BUILDING FOUNDATIONS OF HEALTH AND WELLBEING IN - SCHOOL: A Study of Restorative Practices and Girls of Color
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BUILDING FOUNDATIONS OF HEALTH AND WELLBEING IN SCHOOL: A Study of Restorative Practices and Girls of Color Thalia González and Rebecca Epstein
BUILDING FOUNDATIONS OF
HEALTH AND WELLBEING IN
SCHOOL: A Study of Restorative
Practices and Girls of Color
Thalia González and Rebecca Epstein
© Georgetown Law Center on Poverty and Inequality 2021
This report is based on a study funded by the Robert Wood Johnson
Foundation. The opinions expressed are the authors’ alone, and do
not necessarily reflect the views of the Foundation.
ABOUT THE INITIATIVE ON GENDER JUSTICE & OPPORTUNITY
The Initiative on Gender Justice & Opportunity, part of the Georgetown Law Center on
Poverty and Inequality, identifies barriers to girls’ health and well-being, elevates girls’ unique
assets and needs, and develops solutions to better support girls in our public systems.
TextInitiative’s
The here 00 is to center low-income girls and girls of color in research, policy, and
mission
practice; to name and address the root causes of race and gender disparities; and to develop
solutions that are guided by youths’ narratives and voices.
The Initiative is independently funded; it relies on grants and donations for support. For
more information about our work and to contribute support, please visit our website:
https://genderjusticeandopportunity.georgetown.edu/.
To become a member of our Trauma-Informed Schools Learning Network for Girls of Color,
an online platform for school communities co-led by the National Black Women’s Justice
Institute, please visit www.schools4girlsofcolor.org.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Thalia González is a Senior Scholar at the Georgetown Center on Poverty and Inequality, and
Associate Professor at Occidental College.
Rebecca Epstein is the Executive Director of the Georgetown Center on Poverty and
Inequality and the founder of its Initiative on Gender Justice & Opportunity.
2 Other works co-authored by Thalia González and Rebecca Epstein include: Exclusionary
School Discipline: State-by-State Analysis (2020); School-Based Restorative Justice: State-
by-State Analysis (2020); “Students Need More than Reduced Police Presence: Schools
Must Commit to Implementing Restorative Justice to Rebuild Health and Wellness,”
National Law Journal (2020); Increasing School Connectedness for Girls: Restorative Justice
as a Health Equity Resource (2019); and Gender & Trauma: Somatic Interventions for Girls in
Juvenile Justice: Implications for Policy and Practice (2018).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Amanda Burckhardt for her diligent effort in analyzing the qualita-
tive data collected in this study and Annie Balck for her deep research on the complex issues
relevant to studies on the health of girls of color. We also express our gratitude to Jamie
Bussel of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation for her consistent support and belief in our
mission, and for her unquenchable thirst for knowledge. Finally, we appreciate Rhea Shinde’s
careful and detailed research and support.
SUGGESTED CITATION
Thalia González & Rebecca Epstein, Georgetown L. Ctr. on Poverty & Ineq., Building Foundations
of Health and Wellbeing in Schools: A Study of Restorative Practices and Girls of Color (2021).
TABLE OF CONTENTS 3 Acknowledgments 2 Executive Summary 4 Introduction 8 Key Findings 11 Research, Practice, and Policy Recommendations 21 Conclusion 24 Study Description 26 Endnotes 28
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 4
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 5
THE STUDY OUR FINDINGS
The Initiative on Gender Justice & Opportunity, Participation by girls of color in non-disciplinary
under the leadership of Senior Scholar Thalia restorative practices is affirmatively associated
González, conducted a two-year study funded with protective health factors that increase their
by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. The capacities for engagement in school, academic
project was designed to examine associations success, and overall emotional wellbeing. Specif-
between school-based restorative practices ically, we found that restorative practices outside
and protective health factors for girls of color. the disciplinary context resulted in benefits in the
Qualitative data was collected from focus groups following categories:
with more than sixty Black and Latina girls
¥ School connectedness
attending public middle and high schools across
the United States. ¥ Peer relationships
¥ Connections to family
¥ Sense of safety and positive school
climate
¥ Social and emotional literacy (SEL) skills
¥ Mental health, resilience, and empow-
erment
Restorative
Practices
Are Central FAMILY
to Health. CONNECTEDNESS POSITIVE SCHOOL
CLIMATE
PEER
CONNECTEDNESS
SOCIAL-
RESTORATIVE EMOTIONAL
LEARNING
PRACTICES
SCHOOL
CONNECTEDNESS
MENTAL
HEALTH AND
RESILIENCE
EMPOWERMENTEXECUTIVE SUMMARY
THE ROLE OF SCHOOL-BASED RESTOR- skills, and mental health—also support academic
ATIVE PRACTICES IN GIRLS’ HEALTH attainment. As a result, restorative practices can
benefit girls’ health and wellbeing and improve
Our findings in these six categories of interrelat-
their chances of success in school.
ed health-related factors indicate that restorative
practices can serve as foundations for develop- Thus, the study’s findings have significant impli-
ing healthy relationships and health-promoting cations in two fields:
behaviors.
1. Education: Our findings indicate that
restorative practices can help improve
IMPLICATIONS FOR GIRLS’ ACADEMIC chances of educational success for girls
SUCCESS of color and all students; and
Countless studies have documented the close 2. Public health: Our findings indicate
relationship between health and education. The that restorative practices can help
same factors that support health—positive school advance health equity.
climate, supportive relationships, social-emotional
Restorative Practices RESTORATIVE
Create Conditions PRACTICES
6 for School Success
& Health.
IMPROVED
EDUCATIONAL MENTAL
ATTAINMENT & PHYSICAL
HEALTH
RECOMMENDATIONS TO BUILD ROBUST Practice
RESTORATIVE PRACTICES TO PROMOTE ¥ Include restorative practices in COVID-19
HEALTH AND WELLBEING AND EDUCA- school re-opening plans
TIONAL SUCCESS:
¥ Implement proactive (non-disciplinary)
restorative practices across all grade
Research
levels
¥ Evaluate existing restorative practices
¥ Provide opportunities for single-gender
through a public health lens to inform
and affinity-group restorative practices
implementation
¥ Develop school-specific implementation
¥ Engage in new studies on the impact of
plans for restorative practices
restorative approaches on health, mental
health, and educationEXECUTIVE SUMMARY 7
¥ Incorporate evidence-based, trauma-in- ¥ Enact school finance reform that prioritiz-
formed, culturally responsive practices es healthy whole-child development and
into restorative practices provides long-term funding for restorative
¥ Expand learning opportunities for school practices
leadership and offer professional devel- ¥ Provide technical assistance to schools
opment to teachers and school staff on to develop and sustain non-disciplinary
proactive, non-disciplinary restorative restorative practices
practices ¥ Restrict the use of zero-tolerance and
other punitive discipline practices across
Policy all grade levels
¥ Codify implementation of restorative ¥ Fund research on the effect of restorative
practice models in schools, especially approaches on health, mental health, and
after the pandemic, that promote health education
protective factors
¥ Adopt restorative practices as part of
school reopening plansINTRODUCTION 8
INTRODUCTION 9
R
ooted in indigenous culture and traditions,1 tional attainment. Yet, despite the clear co-influen-
restorative practices (RPs) have grown tial relationship between education and health,9
exponentially throughout the United the connection between school-based RPs and
States. Since the 1990s, RPs have become part health has been underexplored. This gap in the
of innovative educational approaches to address- literature has not only affected the direction of
ing harm, building relationships, and strengthen- research, but it also has limited the advancement
ing school communities.2 School-based RPs were of health equity policies and practices in a corner-
first implemented as a non-punitive alternative to stone of children’s lives: schools. This is particular-
discipline.3 Today, they exist in many forms, which ly true for girls of color, who are at higher risk of
include proactive approaches (developing com- disconnection from school (see text box).10
munity, engaging in social-emotional learning,
This study was developed to bridge this gap and
and focusing on youth empowerment and resil-
help guide policy and practice reform. Under the
ience-building practices) and reactive responses
leadership of Senior Scholar Thalia González and
(addressing disciplinary infractions, repairing
with the support of the Robert Wood Johnson
harm, and restoring relationships).4
Foundation, the Initiative on Gender Justice &
Evidence shows that the benefits that proac- Opportunity conducted the first study of its kind,
tive RPs provide—school connectedness,5 peer exploring connections between proactive school-
connectedness and positive peer relationships,6 based RPs, protective health factors, and student
positive school climate,7 and social-emotional health and wellbeing. The study was also de-
skills8—are not only critical for educational attain- signed to address the persistence of gender bias
ment, but also for health. Educational success in research (see text box) by specifically focusing
creates opportunities for better health; converse- on the experiences and perceptions of Black and
ly, better health improves the chances of educa- Latina female students.11
Why Focus on Girls? The Connection between Gender-Responsive12 School-
Based Interventions and Girls’ Health
Research increasingly confirms that school- Improving school attendance and
based gender-responsive interventions have academic performance17
concrete benefits for girls’ physical and Preventing anxiety and depression18
mental health, including: Targeting unhealthy behaviors, such
Coping with gender-specific stressors13 as disordered eating19 or relational
Strengthening feelings of safety14 aggression20
Increasing emotional literacy, promot- Targeting gender-specific factors that
ing healthy relationships, and improv- drive substance use21
ing self-regulation15 Decreasing likelihood of cigarette,
Increasing self-esteem and self-efficacy, alcohol, or marijuana use22
especially in the areas of motivation Improving girls’ physical activity and
for school success and making healthy food choices.23
social choices16 In fact, health interventions that are not
gender-responsive may harm girls.24INTRODUCTION
To examine associations between school-based Though the study was conducted before the
RPs and health protective factors, we conducted onset of COVID-19, our results have especially
nine focus groups with sixty-seven Black and significant implications for students during the
Latina girls in public middle and high schools (see pandemic. Remote learning and social distancing
Study Description).25 Our analysis of the result- protocols have weakened students’ connection to
ing qualitative data provides the first descriptive school and each other, diminished school climate,
evidence of school-based RPs’ association with and strained youths’ mental health.26 As schools
promoting protective health factors and improved work to rebuild after the pandemic and estab-
mental health for girls of color. Specifically, our lish safe and supportive learning environments,
study reveals that when used in affirmative, whole-school practices and models should be
non-disciplinary contexts, RPs can improve implemented to provide students with a sense
girls’ sense of safety, strengthen connections to of connection, trust, and stability. Emerging
teachers, peers, and family, contribute to a more research on the science of learning and devel-
inclusive and positive school climate, develop opment shows that supportive relationships
social-emotional skills, and improve conditions for “strengthen connectivity among existing brain
positive mental health. While not a direct finding structures” and buffer against adversity.27 In the
of our study, each of these outcomes seems recommendations section of this report, we pro-
likely to also predict improved academic perfor- vide ideas for next steps that educators and pol-
mance. icymakers can take to promote healthier schools
for all children through restorative approaches.
10 Why We Chose to Study Girls of Color: Race and Gender Bias in Research
Gender bias in research has a long history not recognize gender and race/ethnicity as
and is well-documented.28 The areas of “simultaneously lived and intersecting”
education and health are no exception. While characteristics with unique factors and
a groundbreaking 1992 report on gender outcomes.36
inequities in education called attention
For marginalized girls, the implications of
to the experiences and outcomes of girls
gender bias in research are tangible:
in schools,29 a focus on boys’ experience
has consistently outweighed research and Because researchers have a basic lack
resources directed at girls in schools.30 of understanding of biological differ-
Similarly, health research has long overlooked ences based on sex, as well as socio-
factors that are unique for women and girls, cultural gender differences in behavior
leading to male-biased health care standards and lived experience,37 the true experi-
and a limited understanding of women’s ences of marginalized girls in schools
health needs.31 are not fully known.
Researchers do not have a fully com-
Marginalized girls are even more rarely the
prehensive, accurate picture of how
focus of health and education studies.32
gender contributes to some health
Scholars criticize the “paucity of literature,
risks that girls face,38 such as depres-
both applied and experimental” on gender-
sion, anxiety, or the effects of trauma.
specific mental health programming;33 the
Failure to “consider the role of race
“failure on the part of the education research
and gender in the lives of participants”
literature to examine and conceptualize the
results in curricula and pedagogy that
integrated issues of race and gender;”34
heighten the risk of disengagement for
and the “silence about at-risk girls” in
girls of color in school.39
research.35 Education research often doesKEY FINDINGS
11KEY FINDINGS
B
ecause school is where youth spend the “Restorative justice practices are a powerful
majority of their time and where they learn tool in schools because they can create a safe
academic and social skills, it is a critical lo- and supportive container for students to be
cation for interventions that can position girls for honest and open about who they are and
life-long health and wellness.40 Our study found what they are experiencing in their lives. I
that when girls of color participate in proactive have seen in my work, specifically with girls
non-disciplinary school-based RPs, they experi- in grade school and high school, that restor-
ence a range of benefits that are widely recog- ative spaces create fertile ground for them to
nized as protective health factors: experience genuine, respectful, and loving
connections with others. This creates a buffer
¥ Strong connections with peers, teachers,
between girls and the typical challenges they
and family;41
face like bullying, sexual objectification, and
¥ Positive school climate;42 violence that they may be experiencing in
¥ Social-emotional skills; and
43 their homes or communities. When girls have
a creative space dedicated to building rela-
¥ Improved conditions for mental health,
tionships and expressing themselves, they
resilience, and empowerment.
become more resilient and better prepared to
These findings warrant special attention from face life’s challenges as they grow into young
the education and public health fields alike, as women. This is especially true when they
12
they provide evidence that school-based RPs are become leaders and facilitators of their own
important tools for advancing academic success restorative circles and spaces.”
and health for girls of color—and for all students. —Justine Darling, Ph.D., College of
Education, San Diego State University
Finding 1. School-Based RPs Improve Girls’
Connections to Teachers, Peers, and Family.
Girls in our focus groups reported that RPs SCHOOL-BASED RPs STRENGTHEN
strengthened their connections to teachers, GIRLS’ CONNECTIONS TO TEACHERS.
peers, and family. During restorative circles, they Girls in our study identified that RPs helped
discovered that shared experiences built a sense them build and sustain strong connections with
of trust, safety, and belonging. For adolescent teachers. Research reveals that girls, in particular,
girls, in particular, strong relationships at school “place great value on teachers’ support, both
and at home are essential to promoting not only academic and personal,”47 and they are more
academic success,44 but also positive lifelong likely to seek support from teachers with whom
health outcomes.45 According to the Centers they have strong relationships.48 Positive teach-
for Disease Control (CDC), “[y]outh who feel er relationships are central to a strong sense of
connected at school and home are less likely to school connectedness, which the CDC defines
experience negative health outcomes related as “a sense of being cared for, supported, and
to sexual risk, substance use, violence, and
mental health.”46KEY FINDINGS 13
Strong Connections
to Teachers, Peers,
and Family Support TEACHERS
Girls’ Health.
FAMILY
PEERS
belonging.”49 School connectedness is a key such as eating disorders and suicidal thoughts;50
health-protective factor that can provide three (2) it can promote self-efficacy, academic achieve-
health benefits: (1) it can reduce health-risk ment, and resiliency;51 and (3) it can buffer
behaviors that are particularly high risk for girls, against negative peer influence.52
Biases Impede Girls’ Connections With Teachers
Girls who stand at the intersection of multiple Bias can also influence how teachers
identities are at high risk of disconnection respond to students who experience
and disengagement from school.53 Institu- trauma: marginalized girls report a higher
tional bias can operate as a root cause of prevalence of traumatic experiences, but
marginalized girls’ risk of detachment from their expression of that trauma less often
school, ranging from the disproportionate receives healing attention from teachers,
use of punitive and exclusionary discipline54 who are more likely to respond to the kinds
to teachers’ expectations that undermine of externalizing behaviors that are both
their sense of potential academic success 55 more common, and more accepted, in
to teachers’ comparative lack of attention.56 boys.57KEY FINDINGS
Girls also discussed that restorative processes re- girls, who are keenly aware of the potential of
vealed shared experiences with teachers, which experiencing harassment and sexual violence.58
humanized teachers to them, shifting perceptions When girls feel emotionally unsafe, they also feel
of them from unrelatable authority figures to physically unsafe,59 which can limit their academ-
approachable individuals. As one study participant ic achievement60 and their healthy development.61
explained, “[I]f I know that [my teacher] is going And for girls, feelings of safety are rooted in
through that … I know that I’m able to ask for connections to people.62 Studies show that girls
advice.” In particular, focus-group participants value social support and are more oriented to-
said that their discussions during RPs helped ward relationships than boys;63 relationships with
them recognize their teachers’ emotional vulnera- supportive adults, in particular, are vital to margin-
bilities, which strengthened their connection and alized girls’ sense of safety and well-being.64 One
decreased their own sense of isolation: “Seeing study, for example, found that Black girls’ rela-
[my teacher] cry, like, it, it, like, it touched my tionships with adults who affirm their strength,
heart ’cause it’s, like, ‘She’s scared, too. We’re all intelligence, and power were associated with a
scared.‘ So, everybody in that room, … the look greater were chance of school success, a strong
on their faces, … they were all scared. So, I felt and healthy sense of identity, and less stress.65
like I wasn’t the only one there.”
The social cohesion and feelings of safety SCHOOL-BASED RPs STRENGTHEN
established by RPs translated into participants’ GIRLS’ CONNECTIONS TO PEERS.
increased partnership and cooperation with
teachers. One participant described RPs as Girls in our study identified that RPs have
opening new channels for dialogue, with teach- helped them develop stronger peer relationships,
ers “checking up on you, … how you’re doing … which contributed to a sense of support and
14 on schoolwork, your grades, and … how you’re being cared for. It is well established that peer
feeling.” Another said that a conversation during a connections are critical to girls’ health.66 In fact,
restorative intervention helped her teacher under- “[f]emale friendship is one of the most important
stand why a student was struggling and how to dimensions of a girl’s life, and its influence on
support him. “There is a reason behind why that her wellbeing may be surpassed only by family
kid is failing this class. Um, it’s not just because relationships in her growth toward adulthood.”67
he’s lazy or he doesn’t have time for it. And in Similar to the benefits associated with school
that circle he can, like, reveal, like, … what he’s connectedness, support from peers can decrease
going through, and it changes, like, the teach- health-risk behaviors for girls68 and can create
er’s perspective. He might give him more time, a sense of belonging and attachment, increase
um, to turn in a work, an assignment.” Relatedly, self-esteem, and heighten motivation to achieve
a focus-group participant described that she wit- at school.69
nessed teachers translating the lessons that they One focus-group participant described RPs: “RJ
learned from RPs into other contexts: “[Teachers] [restorative justice] is just being able to have
actually take into consideration of what you said someone to hear me out and having someone
and actually, you know, apply it ... to the class.” to like, tell me the same thing I felt. … [We]
Girls’ ties to teachers also increased physical creat[ed] a bond.” Similarly, another stated: “You
and psychological safety in school–especially in walk in a room full of strangers. And you leave
schools with multi-year programs. “[S]he [the out that room with … your best friend.” The
teacher who leads RPs] makes you feel comfort- connections girls described were based in part on
able and safe. It’s a place where … you’re not the shared experiences that were revealed during
judged. And you’re not, you know, bashed about restorative practices, which led to a sense of so-
anything you say or do in the circle.” Psycho- cial belonging. “[Other students] express them-
logical safety can be particularly important to selves and they tell the group what they’ve goneKEY FINDINGS 15
Emotional Safety,
Physical Safety, and EMOTIONAL
Healthy Development SAFETY
are Interrelated.
HEALTHY PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT SAFETY
through. And it’s like, ‘Dang, you go through it, o I took a step back and then I started think-
too?’” ing about stuff ... and I was like, ‘Oh, um, it’s
better if we talk things out.’ I’m not saying,
Across all focus groups, girls characterized RPs
like, right now our relationship is perfect, …
as creating an environment of collaborative
but like, now lately with restorative justice, I
problem-solving with peers: “[B]y … speaking up
feel like when I speak to him, it’s not like I go
and sharing what I felt, or what I went through,
out right away or we argue. It’s that, ‘Okay, I’m
… someone else [could] relate to that, and that’s
understanding your perspective. Now under-
how we can get to their root of the problem
stand my perspective.’”
and how we can fix … the community, and …
how to find … the problem within themselves.”
Girls also associated RPs with increased open-
ness at home. A participant stated that because
of her experiences with RPs at school, she was
SCHOOL-BASED RPs STRENGTHEN
able to “be more vulnerable to not only peers and
GIRLS’ CONNECTIONS TO FAMILY.
teachers, but to my own family.”
Girls in several focus groups reported that they
Family connectedness is one of the most im-
used the skills they learned from their participa-
portant health protective factors for youth. It can
tion in RPs at school to improve their relation-
protect against a variety of health-risk factors,
ships at home through better communication,
including substance use, early onset of sexual
improved conflict-resolution strategies, and
behavior,70 internalizing disorders,71 and suicide
increased empathy.
attempts.72 It can also help girls of color cope
One participant explained that her experience with the experience of chronic violence and other
with school-based RPs better equipped her to forms of adversity.73 One study that focused on
address and improve a particularly difficult family Black girls demonstrated that family support is
relationship: associated with lower levels of depression and
anxiety.74 Girls who have stronger connections
I learned [from] restorative justice that there’s
with family, especially parents, also achieve great-
probably a reason [that] led to me and my
er academic success.75
father not having a good relationship … [S]KEY FINDINGS
Finding 2. School-Based RPs Improve … surrounded by … people that you trust the
School Climate. most. … [T]hey’re offering support.” One student
Across all focus groups, girls emphasized that described the confidentiality of restorative prac-
RPs improved school climate by creating safe and tices as a significant factor in creating trust: “[Y]
inclusive learning environments marked by safety, ou can trust everybody in the room…nothing will
trust, and supportive relationships.76 be spilled. It will stay inside the room.” Across all
focus groups, RPs were characterized as creating
Positive school climate is foundational for safety and trust by establishing a non-judgmental
girls’ health: “Of the constellation of forces space: “[Wh]at I liked about restorative justice
that influence adolescent health-risk behavior, [was that] it … allowed me to like share my
the most fundamental are the social contexts feelings without anybody judging because, you
in which adolescents are embedded.” know, we all go through stuff.” Another partici-
Source: Resnick, et al., Protecting Adolescents, supra pant described RPs: “[I]t’s like a home, basically
note 8; Resnick et al., Youth Violence Perpetration, … [My teacher] makes you feel comfortable and
supra note 72.
safe.” During RPs, girls felt that they could ex-
press vulnerability without fear of being shamed
One participant summarized RPs as “a safe
or ostracized. In two-thirds of the focus groups,
place to … let go of every pain you bring
girls told us that RPs helped develop a more
inside.” Similarly, another girl stated: “A lot of
egalitarian and collaborative classroom culture.
people have gone through … a lot of stuff, and
Independently and cumulatively, these factors
circle helps us … try to make them feel better …
supported a positive school climate.
[T]hey’re safe here.” Another noted that “[re-
storative practices create] a ‘safe environment,’
16
Positive School Climate Yields Concrete Health Benefits
When a school’s climate improves, students’ Increased physical activity and lower
health and wellbeing improve.77 Positive body mass index;81
school climate is associated with the Increased teacher wellbeing, which
following: is associated with fewer depressive
Mitigated harm to academic achieve- symptoms among students;82
ment associated with adversity and Improved mental health and emotion-
challenging socioeconomic contexts;78 al wellbeing.83
Lessened harassment and sexual Safe schools with positive climates are also
harassment at school;79 critical sites of wellbeing for girls who lack
Decreased risky behaviors such as safety elsewhere in their lives.84
alcohol and tobacco use;80
Finding 3. RPs Improve Girls’ Social and skills, self-regulation, stress management, and
Emotional Skills. positive interactions with adults—all of which
Our study indicates that RPs in school help devel- support long-term health and wellbeing.85 As a
op girls’ social and emotional literacy (SEL) skills. primary location for social interactions during chil-
Social-emotional functioning reduces the risk of dren’s key developmental years, schools can play
harmful behaviors and contributes to self-con- a critical role in building SEL skills.86 In this study,
fidence, self-efficacy, motivation, interpersonal girls described RPs as effectively developing five
fundamental SEL skills: self-awareness, self-man-KEY FINDINGS 17
Positive School Climate
Yields Concrete Health IMPROVED
Benefits. TEACHER
LESS RISKY WELLBEING
BEHAVIOR
GREATER
ACADEMIC
SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT
FEWER CLIMATE
HARASSMENT
INCIDENTS
IMPROVED
PHYSICAL
STRENGTHENED ACTIVITY
MENTAL
HEALTH
agement, social awareness, relationship skills, you’re, like, noticing, ‘Wow, … I didn’t know
and responsible decision-making.87 how angry I was …. I have to be careful what
I say.’” Another described that RPs provided her
Primarily, participants characterized RPs as
with tools to cope with challenging moments by
creating a supportive environment that improved
engaging in positive “self-talk:” “You’re not that
self-awareness and self-expression: “[You] realize
person. Tell … that 6-year-old girl [inside you],
that you’re not perfect, and everybody has prob-
‘that’s not you anymore.’ And calm down.” Such
lems, and it’s okay to have problems, and most
skills are critical to longer-term outcomes: in mul-
importantly, speak about those problems and …
tiple focus groups, girls observed that when they
not keep[] them inside.” They also associated RPs
were in more control of their emotional lives,
with developing keener introspection skills. “I
they could better manage their academic lives.
was that hard-headed kid that didn’t want to lis-
ten; that didn’t respect people. I thought I knew Girls also characterized RPs as promoting social
everything, like I had been here before. You know, awareness, empathy, and compassion by improv-
it [restorative practices] just opened up my eyes; ing listening skills. One participant described the
like, just sitting down, you know, talking.” And lesson she learned: “[I]f you don’t really listen to
as their self-awareness increased, girls report- another person’s, like, perspective, you’re never
ed feeling more confident and empowered and going to solve the problem because … you’re
better able to recognize and celebrate their own always going to think this way, you’re never going
identity, agency, and resilience. to hear the other person out.” Another noted that
RPs provide the space to learn others’ perspec-
Many girls indicated that RPs helped refine
tives: “I stayed quiet because I wanted to hear,
their self-management skills, equipping them to
like, everyone’s story. I wanted to, like, know
control anger and other strong emotions. One
what they were going through and - and, I mean,
participant stated: “In RJ [restorative justice], you
it all made sense, like why they … were, like, the
reflect on what happened. And, like, sometimesKEY FINDINGS
way they are ... I just like hearing people out and to directly examine the relationship between
seeing if I can help them.” gender-based violence and RPs,88 girls in four
focus groups independently identified RPs as es-
Relatedly, girls expressed that the non-judgmen-
tablishing a safe space that facilitated discussion
tal feedback they received during RPs helped
of incidents of sexual violence. Consistent with
them grow. One participant reflected, “Having
studies that have repeatedly confirmed that girls
[my teacher’s] input on what’s going on and how
experience gender-based violence at far higher
I should do things, it helped me a lot. So, it’s like,
rates than boys,89 some participants in our study
I’ve fixed my attitude way more, way better, than
referred to this violence—including sex traffick-
how I was before.” Similarly, RPs contributed to
ing—as “girl stuff.”
more mature conflict-resolution skills: “When I
think of restorative justice, I think of, like, there
Girl 1: It’s … a peace circle. ‘Cause it’s like
was a problem that needs to be solved and that
all girls. ... Like we talk about sex trafficking,
needs to be solved in, like, a mature way where
self-defense. We talk about, you know ...
we can have a mature conversation.”Finding 4.
Girl 2: Abuse.
Finding 4. RPs Provide Mental Health Benefits Girl 1: Yeah. Abuse, um, boyfriends. You know,
and Improve Girls’ Resilience and just girl stuff.”
Empowerment.
Sharing the experience of sexual abuse in the
Participants in our study associated school-based
context of single-gender restorative practices
RPs with dramatic improvement in their mental
connected girls to one another and made them
health. Girls reported feeling more empowered
feel stronger, helping them begin to address
and resilient, less isolated, and less depressed
some of the harmful effects of these incidents,
than they had been before engaging in RPs.
18 These benefits helped girls heal from adversity,
including depression, low self-esteem, and
suicidal ideation. “[I]t helped me um, cope, and
including the trauma of sexual violence. One
also be able to speak, like, more freely about an
girl began describing her impression of RPs in
experience that I went through, like in an abusive
school by noting: “When people feel like they’re
relationship.”
alone, that’s what leads them to, like, depression
and other mental issues that can even kill them, Several participants indicated that RPs helped
because people just don’t feel like they have any- them recognize, for the first time, that they had
one there for them and they don’t feel like they experienced gender-based violence in past and
could open up to anybody.” But girls in our focus current relationships. One girl stated:
groups reported that during restorative practices,
collective support formed around students who [Restorative practice] [c]ircles helped me real-
expressed feelings of fear and helplessness. One ize, like, what he did was not okay. What I
girl identified that during a restorative circle, a did was not okay. And … we did not have
peer revealed that they were going to engage in good communication. The fact that it was
self-harm, which led to an effective school inter- really one-sided. … And I realized, like, ‘I’m
vention: “Because we did a circle and that person too good for this. You don’t deserve me.
was able to share out what they felt, … the Like, I’m pretty, smart, talented, like ‘What
teacher - the school, was able to prevent what[] is you — what is you doing? You messing
that person was trying to do to themselves.” up!’”
Often, observations about RPs’ effect on men-
Girls also said that RPs helped them address
tal health and empowerment were made in the
feelings of shame, which is a common response
context of having experienced gender-based
to experiencing sexual violence. “[S]eeing that
violence. Though our study was not structured
I’m not the only one being impacted and hurtKEY FINDINGS 19
by it, I - I actually, like, spoke about it, too. And Relatedly, another participant stated that RPs
I feel like it [RPs] helps a lot of women speak that are limited to female students provide a
about what happens to them because everybody unique space to support one another regarding
is so scared to talk about it because they’re, like, self-harming behaviors that can result from expe-
‘Probably I’m the only one and I don’t want to riencing gender bias and harmful stereotypes:
be ashamed of it.’” Another participant credited
RPs with helping her recognize and communi- [G]irls, what they most likely share is about
cate about the abuse she experienced and man- … being catcalled and not being able to wear
aging its psychological impact: what they want because society just sees
them as sluts, so they don’t feel comfortable
[M]y dad was abusive, and I always kept that with … themselves, or they start trying to
to myself. And now because of restorative harm themselves. Like, for example, cutting
justice I’ve been able to let my emotions out and stuff like that .…”
and build much more trust and make that
story much … easier to cope with and to Girls also described RPs as a place where they
share with others.” could safely discuss teen parenting and women’s
reproductive health, including hygiene, menstrua-
Participants repeatedly identified the need for tion, and miscarriages.
separate RPs to be available to students who
In part, girls indicated that their preference for
identify as female. Girls discussed that when RPs
single-gender RPs was based on their experience
are limited to students who identify as female, it
of social diminishment when among boys:
promotes support for harms that are dispropor-
tionately experienced by girls. One participant A boy’s perspective about … sexual assault
stated: “[G]irl to girl, we understand each other or, um discrimination … is different from a …
more, you know.. . . [W]e go through the same female. And what could hurt us or, like, nearly
thing.” Another student discussed the sense of destroy us would be something so small and
safety that single-gender RPs provide irrelevant to a male… And sometimes [it’s
to discuss objectification and the fear of assault: helpful to hear[] that you’re not being dramat-
ic and that you’re not over-exaggerating or,
I don’t think we will be able to, like, talk about ‘You’re just that girl’, you know.”
things if guys were here … because they
wouldn’t know how it feels, … walking down, These findings affirm research that has demon-
like, a hallway or somewhere and just, like, strated the benefits of gender-specific interven-
feeling really anxious about it because people tions,90 as well as studies that have shown that
are staring at you. … [T]hey’re staring at your boys’ dominating behavior in the classroom can
body, not at you because you’re pretty, but subdue girls and normalize harmful socialized
mostly because of, like, your body. And it’s gender differences.91 Girls tend to feel safer in
just, like, being scared of, like, walking home girls-only groups, and connections in these con-
at, like, at night, you know? And they [boys] texts can be central to girls’ health and wellbeing,
are scared because, like, ‘Oh, they can, like, promoting emotional bonds92 and protecting
beat me up,’ but … us [girls], it’s more like ‘I against disengagement,93 which can be particu-
really hope I don’t get raped, I don’t get, like larly important for girls living with chronic stress
- like, they don’t get me in the car and, like, and/or trauma.94 As one participant noted:
harm me or something.’”KEY FINDINGS
[T]he boys are just, like, ‘Did you hear what [H]aving a male presence …. I think some-
you said? Your opinion, it’s wrong.’ And then times it can [be a] benefit because a lot of
they were just, like, getting at me, and I feel guys do go through ... what we go through.
like that’s not an environment that girls would … I mean sexual abuse, a lot of men, you
create. It’s just generally men tend to be, like, know, have been raped. There are a lot of men
a little bit more harsher just because they feel supporting of MeToo. So, I think that if you
like they don’t have to deal with their feel- find someone who can relate to you that it’s
ings and they could just be more blunt about definitely important for them to - for y’all to
things, and while honesty is something that, connect because then y’all can support each
like, women, like, are really good at.” other.”
Though participants were clear about the need Another stated, “[T]here was this one kid that
for girl-only RPs, some identified that mixed-gen- was saying his story, and it was pretty emotional.
der RPs can effectively balance out power dy- … I never thought that … I would see that side of
namics that are present in other school contexts: … him, or of any guy….”
Regardless of the structure or form, study par-
I feel like restorative justice gives us, like, the
ticipants recommended that girls should engage
even playing field, because I know in life it’s
in RPs because the experience is empowering.
like, the men have more power than women,
One participant stated: “Restorative justice
but, like, once we’re in circles and when we’re
would really benefit women. … [R]ight now I
in restorative justice it’s that everybody has
feel so empowered because I could, like, talk of
the same voice. Everybody has the same pow-
anything just, you know – [I could be] crying, and
er… . I didn’t have a voice in the class and the
I would not be ashamed.” Another student said
teacher mostly called on the boys. And when
20 that because of her experience with restorative
it came to circle it was like no, we all have the
practices, “[I] realized that I shouldn’t let peo-
same voice. Like there’s no ... no dominant sex
ple walk all over me. And, you know, I have
here, basically. And I feel like that empowered
a voice, and … what I feel is how I feel. And I
a lot of um, girls here.”
shouldn’t hide that because someone else might
not feel that way about it.”
In addition, some participants felt that engaging
in mixed-gender RPs could improve students’
understanding of one another’s perspectives:
Schools “Write Out” the Experiences of Marginalized Girls
Traditional school curricula often lack culture of white male dominance.96 These
focus on topics that are relevant to the messages exacerbate the experience
lives of marginalized girls.95 Girls of color of marginalization and can harm the
are immersed in curricula and assigned development of healthy self-esteem and
textbooks that are “steeped in negative self-efficacy.
cultural norms and stereotypes” and theRESEARCH, PRACTICE,
AND POLICY
RECOMMENDATIONS
21RESEARCH, PRACTICE, AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
T
he findings of this study demonstrate the To help build this capacity across research, prac-
promise and power of non-disciplinary RPs tice, and policy, we offer the following recom-
to support greater health and educational mendations.
equity for students. RPs enhanced several pro-
tective health factors for girls of color, strength-
Research
ened social-emotional skills, actively fostered
resilience-building interactions with adults and ¥ Engage in new qualitative, quantitative,
peers, promoted positive mental health, and and mixed-methods studies on the
improved feelings of safety and a positive school effect of restorative approaches on
climate—all of which increased their capacities health, mental health, and education
for healthy development, learning, and education- ¥ Evaluate existing RPs through a public
al success. health lens to inform implementation
and better support student health and
Strengthening the research base that explores
mental health
the relationship between RPs and health—and
the link between education and health—is a key ¥ Increase research base on how RPs
step toward building safe, supportive, and healthy affect girls of color and other students
school communities. But research should not ex- with intersectional identities
ist separately from practice; the field must work
22 collaboratively to facilitate real-world implemen- Practice
tation of non-disciplinary RPs to benefit students. ¥ Implement proactive, non-disciplinary
To do so, teachers, administrators, school staff, RPs across all grade levels
families, and students must have access to con-
¥ Incorporate RPs into school re-opening
crete tools and viable, sustainable practices and
plans, especially after the pandemic
policies based on new data.
¥ Provide opportunities for single-gender
In all this work, attention must remain focused and affinity-group RPs
on students who have traditionally been margin-
¥ Develop school-specific and long-term
alized in the classroom—especially those with
implementation plans for RPs
intersectional identities—to decrease their risk of
disconnection from school and improve educa- ¥ Incorporate evidence-based, trauma-in-
tional attainment and health. formed, culturally responsive practices
into RPs
As we move forward, there must be greater ¥ Expand learning opportunities for school
attention to the unique needs and experiences leadership and offer professional devel-
of girls in schools—especially girls of color, opment to teachers and school staff on
who face the highest risk of poorer education- proactive, non-disciplinary RPs
al and health outcomes. Without such focus, it
is unlikely that policies and practices that aim
Policy
to improve equity in education will be truly
successful. ¥ Codify RP models that promote health
protective factors
¥ Adopt RPs as part of COVID-19 school
reopening plansRESEARCH, PRACTICE, AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS 23
¥ Enact school finance reform that prioritiz-
“The main challenge to implementing restor-
es healthy whole-child development and
ative justice is always the mindsets of the
long-term funding streams for RPs
educators and parents who have been condi-
¥ Provide technical assistance to schools to tioned to feel that exclusionary discipline is a
develop and sustain non-disciplinary RPs necessary and essential part of solving school-
¥ Restrict the use of zero-tolerance and based misconduct. … From a gender perspec-
other punitive discipline practices across tive, educators must confront their own bias
all grade levels against students, particularly female students
¥ Support learning opportunities for educa- of color, as we often think of punitive actions
tors on RPs and evidence-based mental towards students of color as being an essen-
health promotion, trauma-informed, and tial practice. Unpacking these mindsets and
culturally responsive practices creating data accountability to guard against
these proclivities is essential in implementing
¥ Fund research on the effect of restorative
restorative justice successfully.”
approaches on health, mental health, and — Ben Cairns, Principal, Lake County High School
educationCONCLUSION 24
CONCLUSION 25
Because education is a fundamental social discussions. Yet our findings are relevant to all
determinant of health, educational practices youth: strengthened protective health factors
and policies should be shaped through the and social and emotional literacy skills support
lens of improving public health and promot- health and wellbeing, promote academic achieve-
ing health equity. ment, and reduce emotional distress for all
students. And when school climates are positive,
S
all students are better equipped to form healthy
chools can play a significant role in ending
relationships and engage more fully with their
health inequities for marginalized girls and
learning community, and they are at less risk of
creating conditions that set up all students
health-harming behaviors and school disconnec-
for educational success. When girls learn and
tion. These outcomes are key not only to aca-
develop in healthy and inclusive educational
demic success but, just as importantly, short- and
environments, they are at less risk for pushout
long-term health.
and justice-system involvement, and they expe-
rience improved health and wellness. This study The future of education remains uncharted in the
affirms the potential of RPs as a public health wake of COVID-19, which has had far-reaching
intervention in schools. Not only did participation effects on student engagement and achievement.
in RPs promote protective health factors that The use of RPs may prove to be an essential
can have lifelong positive effects for girls, but it tool to reopening and rebuilding our schools. As
directly improved girls’ mental health. Participants schools continue to reestablish their connection
reported that RPs provided a critical space to to students, educators should implement evi-
learn, develop, and practice key tools of health, dence-based practices that can support student
including connectedness, support, respect, trust, wellbeing, rebuild positive relationships, and pro-
safety, empowerment, self-awareness, and the mote school performance and engagement. This
ability to manage emotions. study demonstrates how to accomplish these
goals through restorative practices.
This research intentionally centered the experi-
ences of girls of color to address their underrep-
resentation in research and mainstream policySTUDY DESCRIPTION 26
STUDY DESCRIPTION 27
PARTICIPANTS educational experience after participating in
non-disciplinary RPs. Second, we expected that
Sixty-seven students between the ages of thir-
reported outcomes would associate with health
teen and eighteen years old participated in-per-
protective factors.
son in this study. All participants identified their
gender as female and their racial backgrounds as We conducted nine semi-structured focus groups
Black or Latina and affirmed that they engaged in with student participants. Data was analyzed
restorative practices (RPs) in school outside of a during collection to allow for the iterative nature
disciplinary context. of qualitative research. We employed the con-
stant comparative method, derived from ground-
SELECTION ed theory.97 Grounded theory is a structured
yet flexible methodology aimed at uncovering
To recruit participants for the study, emails were
processes about which little is known.98 We
sent to school principals, teachers, and restor-
wrote independent field notes throughout the
ative practitioners nationally. Responses were
collection process to compare and explore ideas
collected and short interviews were conducted
and themes raised.99 This also provided theoreti-
with potential school host sites. School sites
cal directions for the research.
were selected based on four criteria: (1) duration
of RPs implementation; (2) use of RPs separate Each focus group was recorded with participant
from school discipline processes; (3) school and parental permission and consent and was
demographics; and 4) geographic location. transcribed. Transcripts were coded line by line,
Selected school sites were located in the North- and key ideas and themes developed by open
east, Midwest, and Western regions of the and axial coding.100 The codebook was developed
country and in rural and urban districts. Focus from a sample of early transcripts and applied to
groups were conducted in person at individu- later transcripts as data was collected. The code-
al schools or at a site in close proximity to the book was continually refined to reflect emerging
school. Strategies to recruit individual student ideas or themes. Utilizing an interpretive and
participants at each school site varied depending inductive approach provided an immediate feed-
on co-development with a local school contact. back system for identifying new and co-occurring
The collaboration with a local school contact was codes. Ongoing analysis included returning to
key because RPs are built on relationships and the original transcripts to ensure text was cod-
trust, and researchers are often viewed as outsid- ed within context. Coding was carried out with
ers in school communities. Dedoose qualitative data analysis software. Once
coding was completed on a transcript, a domain
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS analysis was created to identify categories and
The purpose of this study was to explore two subcategories.101 In subsequent analyses, codes
research questions: (1) How do girls of color were consolidated or expanded based on clusters
perceive non-disciplinary RPs? (2) Do outcomes of data from multiple focus groups into refined
of non-disciplinary RPs align with protective categories and subcategories. Connecting pat-
health factors, e.g. reducing or eliminating risk terns emerged from the data and we identified
of negative health outcomes? To examine three themes: connectedness, school climate,
these questions, we first hypothesized that girls and social-emotional literacy skills.
of color would report positive changes in theirENDNOTES 28
ENDNOTES 29
1. Sonya Shah et al., Zehr Inst. for Restorative Just., 6. See generally Yibing Li et al., Peer relationships
Restorative Justice Listening Project: Final Report as a context for the development of school
17 (2017), https://zehr-institute.org/images/Re- engagement during early adolescence, 35 Int’l
storative-Justice-Listening-Project-Final-Report. J. Behav. Dev. 329 (2011); Debra Pepler & Karen
pdf; Anne Gregory & Katherine R. Evans, Nat’l Bierman With a Little Help from my Friends: The
Educ. Pol’y Ctr., The Starts and Stumbles of Importance of Peer Relationships for Social-Emo-
Restorative Justice in Education: Where Do We Go tional Development (2018), https://www.rwjf.
from Here? 3, 7 (2020), https://nepc.colorado. org/en/library/research/2018/11/with-a-little-
edu/sites/default/files/publications/Revised%20 help-from-my-friends--the-importance-of-peer-
PB%20Gregory_0.pdf. relationships-for-social-emotional-development.
2. There is no universally agreed-upon definition html; González et al., supra note 3, at 209.
of restorative justice practices. See What Is Re- 7. Catherine H. Augustine et al., RAND Corp., Can
storative Practices? [video] Inst. of Restorative Restorative Practices Improve School Climate and
Practices, https://www.iirp.edu/restorative-prac- Curb Suspensions? An Evaluation of the Impact
tices/what-is-restorative-practices; Trevor of Restorative Practices in a Mid-Sized Urban
Fronius et al., WestEd Just. & Prevention Rsch. School District 69–70 (2018), https://www.rand.
Ctr., Restorative Justice in US Schools: An Up- org/pubs/research_reports/RR2840.html; Anne
dated Research Review 1–2, 5, 35 (2019), https:// Gregory et al., The Promise of Restorative Prac-
www.wested.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/ tices to Transform Teacher-Student Relationships
resource-restorative-justice-in-u-s-schools-an- and Achieve Equity in School Discipline, 26 J.
updated-research-review.pdf. Thalia González, Educ. & Psych. Consultation 325–27, 342 (2016).
Restorative Justice from the Margins to the 8. Martha A. Brown, Creating Restorative Schools:
Center: The Emergence of the New Norm in Setting Schools Up to Succeed (2020); Sonia
School Discipline 60 How. L.J. 267, 275 (2016). Jain et al., Data in Action, Restorative Justice
However, there is a general understanding that in Oakland Schools: Implementation and Impacts
in schools, restorative justice is guided by three 42 (2014), https://www.ousd.org/cms/lib07/
core principles: repairing harm, involving stake- CA01001176/Centricity/Domain/134/OUSD-
holders, and transforming community relation- RJ%20Report%20revised%20Final.pdf; Knight
ships. See Brenda E. Morrison et al., Practicing & Wadhwa, supra note 4, at 14–20; Lilyana
Restorative Justice in School Communities: The Ortega et al., Outcomes of a Restorative Circles
Challenge of Culture Change, 5 Pub. Org. Rev. Program in a High School Setting, 6 Psych.
335, 335 (2005); Brenda Morrison & Dorothy Violence 459, 465–66 (2016); Schumacher, supra
Vaandering, Restorative Justice: Pedagogy, note 4, at 6–8; see, e.g., M.D. Resnick et al.,
Praxis and Discipline, 11 J. Sch. Violence 138, Protecting adolescents from harm. Findings
138–42 (2012); Gregory & Evans, supra note 1, from the national longitudinal study on adoles-
at 8. cent health, 278 J. Am. Med. Ass’n 823 (1997);
3. Thalia González, Keeping Kids in Schools: Joseph Durlak et al., The impact of enhancing
Restorative Justice, Punitive Discipline, and the students’ social and emotional learning: A
School to Prison Pipeline, 41 J.L. & Educ. 281, meta-analysis of school-based universal inter-
284 (2012). ventions. 82 Child Dev. 405, 406, 412–13 (2011);
4. Id. at 284–85, 302–03; Jon Kidde, Vermont Damon E. Jones et al., Early social-emotional
Agency of Education, Whole-School Restorative functioning and public health: The relationship
Approach Resource Guide 6–7 (2017), https://ed- between kindergarten social competence and
ucation.vermont.gov/documents/whole-school- future wellness. 105 Am. J. Pub. Health 2283,
restorative-approach-resource-guide; Thalia 2286–88.
González et al., New Directions in Whole-School 9. See, e.g., S. Jay Olshansky et al., Differences
Restorative Justice Implementation, 35 Conflict in Life Expectancy Due to Race and Education-
Res. Q. 1 (2018); David Knight & Anita Wadhwa, al Differences Are Widening, and Many May
Expanding Opportunity Through Critical Restor- Not Catch Up, 31 Health Affs. 1803, 1805–08
ative Justice, 11 Schools: Stud. Educ. 11, 14–16 (2012); Emily Zimmerman & Steven H. Woolf,
(2014); see, e.g., Ann Schumacher, Talking Understanding the Relationship Between
Circles for Adolescent Girls in an Urban High Education and Health, Nat’l Acad. of Med. (June
School: A Restorative Practices Program for 5, 2014), https://nam.edu/perspectives-2014-un-
Building Friendships and Developing Emotional derstanding-the-relationship-between-educa-
Literacy Skills, Sage Open Oct.-Dec. 2014, at tion-and-health/ (analyzing the connections
3–4. between education and health using the social
5. Talaya L. Tolefree, Koinonia Leadership Acade- determinants of health model); Adriana Lle-
my, A Comprehensive Approach for Implementing ras-Muney, The Relationship Between Educa-
School-Based Restorative Practices Restorative tion and Adult Mortality in the United States,
Practices Pilot Site: Upper Midwest Urban Ele- (Nat’l Bureau of Econ. Rsch, Working Paper No.
mentary School Pre-K-5 10–17 (2017), https:// 8986, 2002), https://www.nber.org/system/files/
genderpolicyreport.umn.edu/wp-content/up- working_papers/w8986/w8986.pdf (discussing
loads/2018/02/KLA-RP-Report-2.1.18.pdf. large positive correlation between educationYou can also read
