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TRANSNATIONAL EDUCATION:
A CLASSIFICATION FRAMEWORK
AND DATA COLLECTION GUIDELINES
FOR INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMME
AND PROVIDER MOBILITY (IPPM)
Jane Knight and John McNamara
www.daad.de
Transnational education: a classification framework and data collection guidelines iAcknowledgements
The British Council in partnership This phase of the research has been Attendees at OBHE Malaysia – pre
with the German Academic Exchange informed by conference workshops, conference workshop, November 2016.
Service (DAAD) conceived this research presentations and consultations and
Also thanks to the following
project and co-funded it together we are grateful to all the participants
organisations:
with support from the German Federal who gave their time and expertise at
Ministry of Education and research these events: Members of the Quality beyond
(BMBF). They contracted McNamara Borders Group
IAWG Meeting, Bonn, January 2016,
Economic Research to deliver this representatives from Botswana, Egypt, The Observatory on Borderless
research project, the report authors Germany, Mauritius, Thailand, UK Higher Education
are John McNamara and Dr Jane Knight.
Kevin Van-Cauter (British Council) and MENA regional policy dialogue, Cairo, OECD and UNESCO, Paris
Susanne Kammuller (DAAD) managed March 2017, representatives from
The Office of the Higher Education
the project. Bahrain, Egypt, Jordan, Morocco,
Commission (OHEC), Thailand
Lebanon, Oman, Tunisia.
An International Advisory Working OHEC, Thailand co-organised and
Group (IAWG) was convened and Asia regional consultation, November
hosted a regional consultation event in
we are grateful to the members 2016, Bangkok representatives from
Bangkok. Our thanks go to OHEC for
who pilot-tested, consulted with Cambodia, China, Hong Kong,
their generous support. We also thank
stakeholders in their countries and Indonesia, South Korea, Thailand,
our colleagues from the British Council
commented in detail on an early Malaysia, Philippines, New Zealand.
in Malaysia and Thailand, and DAAD
draft of the framework. Malaysia National Policy dialogue Egypt for supporting and organising
November 2016. events in their countries.
Attendees at a workshop held during
the 7th ANIE Conference held in
Accra, Ghana October 2016.Preface
For the last three years, the These insights led to the current During the past year, we have engaged
British Council and the DAAD have project which focused on developing with nearly 100 senior policymakers
collaborated to support research a common TNE Classification and higher education experts from
on different aspects of TNE. As a first Framework for IPPM and TNE data government departments, institutions,
result of this collaboration, the study collection guidelines. These tools and organisations – national, regional
‘Impacts of transnational education were designed to support TNE active and international – from 30 countries.
on host countries’ (2014) 1 clearly countries to gather relevant data Their feedback, advice, shared
demonstrated that TNE host countries for the development of appropriate knowledge and encouragement were
believed there were academic, skills policies and regulations and help with a tremendous contribution. With their
development, and social/cultural overall higher education enrolment support, the project has built significant
benefits to TNE. However, there planning. In a first step, an International momentum and the engagement has
was very little hard data to support Advisory Working Group with experts moved beyond data collection to a
these perceptions. A follow-up from both host and sending countries wider debate about the impact of TNE
study, ‘Transnational Education piloted-tested, consulted with local and how different models can benefit
Data Collection Systems: Awareness, stakeholders, and provided invaluable both host and sending countries
Analysis, Action’ (2015) 2 examined the advice on the development of the in different ways. We believe the
TNE data collection systems in both TNE Framework and data guidelines. guidelines thus produced in a truly
host and sending countries and found These ‘prototypes’ were then discussed international effort are a real milestone
that very few host countries had robust and further developed in conference in our ongoing quest to understand
data on TNE provision even though it workshops, presentations and TNE on a global scale.
represented an important part of their consultations, resulting in the TNE
Dr Jo Beall, Director, Education
higher education system. A key finding Classification Framework and guidelines
and Society, British Council
was that there is a multitude of different for TNE data collection presented in
terms used to describe the same type this document. Dr Anette Pieper, Director Projects
of programme and provider mobility department, DAAD
(IPPM), and that this ‘terminology chaos’
makes it challenging to collect
comparable and reliable TNE data
across countries and to develop
appropriate policies and regulations
for TNE at the national level.
1. https://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/tne_study_final_web.pdf
2. https://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/1.1_report_tne_data_collection_system.pdfContents
Executive summary.....................................................................................................................................1
1. Changes and challenges in TNE and the different modes
of international programme and provider mobility.........................................6
1.1 Transnational, cross-border, offshore, borderless education:
are they different?................................................................................................................................6
1.2 Transnational education: focus on international programme
and provider mobility.........................................................................................................................6
1.3 Growth in scope, scale and importance of transnational education....................7
1.4 Examining the different modes of international programme
and provider mobility.........................................................................................................................8
1.5 Need for a Common TNE Classification Framework of IPPM
and TNE data collection guidelines........................................................................................10
2. Common TNE Classification Framework for IPPM...........................................12
2.1 Purpose and outline of chapter................................................................................................ 12
2.2 Why a classification framework is necessary................................................................... 12
2.3 Meaning, objectives and assumptions of the classification framework........... 12
2.4 Two organising principles of the classification framework....................................... 14
2.5 The structure of the Common TNE Classification Framework for IPPM........... 17
2.6 Elaboration of the six categories of IPPM........................................................................... 17
2.7 Use of classification framework for policy development
and data collection systems.......................................................................................................22
3. TNE data collection guidelines for IPPM................................................................. 24
3.1 Tracking TNE: priority and approach.....................................................................................24
3.2 National level agency collecting the data..........................................................................25
3.3 Institutions providing the data...................................................................................................27
3.4 Concluding comments...................................................................................................................35
4. Emerging trends and issues for IPPM....................................................................... 36
4.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................................36
4.2 Articulation/pathway programmes.........................................................................................36
4.3 Distance education..........................................................................................................................37
4.4 Quality assurance of TNE..............................................................................................................39
4.5 Awarding and recognition of qualifications.......................................................................40
4.6 Looking to the future....................................................................................................................... 41
References and further reading................................................................................................... 42
Appendix A...................................................................................................................................................... 44
Appendix B...................................................................................................................................................... 48
Appendix C...................................................................................................................................................... 52Executive summary
The purpose of this report is to all point to a common finding – TNE and clarity of use within and across
present the proposed Common TNE terminology chaos. Over 40 different countries but which respects the local
Classification Framework and data terms are being used to describe context, linguistic differences and
collection guidelines for international international programme and provider regulatory environment? Furthermore,
programme and provider mobility. mobility. Furthermore, the same terms is it possible to develop a framework to
are used to denote very different differentiate the various modes of IPPM
Growth in scope, scale and modes of IPPM while different terms by using a set of common criteria to
importance of transnational are being used to describe the same describe each mode and distinguish
education mode of IPPM. In short there is mass one mode from another? The proposed
confusion about what is meant by an Common TNE Classification Framework
As international academic mobility
international branch campus, franchise for IPPM as discussed in the report is
increases in scope, scale and
programmes, joint/double degree an important step towards developing
importance so does the confusion
programmes, distance education, such a practical and analytical framework.
about what the terms cross-border,
and joint universities.
transnational, borderless and offshore In spite of the fact that TNE is
education actually mean. To provide The implications of TNE and IPPM increasing in scope and scale,
clarity and simplicity about what terminology chaos are many and there is a significant lack of reliable
transnational education (TNE) involves significant. While it is important that information regarding the nature and
the term international programme and each country uses terms that fit extent of TNE provision in terms of
provider mobility (IPPM) is introduced into the domestic higher education enrolments and the characteristics
to indicate that TNE involves landscape, it is equally important that of IPPM modes. While highly active
programmes and providers moving there is a shared understanding and sending TNE countries have developed
across national borders to deliver use of TNE terms across countries. TNE policies and regulatory processes
higher education programmes and The lack of a common understanding and databases on all TNE activity
credentials to students in their home of the terms raises serious issues under their jurisdiction it is clear that
or neighbouring country instead of related to appropriate quality assurance the majority of TNE host countries,
students moving to the country of the processes, qualification recognition especially the ones who have only
foreign higher education institution/ procedures, registration of new recently become more TNE active,
provider for their full academic providers or programmes, completion do not have appropriate registration
programme. The terms TNE and IPPM rates and the collection of programme of foreign programmes or TNE data
are used interchangeably in the report. level information and enrolment data. collection systems in place. This means
that there is insufficient information
For IPPM it is critical to recognise that The inconsistency in the use of
to effectively include TNE provision
there are different rationales, impacts, terms also makes comparisons of
in their higher education planning
policies and regulations for sending TNE provision, data, policies and
processes, policies, and regulatory
TNE countries versus host TNE countries. research within and across countries
functions. The proposed TNE data
To date, more attention has been given challenging and often inconclusive.
collection guidelines provide
to sending countries’ perspectives It also means that generalisation of
information for national higher
and less to host countries. This report research findings is difficult and the
education agencies in both host and
is relevant to both sending and host analysis of internationally comparable
sending countries on how to establish
countries but it highlights the importance TNE data questionable.
a national TNE data collection system.
and implications of IPPM for host TNE
The guidelines are aligned to the
countries, especially those who are Need for a Common TNE classification framework and provide
in the early stages of receiving or Classification Framework information on how to establish basic
partnering with foreign sending higher and data collection guidelines TNE data collection templates plus
education institutions (HEIs)/providers. for IPPM more focused IPPM modules in order
The confusion and misunderstandings for countries to customise TNE
TNE terminology chaos databases to their own needs,
about the different modes of IPPM
Recent studies which have reviewed points to a challenge that requires the priorities and level of TNE provision.
national TNE policies, impacts of TNE attention of the many higher education
provision on host countries, national and TNE actors and stakeholders. Is it
TNE data collection and management possible to develop a common set of
systems, and research on TNE provision IPPM terms which allows consistency
Transnational education: a classification framework and data collection guidelines 1Objectives and use of Common Row Independent Collaborative
TNE Classification Framework
1 Franchise programmes Partnership programmes
The objectives of the framework are
2 International branch campus Joint universities/colleges
1) to provide some clarity and common
interpretations of the different modes 3 Self-study distance education Distance education with local
and categories of TNE. This requires academic partner
the framework to be robust enough
to ensure that the characteristics of Two organising principles are provided solely by the foreign
each IPPM model are clearly defined, of the framework sending HEI/provider and has no
but flexible enough to reflect the teaching or learning support provided
The first principle relates to the
realities and different contexts of locally), and distance education with a
differentiation of TNE as primarily a
more than 120 countries involved local academic partner. The continuous
standalone or independent TNE activity
in TNE; 2) to provide a foundation growth and dynamic changes in the
by a sending HEI/provider and TNE as
to help systematise data collection use of distance education technologies
a collaborative effort between host and
and management within and across demands that the framework recognise
sending HEIs/providers. The distinction
countries through TNE data collection distance/online education as a separate
between collaborative TNE provision
guidelines. Users of the framework TNE category unto itself. However,
and independent TNE provision has
include higher education institutions, distance education is also a form of
important implications for both host
higher education agencies and teaching and learning through face-to-
and sending country regulations
government departments, quality face, online or blended approaches
and policies related to registration,
assurance agencies and others; which are applicable to all modes of
external quality insurance, awarding
3) to provide common IPPM terms programme and provider mobility.
of qualifications, degree recognition,
and categories so that eventually this
responsibility for the curriculum and
data can be included in the UNESCO,
TNE data collection. Descriptions of TNE modes
OECD and Eurostat (UOE) database and commonly used terms
on higher education. This will allow The second principle relates to six
The framework provides a brief
trends and enrolments in IPPM to be distinct categories or modes of
description of each category of IPPM.
monitored in the same way that student programme and provider mobility
They are not called definitions to allow
mobility and international student as identified on the three horizontal
for customisation to local contexts
data and trends are monitored rows of the framework. The six
in TNE active countries. Three key
both nationally and internationally. categories represent different modes
questions help to differentiate the
of international programme and
characteristics of the categories:
Meaning of Common TNE provider delivery and are carefully
who awards the qualification, who
Classification Framework aligned with the independent or
has primary responsibility for the
for IPPM collaborative approaches.
academic curriculum, and who has
Common indicates that it is relevant to Row one differentiates franchise primary responsibility for external
and used by both host and sending TNE programmes/arrangements which quality assurance. While there are
countries/providers around the world. are primarily exported by a sending always exceptions, the overall logic
TNE is defined succinctly as ‘the mobility country from partnership programmes is that for independent TNE provision
of higher education programmes and which are based on collaboration the sending country has primary
institutions/providers across international between host and sending country responsibility for the curriculum,
borders’. Classification refers to the HEIs/providers. The second row the qualification awarded, and
categorisation of different modes or distinguishes between an international external quality assurance. While
types of IPPM and Framework indicates branch campus which is essentially a for collaborative TNE provision both
that there is a logic or analytical frame satellite operation of a parent HEI in the the host and sending countries share
used. IPPM specifies that the six different sending country from a joint university or have joint responsibility for these
models of international programme and which is co-founded or co-developed three aspects of TNE programmes.
provider mobility are addressed in the by both sending and host country
framework. Overall, the framework HEIs. The third row refers to distance
introduces some structure and logic to education as a separate TNE mode
how different types of TNE are described and distinguishes between self-study
and differentiated from one another. distance education programmes (which
2 Transnational education: a classification framework and data collection guidelinesUse of the classification data. Key challenges for collecting TNE A modular approach
framework data included: lack of a clear strategic to collecting TNE data
approach at national policy level,
For the framework to be useful, it Once the data collection agency
inability of countries to classify the
must be robust enough to differentiate has identified the institutions to be
various categories of TNE activity, and
between each of the six primary surveyed, the next step involves
use of outdated or poorly structured
categories of IPPM but flexible enough developing a TNE data request to
data request templates. The report
to acknowledge individual contexts and be sent to the institutions. There is
includes TNE data collection guidelines
regulations of TNE active countries. potentially a large amount of data
to assist host and sending countries
Countries have different approaches that can be requested from TNE
in developing a TNE data request
and levels of IPPM involvement and active institutions. However, care
instrument, in order to collect robust,
must be able to use the framework must be taken to balance the amount
consistent, and internationally
to meet their particular needs and and complexity of data requested,
comparable TNE data. The approach
circumstances. Thus the framework is with the capacity and ability of
taken is to present a series of questions
not a top-down imposed structure but the institutions to provide the data.
laid out in table format, from both the
rather a foundation and guideline to Therefore a key consideration of these
host and sending country perspective;
help countries have clarity on the guidelines is to propose ‘core’ data that
and also from both the perspective of
different modes of TNE provision. is recommended as a priority to collect,
the agencies collecting the data and
regardless of which agency is collecting
The use of the Common TNE the institutions providing the data.
the data; and additional ‘optional’ data
Classification Framework for policy
that may have particular relevance for
development and data collection National level agencies different agencies depending on their
will vary from country to country, collecting the data mandate and rationale for collecting
depending on the prevalent IPPM
TNE data is collected by national level and using TNE data.
modes, as well as how the data will be
agencies in both host and sending
used for planning, policy analysis and Core data modules
countries: either departments or the
development of regulatory processes.
statistical unit within the ministry of A key consideration of the guidelines
It is important to emphasise that the
education (MoE); or independent is to propose ‘core’ data that is
use of the classification framework
regulatory or statistical bodies, usually recommended as a priority to collect,
will vary, but not the actual content.
reporting to the MoE. The agency or mainly with a view to encouraging early
Countries, especially host countries
department collecting TNE data may stage/developing TNE countries to
are at different stages in establishing
be separate and standalone from the begin the process of collecting TNE
TNE data collection systems and will
department collecting general higher data. TNE programme title, field of
develop their capacity over several
education data, or may be distinct education, level of programme, country
phases. To allow for an incremental
units within the main education data and institution awarding the qualification,
approach to data collection, the
collection agency. The first step for and total number of students enrolled in
framework must be flexible and have
any data collection agency mandated the programmes are proposed as basic
different entry points, but still have
to collect TNE data is to decide which data to collect for each TNE programme.
robust descriptions of the six modes.
institutions will be asked to complete In addition, a classification data module
It is important to note that the
the TNE data request. There are is proposed as another core data
classification framework is aligned to
different considerations here for host module, given that it enables each TNE
the TNE data collection guidelines.
and sending countries, so a separate programme to be classified as belonging
data table has been developed for to one of the six TNE categories in the
TNE data collection guidelines
each. These tables will help the data classification framework.
For many countries, IPPM is becoming collection agency to generate lists of
almost as prominent as the mobility of target institutions and will also allow
international students across national for more segmented and comparative
borders. However, whereas most analysis of the responses they provided.
countries collect robust data on
student mobility, few countries are
collecting any significant level of TNE
Transnational education: a classification framework and data collection guidelines 3Additional data modules mobility is articulation/pathway Quality assurance of TNE
The data proposed as being optional, programmes. This form of international While the overall TNE context is one
at least from the perspective of a higher education (IHE) has shown of growth and opportunity, effective
country at an early stage of collecting a great propensity for innovation, quality assurance of TNE presents
TNE data, is organised in terms of creativity and increasing complexity a major challenge, for both host and
a programme data module, and an with a diversity of host, sending and sending countries, and few countries
enrolment data module. Additional even third country actors involved. have robust TNE quality assurance
programme data is of interest to All of this creates challenges for systems in place. In view of the above,
regulatory bodies, including licensing, classification and data collection of it is encouraging to see new networks
accreditation and quality assurance this activity. While the classification being formed involving quality
agencies and recognition bodies. framework does not include assurance agencies in different sending
Enrolment data is of particular interest articulation/pathway programmes, and host countries working together.
to the ministry of education and it is important for higher education (HE) There also remains an important role
other economic and trade ministries agencies in sending and host countries for existing regional and international
interested in understanding the scale to be aware of these programmes. agencies to play in terms of sharing
and economic impacts of the TNE of best practice guidelines, research
activity. The optional student level Distance education and data. And the UNESCO/OECD
data module provides a deeper Delivery of TNE via distance education Guidelines for quality provision in cross-
level of understanding about the accounts for a significant and expanding border higher education will continue
programme, and a profile of the TNE proportion of global TNE activity. to support the development of quality
students and their graduation and Elements of distance education assurance procedures and systems
employment outcomes, allowing for provision (online in particular) are within countries. As more countries
comparisons against local non-TNE becoming ubiquitous and likely will become active as both hosts and
students in the host country. be imbedded to some extent in the senders of TNE programmes, quality
majority of HE programmes in the assurance agencies will need to
A key principle of the guidelines is that
future. However, distance education consider both perspectives in
data collecting agencies will decide
is often happening outside a formal discharging their duties.
what data to collect, what they consider
regulatory framework, in the absence
as the basic level of data to collect, The classification framework clearly
of concrete national level policies and
and ultimately how the data request distinguishes between independent
plans to guide its development. This
can be customised to the local higher and collaborative forms of TNE
presents major challenges in terms of
education environment and context. provision. As national quality assurance
quality assurance of distance education
systems develop, this distinction may
programmes, recognition of distance
Emerging trends and become an important consideration
education qualifications, and is part of
issues in IPPM in determining the appropriate
the reason behind a worrying lack of
approaches to oversight and review
A number of emerging issues are data on distance education programmes.
of TNE activity.
discussed, particularly with a view to Most countries are struggling to
keeping on top of classification and understand key basic questions around Going forward, co-ordination between
data collection issues going forward. the nature and scale of this activity, quality assurance and statistical bodies
owing to the variety and complexity within countries will result in a more
Articulation/pathway programmes of distance education operational efficient and rounded approach to
One of the challenges involved in models in existence. The question collecting data, so that robust data is
developing a TNE classification about whether distance education collected about the TNE programmes,
framework is deciding where to draw should be considered as a distinct and also about numbers and
the line about what is, and what is not, type of programme, or as a mode characteristics of students enrolled
included in the framework. One mode of pedagogy, is a key classification in the programmes.
of internationalisation that straddles issue discussed in the report.
both IPPM and international student
4 Transnational education: a classification framework and data collection guidelinesAwarding and recognition The main mechanism used by host
of qualifications countries to confer recognition on
TNE programmes is to place them
As TNE becomes more collaborative in
on a register of approved programmes.
nature, host country HEIs are becoming
Lack of recognition of distance
more involved in the awarding of the
education TNE qualifications is a major
TNE qualification, whether as a single
issue in a number of countries. Lack of
award by the host country institution,
a national qualifications framework is
or a joint or double award with their
a noticeable barrier to recognition of
foreign partner. Therefore, as TNE
TNE qualifications in a number of host
develops, the question about who
countries, as this makes it difficult to
provides the academic oversight may
reference the TNE qualification against
become as important as who awards
a local equivalent. This situation is likely
the qualification. It should also be
to improve as national qualifications
noted that the concept of awarding
frameworks are currently under
qualifications is becoming more
development in several countries.
flexible. In addition to awarding
diplomas and degrees, HEIs are IPPM is at an important juncture, where
becoming more active at awarding national governments would benefit
credits for specific modules of study, greatly from a better understanding
as well as certificates for completion of of this important dimension of
MOOCs. Another trend is the veritable internationalisation, so that the
explosion of double degrees being challenges and opportunities it presents
awarded by both partner institutions. can be effectively managed, and its
From the perspective of classification potential evenly shared across societies,
and data collection, double degrees HE systems and the broad student
are problematic in distinguishing host body. A better understanding will allow
from sending country, and can result countries to decide how best to engage
in double counting of the students. with IPPM, and what national and sector
level actors should be involved. The
concept of programmes and providers
moving across national borders should
eventually be as well understood as
international student mobility.
Transnational education: a classification framework and data collection guidelines 51. Changes and challenges in TNE and
the different modes of international
programme and provider mobility
1.1 Transnational, cross- countries do not see it being relevant moving to the students and not the
border, offshore, borderless to them. Thus, the terms are becoming students moving to the country of the
education: are they different? broader in concept but less meaningful foreign HEI/provider.
in practice.
During the last two decades there has A key issue at stake is therefore
been an exponential increase in all These four terms have different distinguishing between international
forms of international academic meanings both within and across programme and provider mobility
mobility – student and scholar, countries and between different (IPPM) and international student
programmes and providers, policies national, regional and international mobility (ISM). At a general overview
and regulations, and the universal organisations. While this is a sign level, ISM refers to two types of student
exchange of knowledge, ideas, values of the growing importance and mobility. The first features those
and culture. The diversity in the modes recognition given to international students who move to study at an HEI/
and forms of mobility is unprecedented. academic mobility, it also signals that provider in another country for their
This has brought new opportunities and more attention has to be given to full academic programme. There is no
innovation to international higher clarifying what the different terms question that recruiting international
education and has also raised new mean and what type of mobility students to study in a foreign country
issues and potential risks. At the same strategies are included. A logic and is big business. The second type of ISM
time, it has introduced a new lexicon structure needs to be applied to the includes students enrolled in a home
to international academic mobility diverse terms used to describe the university who have the opportunity
as more terms are being created many forms of international academic to study in another country on a short-
to try to capture the evolution and mobility. The challenge is to have clarity term basis through semester or year
many changes. All this points to and a common understanding of the abroad programmes, internships, field
the dynamism, responsiveness and terms, without trying to standardise work, or summer camps. In both these
innovation of the international higher definitions – thus ignoring local context, scenarios, it is primarily the student
education landscape; but it is also policies and language orientation. who is moving. This contrasts with IPPM
contributing to mass confusion and where it is primarily the programme or
misunderstanding of the different 1.2 Transnational HEI/provider that moves to offer an
forms of mobility. education: focus on academic programme and qualification
international programme to students in a host country. Of course
To date there are four generic terms
and provider mobility these are not watertight categories.
which are used in referring to
With today’s innovations through
international academic mobility. This report focuses on transnational ICT and networking there are new
They are cross-border, transnational, education (TNE) which means ‘the combinations and permutations of
offshore and borderless education. mobility of academic programmes international higher education mobility.
These terms are most often used and providers across international But, for the purposes of clarity, TNE
interchangeably even though they borders’. In other words, TNE refers to refers to the provision of higher
mean different things to higher international programme and provider education through international
education actors and stakeholders. mobility (IPPM). However, programmes programme and provider mobility (IPPM).
For many, transnational education is and providers move across borders
understood to cover higher education in diverse ways such as international The purpose of this introduction has
programmes and providers moving branch campuses, franchise been to first provide a clearer picture
across international borders. This programmes, distance education, of what transnational education means
differs from cross-border education partnership programmes and joint as opposed to other terms such as
which is wider in scope and includes universities. The common feature is that cross-border education, offshore
student and scholar mobility, as well a sending country HEI/provider offers education and borderless education
as programme and provider mobility. its programmes in a host country. and secondly, emphasise that
Borderless was once thought to include Thus, the host country is the recipient – transnational education focuses on
new developments in distance and or a collaborating partner – with a the different modes of international
online education but has since foreign sending HEI/provider offering programme and provider mobility
broadened and is used in a general programmes in the host country. Taking (IPPM). As will be discussed later,
sense to include any and all kind of a macro perspective, one can say that transnational education does not
academic mobility in terms of space, the major focus of TNE provision is on rule out the possibility that students
time, discipline etc. Offshore education academic programmes and providers enrolled in a TNE programme might
is a well-known term but landlocked have some study abroad experiences.
6 Transnational education: a classification framework and data collection guidelinesHowever, for TNE the primary unit programme take some or all their active in tracking their TNE activities
of analysis is the movement of programme through TNE provision. and producing data for use in their
programmes and providers across That means that just over half of total home context. Host countries, in
international borders. registered international students are contrast, especially those with
not moving to a UK-based institution developing higher education systems,
The next section addresses the
for their full programme; instead they are lagging behind in obtaining solid
increasing scale, scope and importance
are enrolled in a TNE-type programme information on stand-alone TNE
of TNE provision and the unprecedented
offered by the UK HEI/provider in institutions, such as branch campuses
growth in the number and types of IPPM.
another country, usually their home as well as franchises and distance
or nearby neighbouring country. education arrangements, partnership
1.3 Growth in scope, Thus, there are more UK international programmes between local and foreign
scale and importance of students studying in TNE programmes institutions, including twinning and
transnational education outside the UK than in UK based HEIs/ joint/double/multiple degree
Not only has there been an exponential providers. For the large sending programmes.
increase in the number of new TNE countries like the UK and Australia,
Furthermore, without information
programmes being offered by sending this trend is expected to increase
from monitoring of TNE trends and
and host countries around the world, thereby highlighting the importance
the collection of TNE data, there
there are new forms of partnerships of IPPM for sending TNE countries.
are limitations in terms of what kind
and delivery modes emerging into
In terms of TNE host countries, a similar of national enabling policies and
the international higher education
increase in enrolments in TNE is regulatory frameworks countries can
landscape. The last decade has seen
happening. For instance, in Mauritius, develop and implement. A 2016 British
a steady increase in the number of
40 per cent of all their local students Council study entitled The Shape of
branch campuses and the development
are enrolled in some type of IPPM – Global Higher Education: National
of internationally co-founded and joint
either distance education, international Policies Framework for International
institutions. Franchising arrangements
branch campuses, franchise, or Engagement (Ilieva and Peak, 2016)
are evolving from individually franchised
partnership programmes. In Dubai, did a comprehensive review of national
programmes to the development of
about 50 per cent of total higher level policies on different forms of
new private independent universities
education enrolments are through international academic mobility
in a host country which primarily offer
IPPM, primarily international branch (student, researcher, programme and
franchised academic programmes from
campuses. In countries with a long provider) in 26 internationally engaged
different foreign providers. The number
history of TNE such as Malaysia, countries in all regions of the world.
of twinning and franchise programmes
Singapore and Hong Kong between ten These countries are listed in Table 1.1.
is now being surpassed by the
and 20 per cent of higher education It is both interesting and revealing to
staggering increase in double and
provision is through IPPM. analyse the difference in the strength
multiple degree programmes. Distance
of national policies for international
education is being revolutionised by the However, the research and monitoring
student mobility versus international
development of new technologies, the of these new TNE developments is
programme and provider mobility
open access movement, and massive simply not keeping pace with the
as illustrated in Table 1.1. Of the 26
open online courses (MOOCs). accelerated rate of change. While
countries reviewed, 89 per cent
opinion and anecdotal evidence reveal
The growth in the scale of TNE were strong in policies for international
the benefits and risks attached to this
enrolments and the diversity of IPPM student mobility while only 66 per cent
burgeoning field, there continues to be
modes of delivery is vividly illustrated of the same countries were strong in
a significant lack of research, robust
by a UK example. According to a 2016 policies for international programme
data and information regarding TNE
report by Universities UK and the and provider mobility.
and the different IPPM modes of
British Council entitled the Scale
delivery. This is especially true in terms
and Scope of UK Higher Education –
of host country TNE activity. Institutions
Transnational Education, 52 per cent
and national agencies in major sending
of all international students who are
countries, such as the UK, Australia,
enrolled in a UK qualification awarding
Germany and France seem to be more
Transnational education: a classification framework and data collection guidelines 7Table 1.1: Comparison of percentage of countries with strong or weak national policies for international student mobility
versus international programme and provider mobility
National policies Strong Weak
(very strong and strong (very weak and weak
categories combined) categories combined)
International student mobility (ISM) 89% 11%
International programme and provider mobility (IPPM) 66% 34%
26 countries included in the study: Australia, Botswana, Brazil, Chile, China, Colombia, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Germany, India, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Kenya,
Malaysia, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines, Russia, South Africa, Thailand, Turkey, UK, USA, Vietnam.
Source: Ilieva and Peak, 2016
Table 1.2: Comparison of percentage of sending and host countries with strong or weak national policies for IPPM
National policies for IPPM Strong Weak
(very strong and strong (very weak and weak
categories combined) categories combined)
Primarily sending countries 100% 0%
Both sending and host 100% 0%
Primarily host country 53% 47%
Source: Ilieva and Peak, 2016
Table 1.2 delves deeper into the academic mobility but there is a further 25 countries from all regions of the
policies for IPPM and compares the source of misunderstanding related to world; 2) the potential market and 3)
strength of policies of sending countries the naming and categorisation of the the existing academic mobility scene.
versus host countries. All four sending different IPPM modes. Four recent The purpose of the matrix was to
countries (Australia, UK, US and studies, which examined the different determine which countries are
Germany) plus the three countries which modes of IPPM, provide concrete attractive for future TNE opportunities.
were identified as both sending and host evidence of the different interpretations A major challenge was the lack of hard
(China, India and Malaysia) were all rated and perceptions around labelling the data on TNE and wading through the
strong in terms of having IPPM policies. diverse strategies used in TNE plethora of different terms used to
This is in stark contrast to the 19 host provision. Highlights of the findings from describe programme and provider
countries where only 52 per cent were these four studies follow and point to mobity in order to undertake a
rated strong in IPPM policies. the need for an improved structure and comparative review. See Appendix A
logic to categorise the modes of IPPM. for a summary of the report findings.
Thus, in spite of the growth in the size,
scope and importance of TNE provision,
it is clear that a key issue which must be Review of national policies TNE impacts on host country
addressed is the development of policies on international higher study (2014)
and regulations in TNE host countries, education (2013) To date, the majority of research,
especially those which are in the early A British Council report, The Shape discussion and debate on TNE have
stage of increasing TNE provision and of Things to Come 2: Evolution of been from the sending country
using different IPPM modes. Transnational Education (McNamara, perspective. However, to find out the
Knight and Fernandez-Cheung, 2013), true impact of TNE on receiving/host
1.4 Examining the examined core issues such as data, countries it is important to get their
different modes of definitions, opportunities and impacts opinions and understand their views.
international programme of TNE. Of particular importance is the To that end, a major survey study was
opportunities matrix. This is essentially undertaken by the British Council and
and provider mobility
an analytical framework which uses DAAD (McNamara and Knight, 2014)
As previously discussed there is with collaboration from Australian
a set of indicators to review three
confusion about the meaning of four International Education and in
aspects of TNE: 1) the national policies
generic terms describing international association with Campus France and
and regulations which are in place in
8 Transnational education: a classification framework and data collection guidelinesthe Institute for Education. Customised collection and management systems in of national policy areas influenced
surveys were sent to eight different place at national or sub-national level. by the existence of TNE data include:
target groups – TNE students, After completing a brief review of more accreditation and quality assurance,
TNE faculty members, senior TNE than 40 TNE active countries, in depth recognition of foreign qualifications,
institutional leaders, HE experts, case studies were completed on 13 visa and immigration, promoting access
government agencies, employees as countries (three sending and ten host) to higher education, and knowledge
well as non-TNE students and non-TNE as to the availability of TNE data and and innovation. The scale of TNE
faculty in ten active TNE countries the types of TNE data collection activity relative to domestic
in all regions of the world to get their systems in place. The results showed programmes appears to be an
feedback on TNE impacts. The analysis that very few host countries had robust important factor in establishing data
of the over 1,900 respondents yielded data on TNE provision even though it collection systems. In some cases, the
some fascinating and important results. represented a significant percentage reason for collecting TNE data is simply
It clearly demonstrated that TNE of their higher education provision. explained as being a natural extension
host countries believed there were The picture was different for three of the data collection on higher
academic, skills development, and major sending countries – UK, Germany education. This then leads to the
social/cultural benefits to TNE. and Australia. Understandably each question as to whether TNE data is
TNE system was customised and used integrated into an overall higher
Of interest is that at the national level,
different categories or terms to denote education database and therefore
academic impacts in the form of
a TNE mode. It is important to note that sometimes difficult to extract or
increased ‘access to higher education’
the TNE data from the sending country whether it is collected as standalone
and ‘improvement in education quality’
did not align with the TNE data from the disaggregated data thereby being
were seen as the top two benefits of
host country. Some countries used much easier to access and analyse.
TNE and are perceived as being more
standalone TNE data collecting
important than political, economic or The key challenge identified in collecting
systems, and other countries integrated
skills benefits. In general, respondents TNE data is the categorisation and
the TNE data into overall HE data.
believed that TNE is not providing definitions used to label different
different programmes to those offered Overall, the study confirmed that types of TNE modes and partnerships.
locally which dispels the myth that TNE active countries use different Consultation with HE agencies
TNE is offering specialised niche terminology; target different institutions; indicated that while most countries
programmes not available in the host use different template structures and recognise this problem, to date there
country. Furthermore, respondents formats and capture different information has not been any kind of solution
believed that for the most part TNE about TNE programmes and providers. provided. A clear finding from this
programmes are responding to student In many cases the data templates don’t study was the need to develop a
interests more than the needs of the allow for differentiation of TNE from common TNE classification framework
labour market. While these findings are local (non-TNE) programmes or and guidelines for TNE data collection.
clearly important, they are opinions simply describe TNE providers as See Appendix C for further information
only and there was very little empirical private providers with no indication on this study.
evidence to support the perceptions of whether they were offering local
these eight different respondent groups. or international programmes. Review of TNE research 2000–15
This then led to a follow-up study also
The study found that there are diverse Compared to student mobility,
sponsored by the British Council and
rationales for collecting TNE data. A international programme and provider
DAAD on TNE data collection and
major driver relates to the regulatory mobility is a fairly recent phenomenon,
management in sending and host
functions associated with registration, albeit one that is exponentially
countries. For further information on
accreditation, and, to a lesser extent, increasing in size and scope. A recent
the TNE impact study see Appendix B.
quality assurance, of TNE providers and study (Knight and Liu, 2017) undertook
programmes. Even countries at an early a systematic review of the published
Transnational education stage of collecting TNE data appear to scholarly and applied research on TNE
data systems (2015) be motivated to collect TNE data by the since 2000. Published journal articles,
The British Council/DAAD study need for developing and implementing book chapters, reports and
Transnational Education Data Systems: regulatory processes. But, motivations dissertations on TNE were reviewed
Awareness, Analysis, Action (McNamara for TNE data collection can also be and coded as to the type/mode of TNE
and Knight, 2015) focused on which framed within a policy development provision, date of publication, research
TNE active countries had TNE data and decision making context. Examples methodology, major theme, geographic
Transnational education: a classification framework and data collection guidelines 9focus, and source of reference. *This section is adapted from Knight, J The second most problematic term
The review focused on various modes (2017) ‘Transnational Education seems to be double/ joint degree
of programme and provider mobility Terminology Chaos: Working Towards a programmes. The rising popularity of
and thus did not address student Common TNE Classification Framework’ these programmes means that it has
mobility per se. Research on distance from International Education Handbook, become a misunderstood and misused
education was not included. DUZ Verlags-und Medienhaus GmbH term and now encompasses twinning,
franchise, study abroad, cotutelle and
The results showed that international
branch campuses (IBCs) at 29 per cent 1.5 Need for a Common a multitude of other programmes as
TNE Classification Framework demonstrated in the literature and
were the most researched mode
of IPPM and TNE data practice. Another important study
followed in descending order by
collection guidelines (Kosmutsky and Putty, 2015) which
partnership programmes (involving
reviews the literature of international
collaboration between host and
TNE terminology chaos higher education also addresses the
sending countries such as twinning
confusion of terms both at the generic
and joint/double degree programme) As has been discussed there are many
level – transnational, cross-border,
at 16 per cent, then joint universities terms used in polices, practice and
borderless and offshore – and at
(bi-national, co-founded and research to describe the same IPPM
the level of the different types
co-developed institutions) at six per mode. A revealing example is the
of IPPM modes.
cent, then franchise programmes international joint venture universities
(export programmes from sending in China which are commonly (and With one term being used to describe
countries) at five per cent. It is mistakenly) labelled as international very different types of TNE initiatives
important to note that research which branch campuses. A close look at and many terms being used to
dealt with multi-TNE modes or generic the Chinese regulations for foreign identify one TNE mode the term
TNE themes represented 43 per cent providers operating in China shows ‘TNE terminology chaos’ is most
of the published research. When that a Chinese partner is mandatory for apt. Without question, there is much
geographic focus is factored in for all TNE provision. As a result there are confusion within and among countries
IBCs it shows that research from the growing numbers of jointly developed about what different types or modes
viewpoint of the sending countries independent Chinese universities which of TNE actually mean and involve.
was most prevalent and that research are new legal entities and do not act A recent report, Transnational Education
from the host country perspective as an international branch campus of a Transnational education in the European
significantly under-represented. It is foreign provider. They are commonly context-provision, approaches, and
also worth noting the low number of referred to as joint venture or policies (ACA, 2012), reports on TNE
PhD dissertations on TNE, compared to collaborative universities, but, many activity in several European countries.
the multitude of studies on international international articles and reports For some countries such as Spain and
student mobility. continue to refer to them as an Germany, the term offshore education
international branch campus of a is used while for other countries, such
Together these four studies demonstrate
foreign provider. There are instances as the Netherlands and the UK, the
that while TNE provision is increasing
in China where in a new joint venture term transnational education is used.
in importance and impact there is still
university, the Chinese partner tends There does not seem to be an
confusion as to what different modes
to be a silent partner but in more explanation of the conceptual or
of IPPM actually involve, how they are
recent years this is increasingly not the programmatic differences in these
labelled, and how to distinguish one
case. This is but one example of the descriptors. Another report Delivering
mode from another. Thus evidence from
confusion in labelling TNE activities. education across borders in the
two reviews of national policies for TNE
European Union (Brandenburg et al.,
provision, an analysis of TNE impacts at
2012), uses a set of definitions for
national and institutional level, and a
cross-border higher education that
review of the literature all point to a
differ from the ACA report. This is
state of confusion about what TNE
not surprising but is indicative of the
means and includes.
murky waters of TNE terminology.
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