAN, FRESHWATER, COASTAL AREAS”
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION
1. This report on water ethics follows the adoption of the UNESCO Declaration of Ethical
Principles in relation to Climate Change in 2017 (UNESCO, 2017a) and the Paris Agreement
in 2015 (UN, 2015a). Both these instruments revealed the great impact of climate change on
the three major water bodies (Ocean, Freshwater and Coastal Areas), and the need for a set
of guiding principles to manage Earth’s water resources in an ethical manner.
2. While earlier works tended to focus on each body of water separately and emphasis
was placed on problems related to fresh and drinking water, climate change is fostering not
only a new understanding of the integration of these water bodies, but has also increased
attention to the cryosphere (i.e. frozen water in the form of glaciers, ice and snow). Almost 15
years ago, COMEST proposed ethical tools for the governance of water, addressing problems
of access to drinkable water, the increase in pollution sources, contamination of both fresh
and ocean waters, the increasing urbanisation process as well as world population growth and
increases in agricultural and energy production. However, the Commission’s recent work on
the ethical implications of climate change (UNESCO, 2010, 2011a, 2013, 2015) highlighted
the impacts on ecosystems, which threaten the survival of many species through loss of
habitat and paucity of drinkable water. Based on this work, the Commission proposes a holistic
approach to water ethics that not only recognizes the strong links among different water
bodies, but also recognizes the interdependency of humans with other living beings on water.
This requires a shift from an anthropocentric approach to a more ecocentric approach based
in part on principles of equity while recognizing cultural and ecosystem diversity. These are
important considerations in our collective effort to co-construct modern technical solutions that
are more adapted and respectful of local and regional situations and people.
3. The United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (UN, 2015b) articulates
two separate goals for water: Goal 6 focuses on drinking water, sanitation and hygiene, while
Goal 14 deals with marine and coastal ecosystems. In this regard, the Commission proposes
an ethical framework that could influence public policies and technological solutions on water
use by opening diverse paths of caring for and use of water resources while at the same time
adopting an integrated approach to managing water resources and related ecosystems.
PART 1: WATER ON EARTH
4. Our historical relation with water has developed from a multitude of perspectives
(Tvedt, 2010). On the one hand, there is a cultural and religious understanding of water that
is linked to the Creation myths of many civilizations. On the other, there is a scientific and
technological understanding of water that subsequently connected its use to industrialisation
and urbanisation. At the turn of the 21st century, the situation is one where our scientific
understanding of the importance of water for life on Earth underlines a growing recognition
that we are facing a worldwide water crisis.
5. Historically, water policy has focused on water access in terms of availability of clean
and sanitized potable water for human consumption. However, this report strives to take into
account other ecosystems and organisms along with the environment as they relate to human
welfare. It aims to conceptualize water as a global dynamic system - on land, coastal areas
and oceans. This part of the report provides a scientific overview and identifies specific
problems of the global water cycle, and the three major water bodies of the ocean, freshwater
and coastal areas, especially considering the impact of climate change and pollution on the
hydrological cycle. A case study has also been included for each of the three major water
bodies.–5– 6. Ocean: The ocean and seas is not only the largest ecosystem on the planet, supporting millions of species, but is also essential for human health and wellbeing. The ocean life-support services includes carbon sequestration, regulating the weather, climate and water flow in the hydrological cycle and providing food, minerals (including oil and gas), and creative conditions for tourism and recreational activities. The impact of climate change and increased human pressure from unsustainable activities such as overfishing, fish farming, shark finning and chemical pollution from industry, agriculture, nuclear power plants, shipping, transport, deep sea mining, and physical pollution (e.g. plastics, garbage, etc.), have brought into focus the fragile and interconnected nature of the ocean ecosystems and the human dependency on the ocean. Some of the impacts of climate change include rising temperatures, ocean acidification, sea level rise, declining oxygen levels, altered nutrient cycles, currents and circulation, all of which may have large negative implications for ecosystem and ecosystem services on both land and sea (UN, 2017). Additional challenges for oceans include boat migration, piracy, wreckage scavenging, vandalism of lighthouses and scientific/monitoring devices, which raise questions about the adequacy of international regulation, the responsibilities of countries for their territorial waters, and the need for international cooperation to combat these problems. 7. Freshwater and Drinking Water: Water is a critical natural resource upon which many social and economic activities and ecosystem functions depend. There are numerous challenges to ensuring freshwater security, such as urbanization and overconsumption, under- investment and lack of capacity in infrastructure development, poor management and the demands of agriculture, energy and food production (WWAP, 2012b). Water is also vital for power generation and hydraulic fracturing as well as the transportation and processing of fossil fuels, however, dams disrupt the flow of water causing an imbalance of nutrients in the ecosystem and fracking produces contaminated wastewater. Similarly, agriculture is probably the greatest consumer of water but is necessary for food security. Other major challenges include: pollution from industry, agriculture and human waste; deteriorating infrastructure; privatisation and transboundary water conflicts. A deeper understanding of available resources can result in better infrastructure and privatisation policies, while a political will to cooperate over shared resources can result in peaceful cooperation over their management. Contaminated groundwater causes damage to the terrestrial and marine environment and also influences human health through various severe viral and bacterial diseases. Flooding and droughts because of climate change can further exacerbate the outbreak of waterborne diseases like diarrhoea and cholera. A greater understanding of the changes in water flow would allow better prediction and avoidance of these waterborne diseases and toxins, while the provision of clean drinking water, sanitary sewage disposal, safe water piping and storage materials as well as education on hygiene can increase the resilience to waterborne diseases (WWAP, 2012b). 8. Coastal Areas: Coastal areas considered in this report include wetlands and estuaries. These are among the areas most vulnerable to climate change and natural hazards but are also some of the most productive areas in the world as they serve as homes to a diverse group of plants and animals adapted to brackish waters, and as nursery grounds for fish. Coastal areas build soils, protect against storms, store huge amounts of carbon, provide timber, prevent floods, and increase river flows. Climate change, increasing population, and economic growth exacerbate the complex problem of coastal erosion which therefore should be addressed with a multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approach. Input from environmentalists, ecologists, economists, geologists, social scientists and legal experts, in interplay with the public, civic groups, and the government is needed to address the problem. PART 2: ETHICAL FRAMEWORKS 9. This section provides a brief review of ethical frameworks, either as implicit in the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) or explicit principles for water identified in UN and
–6–
other international publications, in order to provide the background to the ethical principles
presented in the report.
10. Notwithstanding SDGs 6 and 14 referred to earlier, water is also both directly and
indirectly interwoven into several other SDGs, particularly SDGs 1 (no poverty), 2 (zero
hunger), 3 (good health), 5 (gender equality and empowerment), 7 (energy), 11 (cities and
human settlements), 12 (sustainable consumption and production), 13 (climate action), and
15 (life on land). Thus, achieving sustainable development depends heavily on action taken
on the use, management, and protection of water
11. A number of key UN bodies have identified ethical principles or values related to water,
however the crux of these frameworks is twofold: firstly, the ethical framework for water is
primarily focused on freshwater, and secondly, there is a distinct bias towards anthropocentric
values. This report contends that today’s water ethics cannot focus exclusively on human use
and needs. The guiding principles presented in the next section, therefore, must be
understood through the global perspective that gives us a sense of priorities in our collective
decisions for now and the future.
Guiding Principles
12. The following ethical principles identified seek to integrate human concerns with those
of the various ecosystems that are affected by the global water cycle. These are as follows:
i. Human Dignity and Human Rights: The United Nations General Assembly, in
Resolution 64/292, acknowledged that clean drinking water and sanitation are
essential to the realisation of all human rights. However, groups that support treating
water as ’commons’ go beyond notions of human rights and equity to the rights of the
earth and its composite ecosystem. Respect for other creatures and for nature should
not be at odds with human rights and the concept of human dignity.
ii. Solidarity: Solidarity recognizes the interdependency between humans and
ecosystems for survival and existence. It requires us to act in an ecological and
ecocentric context, acknowledging the dependence of other biotic communities on
water for existence, and the need to share resources.
iii. Common Good: Common-pool resources correspond to open access regimes where
there are no formal and informal laws that govern these resources. Marine ecocentric
ethics requires humanity to preserve the fish-stocks of seas and oceans, not only for
the sake of human beings, but also for the creatures/organisms themselves.
iv. Frugality: Frugality as a virtue requires the individual to restrict and simplify his/her
needs in order to be happy. Therefore, happiness is found more in human social
relations (family life, social relationship, cultural activities, learning, etc.) than through
modern material consumption that encourages immediate satisfaction. Frugality is
therefore a synonym of moderation and rationalization in the consumption and
utilization of water.
v. Sustainability: This principle infers that the rate of water contamination or loss due to
human activities should not exceed the ability of water to restock itself. The governance
of water management should use the Integrated Water Resources Management
(IWRM) approach and involve all stakeholders.
vi. Justice: Environmental justice defined as the fair distribution of environmental goods
and burdens to all humans is particularly relevant to water management. Water justice
demands that all living organisms should have access to water. It includes the fair
treatment and meaningful involvement of all people irrespective of their backgrounds.
On the other hand, water injustice includes: water pollution; lack of access to safe,
clean drinking water and adequate sanitation and sewage treatment; inequities in
access to safe, affordable water; indiscriminate privatization, commercialization and–7–
corporatization of public and community-owned water and sanitation services; and
dumping hazardous wastes into streams, rivers and oceans.
vii. Justice and International Transboundary Waters: Asymmetries in state power can
promote unfair international water-sharing arrangements favouring the more powerful
actor, which is contrary to the concept of distributive justice. New international laws
attempt to address the issues that cause widespread scarcity, gradual destruction and
aggravated pollution of transboundary freshwater resources in many world regions.
There have been instances of successful experiences of cooperation among riparian
countries over the development and management of river basins, e.g. sharing of the
Senegal River by Mali, Mauritania, and Senegal (LeMarquand, 1990).
viii. Gender Equity: The fact that women play a more important role in population growth
and use of water is recognized in international policy but there is still a lack of support,
commitment and necessary sex-disaggregated data on water use and management.
Gender-mainstreaming all water policies and providing culturally congruent
empowerment programmes for women to take part in decisions relating to water
management will ensure greater success in solving problems to water security,
sanitation, governance and sustainable management.
ix. Research Integrity: Scientific data and technological innovation are critical for
responding to the challenges of water security. Scientific integrity results from
adherence to professional values and practices, including ethical reflection when
conducting and applying the results of science and scholarship. This requires
objectivity, clarity, and reproducibility, as well as disclosure of funding sources and
conflict of interest, and a measure of the impact of the data on society. Breach of these
values can cause direct harm to those relying on such research for development, and
results in mistrust by the community and a waste of resources (Coughlin et al., 2012).
x. Sharing Knowledge and Technology (Capacity Building): All countries of the world
are likely to face water disasters exacerbated by climate change, population growth,
and increasing urbanisation as well as refugee migration. It is therefore necessary and
beneficial in the short term to share knowledge and technology in all aspects of water
resources management to ensure that best practices are in place. Activities promoting
formal, non-formal, and informal education in addition to open communication will be
of vital significance in the definition of collaborative actions for a more sustainable
management of water and wastewater for the protection and conservation of water on
Earth.
Recommendations
13. This report suggests that all countries should apply the basic principles of water ethics
guided by relevant norms of international law. All human beings and life forms across the
planet should have access to high quality water services. All countries need to promote the
just use and distribution of global commons, and the sustainable management of natural
resources and terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Cooperation by the international community
is required to protect global commons. Therefore, COMEST recommends the following:
a. Governance
i. Member States should do their utmost to implement national, regional and
international regulations and laws related to all aspects of freshwater, coastal
and marine management, while taking into account the importance of a human
rights-based approach and the interdependence of humankind with the
ecosystem. In this regard, efforts should be made to reduce the impact of
climate change on water resources.
ii. The international community is encouraged to increase understanding of the
ethical challenges associated with SDGs, including awareness of how they
interact or conflict with each other. For example, when designating Marine–8–
Protected Areas (MPAs), consideration should be given to the balance between
protection for conservation and protection for use.
iii. Member States are encouraged to take into account the ethical principles
outlined in this report when managing transboundary water issues, and are
encouraged to cooperate in transboundary water management; to provide and
facilitate access to information; to initiate dialogue about any transboundary
environmental impact; and to incorporate cross-cultural dialogue, as well as
indigenous and local knowledge in policy and decision-making. In this regard,
Member States are also encouraged to recognise and implement the relevant
regional and international instruments related to this issue, such as the Aarhus
Convention.
b. Participation and Inclusiveness
i. A participatory approach should be adopted in policy and decision-making on
all aspects of water management – the development and implementation of
policies, decisions and activities should involve the participation of all
stakeholders including vulnerable and marginalized groups, as well as women,
youth, and indigenous communities.
ii. Gender considerations should be mainstreamed into water governance – water
justice requires that policy and decision-makers recognize the critical link
between women and water, and ensure that women are integrated as a key
stakeholder into the sustainable management of water resources.
iii. Youth should be seen as a key actor particularly with regard to sustainability
for the next generation and given the opportunity as the future leaders to
contribute to the design and implementation of policies and decisions related
to water management.
iv. A multidisciplinary approach should be used to address a sustainable and
efficient water management – decisions must be based on a range of relevant
disciplines, spanning natural, social and human sciences, as well as local and
indigenous knowledge.
c. Role of Scientific Knowledge and Research
i. Ethics is a fundamental element for policy formulation. Policy decisions should
be informed by advances in sound scientific knowledge, taking into account
indigenous knowledge and cultural diversity.
ii. Priority should be given to the best available scientific advances in research
and development to foster innovative and adaptive technologies for sustainable
and efficient management of water resources and ecosystems.
iii. Sharing of scientific knowledge, transparency, and transfer of technology and
research data is a global responsibility to ensure proper sustainable
management of water resources and ecosystems.
iv. A dedicated scientific community, active in relevant research and appropriate
innovations is required to respond to societal challenges. National
commitments through adequate funding, supplemented by international
support, is required to foster the above scientific research.
v. Due to the impact of climate change on the global water cycle, there should be
stronger interaction, exchanges and cooperation among the scientific
communities working on the ocean, freshwater and coastal areas.
d. Strengthening Capacity and Education
i. Uncoordinated and fragmented capacity building initiatives of a number of
international organizations and Governments are counterproductive.–9–
Therefore, a coordinated action by UNESCO is strongly encouraged to improve
capacity in water and ocean education and management.
ii. Ethical issues related to water resources should become an integral part of the
curricula of relevant educational and training programmes.
e. Awareness and Advocacy
i. Public engagement on ethical responsibility of prudent and sustainable use of
water among all stakeholders should be enhanced. Mass media, educational
institutions and social media can be used to raise awareness about the nature
and use of water resources. Some people can act as whistle-blowers and
contribute to these efforts.
ii. Policy makers can benefit from the findings of Scientific Academies, and
scientific and professional societies and the latter should serve as platforms to
address water crisis.
iii. Moreover, water ethicists and other professionals should offer arguments for
what should be done to improve the quality and availability of water for human
beings, non-human species and terrestrial and marine ecosystems. They
should continue to raise awareness of economic, social, spiritual and cultural
significance of water.
iv. Attempts to develop ocean literacy should be supported in order to understand
the impact of human activities on the ocean.
v. Finally, COMEST recommends that water should be included in the global
priority agendas of UN Agencies.–10–
DRAFT REPORT OF COMEST ON
“WATER ETHICS: OCEAN, FRESHWATER, COASTAL AREAS”
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
1. The adoption of the UNESCO Declaration of Ethical Principles in relation to Climate
Change in 2017 (UNESCO, 2017a) and the Paris Agreement in 2015 (UN, 2015a) oblige us
to address the impact of climate change on the entire global water cycle. With this global issue
in mind, UNESCO’s World Commission on the Ethics of Scientific Knowledge and Technology
(COMEST) decided to update its own reflection on water related ethics, using a series of
documents it had published in 2004 as background. In these documents, COMEST had
proposed ethical tools for the governance of water, to be used in the substantial number of
debates concerning the privatisation of drinkable water, its patrimonial value and the relation
between water, energy, agriculture and ecosystems.
2. So, why write a new document when so many studies and reports have been produced
on the problems linked to human use of water? By definition, global water includes not only
freshwater, but also ocean water, as well as coastal waters. Concerns about water resources
have been dominated by problems related to freshwater, more specifically to drinking water
and sanitation issues. Pollution and protection of marine life tend to be the focus of studies on
the ocean and coastal areas. Climate change is fostering a new understanding of the
integration of these water bodies, and has also increased the attention to the cryosphere (i.e.
frozen water in the form of glaciers, ice sheets, ice caps, sea ice, snow and permafrost). In
the present document, COMEST suggests a holistic approach which seeks to link these water
bodies, proposing a global vision for water ethics on the Earth, that encompasses all forms of
water (fresh, ocean and coastal), and that addresses both human and ecosystem concerns.
3. Important drivers for water governance can be found in the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDG) articulated in 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development of the United Nations
(2015b). This Agenda contains two albeit separate goals for water: Goal 6 (ensure the
availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all) focuses on drinking
water, sanitation and hygiene while Goal 14 (conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas
and marine resources for sustainable development) is concerned with marine and coastal
ecosystems. Even more significant is a recognition in Goal 6 (target 6.6) of the inter-
connectedness of water-related ecosystems, which include “mountains, forests, wetlands,
rivers, aquifers and lakes” (UN, 2015b, p.18). This is reinforced in Goal 15, which refers to
“inland freshwater ecosystems […] forests, wetlands, mountains and drylands” (UN, 2015b,
p.24). Furthermore, target 14.1 recognizes the role of land-based activities in coastal and
marine resources, and target 14.3 acknowledges a link to climate change (UN, 2015b).
However, achieving targets often requires trade-offs between SDGs, and one aim of the
present report is to highlight the potential challenges and ethical dilemmas raised by
implementation of the SDGs.
4. In addition to recognising the inter-connectedness of different ecosystems, a holistic
approach calls for human beings to recognise in addition to their own dependency, the
dependency of other living beings on water systems. In the face of the uncertainties generated
by climate change, we need to exercise a wiser use of technologies, modesty in actions and
frugality in consumption. The implementation of these values is incumbent on the principle of
cultural diversity that opens diverse paths of caring for and use of water. There is no ‘one size
fits all’ technical solution due to the extreme variability of the impacts of climate change on
water resources at the international, national, regional and local levels. Furthermore, situations
are extremely different, ranging from drought to flood, from industrial cities to agricultural
lands, from coastal communities to rainforest communities. The way we collectively manage
water resources is directly related to the multiplicity of interrelations and stakeholders among
the different situations.–11– 5. The challenge of moving from an essentially human-centered to a more ecocentric approach to water is addressed at two levels. First, the Commission proposes an ethical framework that can sensitize and impact public policies and technological solutions on water use. Second, the Commission induces a larger ethical reflection on our dependence and interdependence on water and ecosystems in our daily life, acknowledging that cultural and spiritual relations to water influence people’s way of life.
–12– PART 1: WATER ON EARTH I. INTRODUCTION I.1. A Cultural History of Water 6. Our historical relation with water has developed from a multitude of perspectives that still exist in the world (Tvedt, 2010). The beliefs relating to Creation link water to the beginning of life of living creatures and the creation of human life, celebrating water as an essential condition for the existence of life. Water has a symbolic function in human society. It links the imaginary to culture, and is often associated with maternity, femininity, purity, and even death (Bachelard, 1942). Water has a sacred dimension in all religions, and is used in rituals and customs (baptism, purification) (Chamberlain, 2008). 7. In the search for rational understanding of the material world, ancient philosophers, such as Empedocles, Thales of Miletus, Heraclitus and Aristotle, elaborated the theory of the four elements: water, earth, fire and air. These four elements form a theory of matter and share common properties that transmute from one element to another in the endless circular process that explains the world as it is. 8. This explanation remained more or less unchanged for 2000 years, until the scientific approach emerged in the 18th century (Linton, 2010). Antoine Lavoisier, a chemist, radically changed the definition of water. With his recognition that water was not a single element, but rather a compound of oxygen and hydrogen atoms, water lost some of its fundamental identity and symbolic capacity to unify human beings, life and cosmos. Water became H 2 O, one of many molecular compounds. 9. In 1931, to complete this transformation, Robert Horton proposed the first water cycle representing the water circuit, from clouds to rivers and then to oceans. The cycles of evaporation, transpiration, condensation and rainfall offer a representation of water in which humans are strangely absent. Yet water, in the various stages of its cycle, seems to be controllable and manageable. It could be pumped, distributed with pipes, and consumed and finally ending up in the sewer system (Illich, 2000). 10. In the 19th century, the conquest of water was connected to industrialisation and urbanisation: there were running water and sewage systems, countryside marshes were drained to enable farming, and water was used to irrigate dry land. In the 20th century, hydroelectric dams were built, and water was used to activate factories, cool down nuclear reactors or computer server farms, and applied in the hydraulic fracturing process. At the turn of the 21st century, the situation is one where our scientific understanding of the importance of water for life on Earth underlines a growing recognition that we are facing a worldwide water crisis. I.2. Water on Earth 11. Life on Earth depends critically on all forms of water including the water vapour found in the atmosphere. All living organisms incorporate a high percentage of water in their bodies, and for most, at least 75% of their body mass is water. Furthermore, about 71% of planet Earth is covered by water, which exists naturally in different forms and at a number of locations. 12. The distribution of Earth’s water is summarized in Figure 1. Almost 97% is oceanic and saline and less than 3% is freshwater. Of the freshwater, 68.6% is frozen water in glaciers and ice sheets and 30.1% is ground water. The remaining 1.2% is surface water, which is held in ground ice and permafrost (73.1%); in lakes (20.1%), rivers (0.46%), swamps and marshes (2.53%), soil (3.52%%); in the atmosphere (0.22%), leaving 0.22% for all living organisms, including humans.
–13–
Figure 1: The Earth’s water distribution. (Source: Shiklomanov, 1993)
13. The dynamic of water is related to three primary functions in the natural landscape.
Water is not only characterized by its capacity to transport material, but also by its dissolving
capacity. Water is intrinsically linked to the production of biomass in ecosystems and affects
the form of the landscape through its linking of upstream and downstream activities in the
catchment (Falkenmark and Folke, 2002).
14. An alternative, and more usual, approach to describe the importance of water is to
refer to its human uses. For example, the Food and Agriculture Organisation’s AQUASTAT
describes three types of water withdrawal: municipalities (11%), industry (19%) and agriculture
(70%) (FAO, 2016a). A more detailed description of the anthropogenic uses of water is the
following:
a. Domestic or household use (e.g. drinking, cooking, bathing, washing clothes,
dishes and for general sanitation);
b. Agriculture (e.g. irrigation, aquaculture, livestock, silviculture);
c. Industrial uses (e.g. hydroelectric power production, mining, hydraulic fracturing,
oil refining, chemical production, nuclear plants, server farms);
d. Recreation (e.g. white-water boating, angling, water skiing, swimming);
e. Cultural and religious practices (e.g. rites of purification and reconciliation);
f. Services to society (e.g. for transport and landscaping; in natural parks; water as
object of scientific research; water as a habitat for many living organisms).
15. Historically, water policy has focused on water access in terms of availability of clean
and sanitized potable water for human consumption. Such an anthropocentric perspective
considers water as a ‘resource’ that can go through a pump-treat-distribute-use-collect cycle
before being discarded or reused (Anctil, 2016; WWAP, 2017).
16. The chapters that follow go beyond a purely human centred approach, and attempt to
link scientific explanations of water to an ethical and ecocentric analysis. The aim is to
conceptualize water – on land, coastal areas and oceans – as a global dynamic system driven
by the continuous movement of water through the hydrologic cycle, landscape and
ecosystems, and influenced by the effects of climate change. The expansion of human uses
of water, especially in a context of growing industrialization, intensive agriculture, urbanization
and growth of human population, demands consideration of the consequential problems at a–14–
more global scale: an approach that takes into account the interdependency between humans
and ecosystems and the complexity of Earth as a biogeochemical system.
I.3. The Global Water Cycle
17. The global water cycle describes the circulation of water in all its different forms on, in,
and above the Earth. The mechanism of the cycle is that water moves from the air to the Earth
as precipitation, of which some is infiltrated into the soil and recharges groundwater, and the
rest runs off into lakes, rivers, wetlands, seas and the ocean (surface water). This is followed
by evaporation from all water bodies, the soil, and transpiration by the plants, which returns it
back into the atmosphere as water vapour. This is not an instantaneous process as there are
many storage buffers in the system, particularly groundwater, which is captured and stored for
up to months before it is discharged to surface water and the ocean. The amount of water
vapour in the atmosphere, which contributes significantly to global warming, increases with
increasing temperature and can reach up to 4%.
18. In the hydrological cycle, the blue water is available for human use whereas the green
water is trapped in soil and plants and gets transpired (evapotranspiration) and therefore is
unavailable for human use.
19. While there is an abundance of water on Earth, freshwater is relatively scarce because
most of it is stored in a frozen form (mostly in Antarctica and Greenland) or deep groundwater.
Much more water is in long-term storage than moves through the cycle at any given time, and
the relative amounts are locally influenced to a great deal by the surface temperature of the
ocean and its distribution through currents as well as by climate change. Increase in
temperature increases the amount of water in the ocean, the rate of evaporation, the amount
of water vapour in the atmosphere and the total rainfall, but in non-uniform rates across the
Earth.
Figure 2: More detailed depiction of the water cycle that shows the difference between model
rates and observed rates in the real world. (Source: Max-Planck-Institut für Meteorologie, n.d.)
20. The total amount of fresh water in a country consists of the natural renewable water
resources and includes both the surface water and the groundwater in aquifers and wells.
Non-renewable water resources refer to some groundwater bodies (e.g. deep aquifers) that
have a negligible rate of recharge on the human time-scale and water in living organisms that
remains confined until death of the organism.–15– 21. If we disregard the possibility for desalination of seawater, the largest volume of freshwater on the Earth is in aquifers, which constitute a vital natural resource that provides potable water supply for some 1.5 billion people living in rural and urban environments (WWAP, 2012a). The amount withdrawn annually is estimated at ~600-700 km3 (UNEP, 2002). I.4. The Ecosystem 22. Water constitutes the basis for the Earth’s ecosystems. Water is necessary not only for the growth and survival of organisms, but provides the habitats for a large variety of plant, animal and other species of organisms. About half of the primary production of the Earth by photosynthesis occurs in the ocean and the buoyancy of organisms submerged in water allows them to have an efficient and very different physiology compared to species living on land and in air. However, the dependence is mutual: ecosystems are also essential and integrated parts of the hydrological cycle. Forests, wetlands and grasslands regulate runoff during wet periods, increase infiltration of water to soils and underground aquifers, lower flood risks, and reduce soil erosion (Acerman, 1999). Runoff and flooding are important for fish migration and sediment transport, and coastal ecosystems rely on input of freshwater to function properly and maintain biodiversity. Forests consume freshwater which is partly released to the atmosphere, and play an important role in rainwater and weather cycles. Wetlands, such as flood plains, marshes, and reed beds, act as natural water reservoirs; as do the ocean, icepacks and aquifers (Acerman, 2004). 23. Many ecosystems have a direct benefit to mankind, as providers of goods (e.g. fish, plants, arable land), services (e.g. water regulation, nutrient cycling), and amenities (landscape and species). I.5. Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources 24. Due to the close relation between the climate and the hydrological cycle, climate change has a significant effect on water resources. Examples of such effects include increased evaporation, higher proportion of precipitation received as rain, shorter and earlier runoff seasons, increased melting of snow and ice, higher water temperatures, and decreasing water quality (Adams and Peck, 2008). 25. As the Earth temperature increases due to global warming, the hydrological cycle is disrupted in many parts of the world. Extreme weather conditions, such as those associated with el niño and la niña phenomena, correspondingly cause droughts and floods destroying infrastructures that support agricultural and aquatic resources. Rainfalls may increase freshwater resources, but with intense rainfalls, rapid movement of water to the oceans reduces our ability to store it. In the sub-tropics, climate change is expected to lead to reduced rainfall in what are already dry regions. The general effect is an intensification of the water circulation resulting in more extreme floods and droughts worldwide (Bates et al., 2008; Mcintyre, 2012; Gleick and Ajami, 2014; Georgakakos et al., 2014). 26. Land erosion, due to floods and land aridity caused by droughts, hinder the growth of vegetation, which in turn slows down water seepage to aquifers and ultimately reduces underground water supplies for agricultural and human consumption. Climate change will increase water demand most importantly in agricultural and domestic sectors, but water supply management alone will not be able to meet the growing demand, considering that sources of water are limited. Overall, the agriculture sector will be the most affected because increased water scarcity in turn causes food security problems (Wang et al., 2016). 27. Extreme and unpredictable weather conditions drastically affect the livelihoods of farmers and fisherfolk, making them more vulnerable and more exposed to conflict situations with others that are also struggling to survive. Furthermore, long-term planning becomes more difficult as people and families try to protect their turf against human and natural intrusions. As sea levels rise due to ice melting and ocean warming those who live close to seashores have
–16– to adapt or migrate to higher grounds and territories. This includes people populating small- island communities in remote areas that have contributed little to global warming. 28. These impacts will conceivably affect the numbers and distribution of people affected by water scarcity. With the existing climate change scenario, almost half the world's population will be living in areas of high water stress by 2030, including between 75 million and 250 million people in Africa. In addition, water scarcity in some arid and semi-arid places will displace between 24 million and 700 million people, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, which already has the highest number of water-stressed countries of any region (FAO, 2012). 29. Changes will require permanent shelters and stable livelihood programs for the affected populations, both for migrants and for those who remain near their adversely affected domiciles. Securing the water supply for environmental migrants exemplifies the importance of a comprehensive and strategic approach to population movements. Such measures take into consideration the cultural and agricultural adaptation of migrants to their host populations. The Paris Agreement’s ‘Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage’ is one measure that attempts to address this problem (UN, 2015a, Article 8). 30. The impact of global warming on the water cycle is a testimony to the integrated nature of the ecological systems that lead to unforeseen and unpredictable consequences beyond the immediate environment. Climate change requires both mitigation actions and new kinds of adaptation measures that address all aspects of water use and dependency (UN, 2015a, Article 7.1). I.6. Pollution 31. Water pollution is defined as the introduction into water of any undesirable substance (chemical, physical or biological), which renders the water unfit for its intended use (Liu et al., 2011; WMO and UNESCO, 2012). The production and use of chemicals are responsible for the discharge of a range of pollutants to both freshwater and marine waters, which may damage aquatic life and lead to increased costs of water treatment (Petrie et al., 2015). Mining is another industry that results in pollution through enhanced concentration of natural metals in affected areas. Oil production can impact the environment due to the discharge of drilling mud and produced water, and accidental releases of oil. 32. Another main source of pollutants is discharges of nutrients containing nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur, from sewage and agriculture. This can lead to eutrophication in lakes or localized coastal regions (Yang et al., 2008) due to a rapid increase of algae and microorganism colonies (Qasim and Mane, 2013), depleting oxygen and depriving those aquatic organisms that depend on dissolved oxygen for survival (Qasim and Mane, 2013; Yang et al., 2008). According to Ariffina and Sulaiman (2015), nearly 80% of sewage in developing countries is released untreated into water bodies such as lakes, rivers and oceans. 33. Emerging pollutants are made up of a complex array of chemical products including pharmaceuticals, personal care products, nanomaterials, and plastics. Plastics and non- biodegradable contaminants are an increasing problem, particularly for marine life (GESAMP, 2015a, 2015b). The rise in plastic pollution offers a pertinent reminder of the interconnectedness of global water cycles, as well as the legal and ethical challenges in managing the problem. 34. Water pollution can be reduced by initiating a range of measures on a global scale, including spreading awareness about the importance of implementing efficient recycling of waste (Liu et al., 2011). Many international programs and organizations are engaged in work to improve water quality and make the use of water more sustainable, but the work is often hampered by ignorance as well as cultural, economic and industrial practices that lead to water pollution.
–17– Plastic and Microplastic Pollution – a Global Challenge The past few years have seen an increasing public and political awareness of problems of plastic pollution, particularly in the marine environment. Annual global plastic production has increased steadily and reached 311 million tons in 2014 (GESAMP, 2017), of which about one third is used for packaging. Plastic pollution in water ranges from meter to micrometer size, from floating debris and garbage, to micrometer and nanometer particles. Microplastics are defined as particles of less than 5 millimeters, and include primary sources of manufactured microplastics (e.g., pellets, powders, microbeads) and secondary sources created by fragmentation and degradation of macroplastics. Although research on microplastics initially focused on the marine environment, studies have expanded to cover terrestrial and freshwater environments. Contamination of marine and freshwaters has been demonstrated worldwide (Rochman, 2018), and microplastics have been detected in tens of thousands of marine organisms and over 100 species (GESAMP, 2017). A reported one quarter to one third of all commercially available fish have been found to contain plastics. More than 80% of plastics in the ocean arise from land-based sources, with models estimating that 5-13 million tons a year enter from coastal environments (GESAMP, 2017), with a calculated 1-2 million tons discharged through rivers (Lebreton et al., 2017). Direct sources to the ocean include fishing, aquaculture and shipping and offshore industry (GESAMP, 2017). While physical effects of large plastics like bottles and bags are recognized, the environmental and toxicological impacts of microplastics are rather uncertain, but can include indirect and vector effects through absorption of other contaminants or non-indigenous species. Images of polluted beaches, floating garbage and damaged wildlife have done much to heighten public perception in recent years. However, it appears that long-term solutions are hampered by a fragmentation in fresh and marine water management, and need to bridge the gaps between regimes of marine environmental law and international water law (Finska and Howden, 2018). Tackling the truly global problem of plastic pollution calls for a holistic approach to water management. II. OCEAN II.1. General Comments 35. The ocean and seas contain most of the surface water on the Earth, cover about 71% of the Earth’s surface, and have an average depth of about 3,730 m and a total volume of about 1,347 million km3 (The Columbia Electronic Encyclopaedia, n.d., online; UN, 2016). The ocean is essential for supporting both the ecosystem and human health by regulating the weather and climate, and determining rainfall and freshwater through the global hydrological cycle. The ocean is a major source of biodiversity, and provides a diversity of habitat for millions of species. The ocean is also an essential component of climate regulation and carbon sequestration. The ocean takes up anthropogenic CO 2 from the atmosphere due to a combination of physical, chemical and biological processes leading to a gradual increase in the oceanic fraction of anthropogenic CO 2 and related ocean acidification over decades, centuries and millennia into the future. 36. For humans, the ocean and the seas provide food and other resources (e.g. valuable minerals), trade and migration routes, and livelihoods for millions of people from aquaculture, fisheries, tourism and other recreational activities. Currently, fisheries supply more than 17% of the total animal protein intake by humans (FAO, 2016c). Coastal and offshore extraction and exploitation of oil and gas are great contributors to the GDP of many countries. Although it is not used as a source of potable water by humans or freshwater organisms, it may become consumable by desalination. Ocean provides numerous other services that may not be easily quantified such as health benefits from healthy ecosystems or cultural context and inspiration. 37. The fragile and interconnected nature of the ocean ecosystems and the human dependency on the ocean has become more visible in recent decades. Although the ocean
–18– was thought to be capable of absorbing practically unlimited waste, increased human pressure from fishing, shipping, indiscriminate use and disposal of plastic and other uses are affecting both individual species and whole ecosystems. II.2. Problems Specific to the Ocean II.2.1. Pressures on the Aquatic Ecosystems 38. Aquatic ecosystems are an important source of food and livelihoods for humans. Overfishing and damage to ecosystems, however, have both caused a depletion of many important fish stocks in seas, with consequences for aquatic biodiversity and ecosystems. The majority of these pressures can be exacerbated by climate change. For example, the loss of coral reefs globally from ocean warming and acidification, can have knock-on effects on the abundance of associated plant and fish species that are under threat from overfishing. By 2100, 16-27% of coral reef area could be lost due to ocean acidification, which translates to estimated economic losses of up to $870 billion per year (Brander et al., 2012). 39. According to FAO (2011), around 7% of the marine fish stocks have been completely depleted, 61% of the world’s commercial fish stocks are fully exploited, and 28% are overexploited. This has brought several marine fish stocks to the point of collapse whereas others have declined to the extent that the species are threatened (UN, 2016). In addition, overfishing leads to a dramatic change in the structure and function of the marine ecosystems (Pauly et al., 2001; Hoegh-Guldberg and Bruno, 2010). 40. While global catch of wild fish has stagnated, fish farming has increased in recent decades. The pressure on wild fish stocks remain, partly because of the use of wild fish as feed for farmed fish. Fish farming may also produce other threats to aquatic diversity. The industrial production has required the use of antibiotics, which can enter the food chain if applied without proper precaution. Other potential threats include the escape of farmed fish, which compete with wild species for habitat and food, and the release of waste, chemicals and parasites (e.g. sea lice from salmon farming). 41. Pressures to fishing stocks can also arise from lost, dumped or abandoned fishing gear that continues to kill sea life, so called ghost fishing. Nets, long lines, fish traps or any man- made contraptions designed to catch fish or marine organisms are considered capable of ghost fishing when unattended, and without anyone profiting from the catches. 42. Shark finning is the practice of removing the fins of sharks for food, often when the animal is alive, and returning the shark carcass to the sea. Despite increased pressures and regulations to stop the practice and to educate consumers about the ethics of eating shark-fin soup, millions of sharks are killed each year in this way (Clark et al., 2013). This is an example of ways in which regulation of human use of marine creatures lags behind that on the land (Norse, 2003). II.2.2. Pollution 43. Historically, the key source of pollution of the ocean has been chemicals of industrial or agricultural origin, which have been discharged either directly from land or through atmospheric transport. However, more recent assessments of the situation emphasize chemical changes caused by climate change, noise pollution (seismic waves), plastics, and other non-biodegradable contaminants (e.g. floating rubbish such as the Great Pacific Garbage Patch and the North Atlantic Gyre) (GESAMP, 2015a, 2015b). In addition to oil releases from shipping and transportation, release of ballast water has been associated with invasive species (see section II.2.4). Despite a decrease in the direct discharges of a number of chemicals, releases from contaminated sediments illustrate the continuing and long-term consequences of human action. 44. Due to the dynamic nature of the ocean, anything dumped at a specific location has the potential to be transported over large distances and affect even faraway waters, crossing jurisdictional boundaries and impacting the common environment including the deep sea.
–19– 45. The oil industry is a polluter of the marine environment, through offshore drilling and discharge of produced water, and due to accidental oil spills (see section on transportation). Produced water from oil and gas wells is also linked to discharge of radionuclides to the North Sea, as a result of enrichment of naturally occurring radionuclides (GESAMP, 2015a). Deep- water sea mining is another source of pollution that results in enhanced concentration of metals as well as acidification. 46. Other sources of radionuclides to the ocean include waste from production of nuclear weapons and nuclear power plants, as well as the deliberate scuttling of nuclear submarines. Dumping of radioactive waste at sea was carried out largely uncontrolled from 1946 until 1972, and was not banned before 2006 (Aarkrog, 2003). Marine discharges from the Fukushima accident highlight the considerable economic and social consequences that pollution can have on affected communities. The Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Accident: The Societal Consequences of Pollution The Fukushima Daiichi accident in 2011 represents a poignant reminder of the wide-reaching impacts of ocean contamination. Discharges of radionuclides during the accident, and continuing run-off from contaminated groundwater to the ocean, represent one of the largest releases of radionuclides to the marine environment (Buesseler et al., 2017). Contamination of fish, and concerns about the impacts on human health, led to coastal fishing bans in a 30km radius (later reduced to 20km). While the strict control of foodstuff ensured that the radiological impacts on human health were minimal, the economic and societal consequences have been enormous (IAEA, 2015). The loss of livelihood from bans on commercial fishing have hit coastal communities, exacerbating the already existing concern for recruitment of younger generations to family businesses. The return of evacuees to decontaminated areas has been low, particularly for families with young children, leading to demographic changes in societies. Other social and cultural impacts arise from lack of access to beaches, places of heritage and festivals (IAEA, 2015; Buesseler et al., 2017). The economic consequences from loss of seafood sales go beyond those from fishing bans; market value decreased in all products from the area due to loss in consumer trust (20% decrease compared to the rest of Japan). Some countries, e.g. South Korea, continue to ban the import of seafood from affected areas. The socioeconomic complexity of the problem can be further illustrated by the potential economic savings from lack of fishing subsidies. The increased radiation levels are thought to have little lasting negative impact on marine organisms, and might indeed be outweighed by the ecological benefits of fishing bans (Oughton, 2016). 47. In many regions around the world, physical pollution could lead to impacts on the environment from underwater noise, heat dissipation, light pollution and electromagnetic fields. Submarine cables constitute a special case. More than 95% of the world telecommunication network depends on submarine fibre optical cables, which are usually powered via cables lying on the seabed (Jurdana and Sucic, 2014). Noise occurring during the construction phase or in connection with maintenance during the operational phase can have negative impacts on the hearing, behaviour, feeding, migration, and reproduction of many marine wildlife, especially fish, dolphins, whales and other aquatic mammals (Nedwell et al., 2003; GESAMP, 2015a). Electromagnetic fields around the cables (Acres, 2006), could affect the migration of marine species that use the earth’s geomagnetic field as a means of navigation and positioning during migration. Finally, the power cables linked to the submarine cables may cause a rise in seabed temperature, and subsequently damage community structure near the seabed. II.2.3. Climate Change 48. As mentioned in the introduction, the ocean plays a major role in the climate system, as a driver of many climate-related processes. This includes taking up and redistributing most of the additional heat in the atmosphere. Marine ecosystems tend to offset the increase in
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