EVIDENCE REVIEW OF THE GLOBAL CHILDCARE CRISIS AND THE ROAD FOR POST-COVID-19 RECOVERY AND RESILIENCE
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
STRENGTHENING GENDER MEASURES AND DATA IN THE COVID-19 ERA: AN URGENT NEED FOR CHANGE EVIDENCE REVIEW OF THE GLOBAL CHILDCARE CRISIS AND THE ROAD FOR POST-COVID-19 RECOVERY AND RESILIENCE
EVIDENCE REVIEW OF THE GLOBAL CHILDCARE CRISIS AND
THE ROAD FOR POST-COVID-19 RECOVERY AND RESILIENCE
Contributors About the Authors
1. Nabukenya Mary 25 (R), weaves with Kate Grantham is a feminist international development
her children and friends Sumayia (L)
and Doreeka (C) in Kampala, Uganda,
researcher, educator, and consultant specialising in women’s
on February 18, 2021 rights and gender equality issues, and Founder of FemDev
Photo credit: Sumy Sadurni Consulting. Kate has a PhD in Women’s Studies and
1 2. Sangam Devi (L), feeds her children, Feminist Research from Western University in Canada.
Ishika 3 (C), and Aarush 5 (R)
Photo credit: Mansi Midha
3. Elda Sidlabane 66 (L), helps young Leva Rouhani is a Consultant at FemDev, specialising
2 3
Yamihla Lambatha 6 (R) in gender equality and international development issues.
Photo credit: Sam Reinders
Leva has a PhD in Education from the University of Ottawa.
Report by
Kate Grantham, Leva Rouhani, Neelanjana Gupta, Neelanjana Gupta is an economist with research interest
Martha Melesse, Diva Dhar, Soumya Kapoor in topics of education and financial inclusion with a cross-
Mehta and Kanika Jha Kingra,
cutting theme of gender. She is a Senior Research Associate
© 2021, International Development Research Centre at IWWAGE. Neelanjana is a graduate of Columbia
This report is produced with financial support from the University’s School of International and Public Affairs.
Growth and Economic Opportunities for Women (GrOW)
East Africa initiative, a multi funder initiative by the Bill &
Melinda Gates Foundation, the William and Flora Hewlett
Martha Melesse is a Senior Program Specialist at
Foundation, and IDRC. Opinions stated in this paper are IDRC, focusing on promoting inclusive and sustainable
those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the economies. She leads the multi-funder Growth and Economic
views of IDRC or the GrOW East Africa funders. Opportunities for Women (GrOW) initiative. Martha holds
a PhD in public policy from Carleton University in Ottawa.
Authors’ acknowledgements
This document was produced in partnership with the
International Development Research Centre (IDRC), the Diva Dhar is a Senior Program Officer, Gender Data
Growth and Economic Opportunities for Women (GrOW) and Evidence in the Gender Equality Division at the
East Africa initiative, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation,
Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation where she leads portfolios
FemDev and the Initiative for What Works to Advance
of work on measurement, statistics, and evaluative research.
Women and Girls in the Economy (IWWAGE) an initiative
of LEAD at Krea University. She is also a doctoral candidate at the Blavatnik School
of Government at the University of Oxford.
The team wishes to thank the following individuals for
their valuable contributions, feedback, and inputs to
the paper: Patricia Kitsao-Wekulo (African Population Soumya Kapoor Mehta is a development economist with
and Health Research Center), Maria Floro (American more than 18 years of experience working with international
University), Jacques Charmes (French Scientific donor organisations, governments, civil society, and academia
Research Institute for Development), Greta Schettler on issuesof social inclusion and gender. Currently, she
(Gates Foundation), Elizabeth Tang and Roula Seghaier heads IWWAGE. Soumya has a Masters in Economics
(International Domestic Workers Federation), Anita
from Cambridge University.
Gurgel and Sherrilee Ann Le Mottee (International
Finance Corporation), Emanuela Pozzan and Umberto
Cattaneo (International Labour Organization), Sharron Kanika Jha Kingra is the Senior Policy and Advocacy Manager
Burrow (International Trade Union Confederation), at IWWAGE. She leads the organisation’s efforts towards
Sabrina Habib (Kidogo), Lucia Fry (Malala Fund), Sumitra government engagement, advocacy, and communications.
Mishra (Mobile Creches), Francesca Bastagli and Rachel
Kanika holds a Masters from the London School of
Marcus (Overseas Development Institute), Gary Barker
(Promundo), Susan Thomas (Self-Employed Women’s
Economics and Political Science.
Association), Laxmi Thakur (Seva Mandir), Krishna Jafa
(Stanford University), Papa Seck and Silke Staab (UN About IDRC: Part of Canada’s foreign affairs and development
Women), Beatrice Alukonya (UN Women Kenya), Diane efforts, IDRC invests in knowledge, innovation, and solutions
Elson (University of Essex), Nancy Folbre (University of
to improve lives and livelihoods in the developing world.
Massachusetts Amherst), Rachel Moussie (Women in
Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing), Tea
Trumbic (Women, Business and the Law), Maitreyi Das Contact: International Development Research Centre,
(World Bank), Kehinde Ajayi and Markus Goldstein (World PO Box 8500, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1G 3H9
Bank Africa Gender Innovation Lab), Erin Bresnahan
(WORLD Policy Analysis Center), and Charity Moore
(Yale University). Tel: (+1) 613-236-6163; Email: info@idrc.ca, www.idrc.ca
02
EVIDENCE REVIEW OF THE GLOBAL CHILDCARE CRISIS AND THE ROAD FOR POST-COVID-19 RECOVERY AND RESILIENCE Contents Executive summary 05 Introduction 07 Research methodology 09 › Research and data limitations Emerging evidence 10 › Household care dynamics 10 › Women’s work and livelihoods 11 › Child education and early learning 14 › The childcare sector 15 › The conditions of childcare workers 15 What can be done to address the childcare crisis? 17 › Recognise, reduce, and redistribute unpaid care work 17 › Reward paid care work by promoting more and decent work for care workers 23 › Guarantee care workers’ representation with employers and the state 26 Financing the childcare response and recovery effort 27 Conclusion 29 References 30 Appendix A: Experts who participated in key informant interviews 36 Patricia Kitsao-Wekulo, Anita Gurgel, Sherrilee Ann Le Mottee, Emanuela Pozzan, Umberto Cattaneo, Elizabeth Tang, Roula Seghaier, Sharan Burrow, Sabrina Habib, Lucia Fry, Sumitra Mishra, Gary Barker, Susan Thomas, Laxmi Thakur, Papa Seck, Silke Staab, Beatrice Alukonya, Rachel Moussié, Tea Trumbic, Kehinde Ajayi, and Markus Goldstein Appendix B: Experts who participated in the virtual consultation 37 Greta Schettler, Jacques Charmes, Sumitra Mishra, Francesca Bastgali, Rachel Marcus, Diane Elson, Nancy Folbre, Maitreyi Das, Erin Bresnahan, and Charity Moore Appendix C: Guiding questions for key informant interviews 37 03
EVIDENCE REVIEW OF THE GLOBAL CHILDCARE CRISIS AND
THE ROAD FOR POST-COVID-19 RECOVERY AND RESILIENCE
Boxes & Figures Acronyms & Key Terms
Box 1: Select examples from high-income Acronyms
countries for reopening schools and ECD Early child development
childcare centres safely EPWP Expanded Public Works Programme
Box 2: Gender-responsive social protection IDRC International Development
programmes targeting childcare Research Centre
during COVID-19 IDWF International Domestic Workers
Federation
Box 3: Case studies of different childcare models
IFC International Finance Corporation
Box 4: How donors and IFIs are addressing
IFI International Fnancial Institutions
childcare as part of COVID-19 response
ILO International Labour Organization
and recovery efforts IWWAGE Initiative for What Works to Advance
Women and Girls in the Economy
Fig 1: Decline in employment between Q2/2019 LMICs Low- and middle-income countries
and Q2/2020, by sex, selected countries NGO Non-governmental organisation
Fig 2: Recommendations to address the OECD Organisation for Economic
COVID-19 exacerbated childcare crisis Co-operation and Development
Fig 3: The impact of access to childcare on SEWA Self-Employed Women’s Association
women’s labour force participation UNDP United Nations Development
Programme
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UPSNP Urban Productive Safety Net Project
WIEGO Women in Informal Employment:
Globalizing and Organizing
Key Terms
Care Activities that provide what is
necessary for health, well-being, and
maintenance, through direct means
such as feeding a baby or nursing the
ill, or indirect means such as cooking
or cleaning.
Childcare The paid or unpaid activities dedicated
to the care of children.
Unpaid Work or activities provided without
monetary compensation.
Work Activities using mental or physical
effort, often with the opportunity
cost of time or resources.
04
EVIDENCE REVIEW OF THE GLOBAL CHILDCARE CRISIS AND THE ROAD FOR POST-COVID-19 RECOVERY AND RESILIENCE Executive summary A year into the pandemic, we are no longer just onset of COVID-19, almost 90 percent of the world’s worrying about progress on women’s equality countries have closed their schools, affecting the coming to a standstill. We’re now seeing the education of 1.5 billion children and escalating the possibility of such progress being reversed. volume and intensity of childcare. And, unsurprisingly, The devastating impact that COVID-19 has had women are taking on the brunt of this extra work: on women’s livelihoods cannot be overstated. women in most countries are currently spending Globally, women tend to work in low-paying jobs more than 30 hours per week on childcare, and in the informal sector—precarious employment nearly the equivalent of a full-time job. that has been upended by lockdowns and The most marginalised of women are those COVID-19 restrictions. Adding another layer to this hardest hit by this childcare crisis. Low-income burden, women’s unpaid care work is soaring. women who lack access to time-saving The childcare crisis is at a tipping point. technology are having to dedicate much more Childcare must be addressed within our time than their high-income counterparts to COVID-19 recovery plans both to advance gender homeschooling. Worst affected by the crisis are equality and because it makes fiscal sense. In women in the informal sector with no paid leave, addition to reducing the undue burden of care, social protection, or ability to work remotely; affordable and quality childcare frees mothers women living in rural areas with limited access up to participate in the labour force and creates to time- and labour-saving equipment, public decent jobs for women in the childcare sector. services, and infrastructure; women living in Fiscal space is shrinking due to COVID-19 but poverty; single mothers; essential workers; limiting spending on care work would be short- adolescent girls; and women who belong to sighted. When more women work, economies minority racial and ethnic groups. grow. Currently, gender gaps in labour force Simultaneously, the female-dominated participation in OECD countries cost the economy childcare sector risks collapsing. Rising poverty about 15 percent of GDP. levels (resulting in parents’ inability to pay for Yet, so far, we have not seen the mobilisation childcare services), lockdowns, and fears of of public, private, and foreign aid funding that exposure to the virus have led to a steep drop in is urgently needed to tackle this crisis. This is demand for both formal and informal childcare particularly the case in low- and middle-income services. Childcare facilities are closing in droves, countries (LMICs), where COVID-19 fiscal creating a longer-term reduction in supply of stimulus and relief packages have largely failed and access to quality and affordable childcare to address unpaid care, including childcare. In services and decreasing the number of jobs Africa, for example, only 4 out of 113 gender- available in the childcare sector. sensitive COVID-19 response measures have Childcare forms the backbone of households, tackled unpaid care. economies, and societies across the globe: it The inequalities women face are not new. But the boosts employment, protects family incomes, pandemic has exacerbated and laid them bare. We and supports economic growth. However, it is cannot wait on gender equality—the time is now. woefully neglected in policymaking and is often The global childcare crisis—and its not regarded as “real work.” Women shouldn’t disproportionate impact on women—pre-dates have to make the choice between putting food on COVID-19. In 2018, 606 million women of working the table and providing for their families or caring age were unavailable for employment owing to for children. And policymakers must seize the childcare responsibilities, compared to just 41 opportunity to rectify this crisis, both as part million men. But the pandemic has now taken and parcel of an inclusive COVID-19 response this crisis to unprecedented levels. Since the and for the benefit of future generations. › 05
EVIDENCE REVIEW OF THE GLOBAL CHILDCARE CRISIS AND
THE ROAD FOR POST-COVID-19 RECOVERY AND RESILIENCE
Executive Summary (continued)
› Currently, only 8 percent of global economic 2. Paid care work must be rewarded by
responses have addressed unpaid care, including promoting more work for childcare workers.
childcare, and two-thirds of countries have To do so, governments must increase public
enacted no measures whatsoever. This inaction and private financing for the sector and enhance
cannot continue. We must tackle the childcare income support for both centre-based and
crisis from multiple angles as laid out in the domestic childcare workers.
ILO’s “5Rs of care” framework.
3. Care workers’ representation with
In our brief, we call for action in three key areas: employers and the state must be guaranteed.
This can be achieved through promoting dialogue
1. Unpaid care work must be with childcare workers and strengthening their
recognised, reduced, and redistributed. rights to collective action to ensure policy
To do so, governments must ramp up investment measures taken are contextually relevant.
in gender-responsive public services: they need
to provide financial assistance such as subsidies Providing quality childcare isn’t just a woman’s
or waivers for rent and utilities, funding to offset responsibility—it’s a societal one. And mobilising
increased operating costs and lower revenues, resources toward tackling the childcare crisis as
and direct income support to cover childcare part of an inclusive, gender-responsive recovery
workers’ wages, especially during lockdown. They won’t just benefit women: it will allow everyone
also need to support women who are managing to reap the benefits of stability, prosperity, and
increased care loads. Especially in LMICs, economic growth. ●
governments need to prioritise extending
social assistance schemes and other forms of
social protection to single-parent households,
essential workers, and informal workers.
06EVIDENCE REVIEW OF THE GLOBAL CHILDCARE CRISIS AND THE ROAD FOR POST-COVID-19 RECOVERY AND RESILIENCE Introduction Prior to the onset of COVID-19, the International protections. There may be long-term consequences Labour Organization (ILO) estimated there were for the childcare sector in many countries unless 1.9 billion children under the age of 15–including adequate support and regulations are introduced. 800 million children under six–in need of care A broad range of policy options and measures globally and warned of a severe and unsustainable to tackle the global childcare crisis is available “care crisis” if not properly addressed (ILO, 2018). and should be implemented as part of the The current pandemic has precipitated this crisis, immediate COVID-19 response as well as the amplifying both the demand for childcare and the longer-term recovery effort. This includes actions challenges associated with providing it. The to: recognise, reduce, and redistribute unpaid “closure of schools and childcare facilities, care work; reward paid care work by promoting combined with restrictions around individual more and decent work for care workers; and movement and social distancing requirements, guarantee care workers’ representation with has removed institutional and community support employers and the state (the “5Rs of care”) for parents, including during their own normal (ILO, 2018). working hours” (Dowie et al., 2021, p. 247). Yet limited action has been taken to date and With family members confined to the home, has been mostly concentrated in high-income the amount of daily domestic work associated countries and some upper-middle-income with caring for children has also intensified, countries. According to the UN Women and and the burden is falling disproportionately on United Nations Development Programme’s the shoulders of women—who were already (UNDP) COVID-19 Gender Response Tracker, performing up to three times more unpaid care less than one-third of countries (60 in total) have work than men pre-pandemic (ILO, 2018). Groups introduced any measures to address unpaid care, worst affected include: women in informal including just seven lower-middle income employment with no paid leave, social protection, countries and one low-income country (UN or ability to work remotely; women living in rural Women & UNDP, 2020a). For example, in Africa, areas with limited access to time- and labour- out of 113 gender-sensitive measures introduced saving equipment, public services, and in response to COVID-19, only four measures in infrastructure; women living in poverty; single three countries are related to unpaid care (UN mothers; essential workers; adolescent girls; Women & UNDP, 2020b). Among countries that and women belonging to minority racial and have introduced measures to address unpaid ethnic groups. care, only a portion address childcare specifically. The global childcare sector, which is This paper provides a review of the different predominately female, has also suffered due pathways through which COVID-19 is impacting to COVID-19. Centre-based childcare providers the global childcare crisis and recommends a have faced challenges due to lower demand, series of policy options and measures that could lower prices and revenue, higher operating costs, be explored in different contexts by governments, and a lack of guidance for reopening safely. the private sector, and other key development Domestic workers, who provide childcare to actors, with a focus on low- and middle-income private households, have been impacted in terms countries (LMICs). In doing so, it highlights of job loss and reduced working hours. Those still emerging trends and gaps in country responses employed have experienced increased workloads and documents existing examples and promising and heightened vulnerability to exploitation and practices that could be replicated or scaled-up. abuse by employers. The impacts are most The analysis undertaken is grounded in evidence pronounced for childcare workers in informal of known or promising solutions to address the employment without access to social and labour childcare crisis, COVID-19 specific fiscal and › 07
EVIDENCE REVIEW OF THE GLOBAL CHILDCARE CRISIS AND THE ROAD FOR POST-COVID-19 RECOVERY AND RESILIENCE Introduction (continued) › implementation challenges that need to be unpaid care and may not be the most important taken into account, what new innovations are challenge for some. Other dimensions of unpaid most promising and can be put to scale, and what care, such as eldercare, domestic work, or caring lessons can be applied from responses to past for the sick and disabled are also an important emergencies and epidemics. We acknowledge part of the conversation around COVID-19 that childcare is not a silver bullet in tackling response and recovery efforts, though not the women’s disproportionate and growing burden of focus of this paper. ● 08
EVIDENCE REVIEW OF THE GLOBAL CHILDCARE CRISIS AND THE ROAD FOR POST-COVID-19 RECOVERY AND RESILIENCE Research methodology The study adopted a collaborative and iterative Research and data limitations methodology, engaging team members from As the COVID-19 pandemic is still with us, much the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the of the available evidence on its impacts and the International Development Research Centre associated policy responses is preliminary, or (IDRC), and the Initiative for What Works to limited to anecdotal or process information, with Advance Women and Girls in the Economy far less data and examples from low-income (IWWAGE), as well as childcare experts at civil countries. Most experts who participated in the society organisations, multilateral institutions, key informant interviews opined that it is still too universities, and research institutes from around early to obtain data on the impacts of COVID-19 the world. A mixed-methods approach was used, on childcare, let alone conduct evaluations to including a desk review of available evidence, key assess the effectiveness of different policy informant interviews, and a virtual consultation responses, as countries and organisations are with experts. Data collection and analysis took still grappling with the unprecedented health place between July 2020 and February 2021. For a crisis. The evidence and analysis presented list of individuals who contributed to the research here is based on the latest information by participating in a key informant interview or available at the time of the research. ● the virtual consultation, see Appendices A and B. For a list of guiding questions used in the key informant interviews, see Appendix C. 09
EVIDENCE REVIEW OF THE GLOBAL CHILDCARE CRISIS AND
THE ROAD FOR POST-COVID-19 RECOVERY AND RESILIENCE
Emerging evidence
This section presents emerging evidence and Results from UN Women’s Rapid Gender
analysis of the different pathways through which Assessment surveys conducted in 38 countries
COVID-19 is exacerbating the global childcare between April and November 2020 show that both
crisis, including, but not limited to, its impacts on men and women have increased their time spent
household care dynamics, women’s work and on childcare under COVID-19, but women
livelihoods, child education and early learning, continue to perform the lion’s share: women’s
the childcare sector, and the conditions of time spent on childcare tasks has increased by
childcare workers. 34 percent on average, compared to a 29 percent
increase for men, who were performing far less
Household care dynamics to begin with (UN Women, 2020a). A poll
Childcare encompasses a wide range of activities conducted by Ipsos for UN Women in 16 high-
that are essential for the wellbeing of households, and middle-income countries in October 2020
societies, and economies globally, including: further reveals that the average time spent by
supervisory care for children; domestic tasks women on childcare tasks has increased from
such as cleaning, cooking, and bathing children; 26 to 31 hours per week since the start of the
time spent teaching, playing, and reading to pandemic (Azcona et al., 2020a). By comparison,
children; and the mental and emotional labour the average time spent by men on childcare tasks
of setting household schedules and maintaining has increased from just 20 to 24 hours. This
family relationships. In every country in the means that in most countries where data is
world, women perform a greater amount of available, women are currently spending more
unpaid childcare in the household compared to than 30 hours per week exclusively on childcare,
men due to traditional gender roles and norms which is nearly the equivalent of a full-time job.
constructing childcare as “women’s work.” In low-income countries, which are not
The amount and drudgery of childcare tasks represented in the Ipsos survey, women’s
is amplified for women who live in low-income disproportionate responsibility for childcare
households or rural areas with limited access during COVID-19 is even greater. A survey
to labour- and time-saving equipment like conducted in India (N=4,729) found that while
cookstoves and washing machines and to public both women and men reported an increase in
services and infrastructure like electricity, unpaid work at home (chores and care work)
running water, and transportation (Karimli et al., and a decrease in time spent on paid work, when
2016; Melesse et al., 2018). Despite its critical respondents’ time spent on paid work decreased,
role in sustaining the “economically active” that extra time translated to more rest for men
labour force on a daily and generational basis and more time spent on chores for women. Fewer
(Kabeer, 2016), childcare is often not recognised women reported they had the time for leisure;
as “real work”—it remains invisible, undervalued, 56 percent of men reported an increase in resting
and neglected in economic and social time, compared to only 33 percent of women.
policymaking. Meanwhile, only 18 percent of men reported a
Emerging global evidence suggests that decrease in resting time, compared to 31 percent
the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, and the of women (unpublished findings from a survey
subsequent shutdown of schools and childcare conducted by Dalberg).
centres, has resulted in a dramatic increase in It is also important to acknowledge the
childcare at the household level, with women and situation faced by millions of households
adolescent girls being most affected (ActionAid, globally, where men are not only failing to help
2020; Diallo et al., 2020; Dugarova, 2020; Nesbitt- out during school and childcare closures, but
Ahmed & Subrahmaninan, 2020; Power, 2020). also committing increased levels of domestic ›
10EVIDENCE REVIEW OF THE GLOBAL CHILDCARE CRISIS AND THE ROAD FOR POST-COVID-19 RECOVERY AND RESILIENCE Emerging evidence (continued) › violence (UN Women, 2020b). As COVID-19 Women’s work and livelihoods lockdowns persist, women are increasingly Well before the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, vulnerable to domestic violence as a result of global literature had established that women’s social isolation, restricted movement, and labour force participation and employment economic insecurity. In addition to safety outcomes are negatively impacted by their concerns, this can make it more difficult and unequal responsibility for childcare (Del Boca, painful for women to carry out their childcare 2015; Das & Žumbyte, 2017; Gallup & ILO, 2017; responsibilities. At the same time, exposure to Folbre, 2018; ILO, 2018; Mariara et al., 2018; domestic violence can lead to trauma among Klasen et al., 2019; Azcona et al., 2020b). children, with lifelong effects. According to the ILO, 606 million women of Adolescent girls are also being pulled into working age were unavailable for employment in providing increased amounts of childcare in 2018 because of their childcare responsibilities, their households. In the above-mentioned compared to just 41 million men (ILO, 2018). Ipsos poll, 64 percent of parents noted greater Studies have found that mothers of young children involvement of daughters in unpaid care work are further penalised in the labour market in due to COVID-19, compared to just 57 percent of terms of pay and access to managerial and parents who noted greater involvement of sons leadership positions (ILO, 2019), and in terms of (Azcona et al., 2020a). As discussed below in their ability to pursue different types of economic Section 3.3, girls’ increased responsibility for opportunities, including the choice of sectors in childcare under COVID-19 may come at the which they seek to work (Gammage et al., 2020). expense of their own education and future A series of studies undertaken through IDRC’s labour market outcomes. Growth and Economic Opportunities for Women The amount of daily domestic work required Program in India, Kenya, Nepal, Tanzania, and to care for children has also intensified under Rwanda also shows that women’s role as primary COVID-19. Tasks related to meal preparation are caregivers restricts their working hours, limits “especially time-consuming as families now need the quality and quantity of jobs available, and to take all of their meals at home, compared to undermines their earning potential (Melesse et before the pandemic, when some members may al., 2018). have been out or at school during the day” (Abdo The challenges of balancing paid work and et al., 2020, p. 12). Where homeschooling or childcare are felt most acutely by low-income remote learning has been introduced in lieu of women working in the informal sector, which in-person classes, this is an additional childcare comprises over 80 percent of non-agricultural task that must be performed by households. employment for women in South Asia, 74 percent Oxfam research in five countries finds that in sub-Saharan Africa, and 54 percent in Latin homeschooling due to school closures required America and the Caribbean (UN Women, 2015). less time for families in higher-income countries Without access to social and labour protections, than in lower-income countries, likely because including childcare and paid leave, “women “parents in high-income countries can rely on workers in the informal economy risk losing out technology for schooling and entertainment of on much needed income by reducing their hours their children, which isn’t as widely available in of work, or they may shift into more vulnerable other contexts’’ (Abdo et al., 2020, p. 13). The and low-paid forms of self-employment—such as shock of school closures is also felt more acutely home-based work or street vending—with more by single-parent households and households flexible arrangements that allow them to work where the division of childcare cannot be shared and care for their children at the same time” evenly (e.g., if one parent is an essential worker). (ILO & WIEGO, 2020, p. 1). › 11
EVIDENCE REVIEW OF THE GLOBAL CHILDCARE CRISIS AND
THE ROAD FOR POST-COVID-19 RECOVERY AND RESILIENCE
Figure 1: Decline in employment between Q2/2019 and Q2/2020, by sex, selected countries
Women Men
Cyprus -0.05%
0.30%
-1.10%
Israel
-2.00%
-1.30%
Japan
-1.00%
-1.70%
France
-2.20%
-2.00%
Switzerland
-1.70%
-2.00%
Korea, Republic of
-1.00%
-2.30%
Thailand
-1.50%
-4.10%
Portugal
-3.50%
-4.50%
Australia
-4.30%
-5.20%
Viet Nam
-3.90%
-6.40%
Spain
-5.70%
-10.00%
Moldova, Republic of -7.70%
-13.40%
United States -11.40%
-13.90%
Brazil -10.70%
-14.00%
Canada -10.70%
-17.80%
Mexico -18.80%
-21.50%
Chile -17.00%
-26.20%
Equador -18.20%
-27.10%
Costa Rica -15.60%
-27.20%
Colunbia
-17.90%
-57.10%
Peru
-52.50%
-60.00% -40.00% -20.00% 0.00%
Source: ILO Monitor: COVID-19 and the world of work, sixth edition (ILO, 2020a, p. 10)
12EVIDENCE REVIEW OF THE GLOBAL CHILDCARE CRISIS AND THE ROAD FOR POST-COVID-19 RECOVERY AND RESILIENCE Emerging evidence (continued) › In other cases, women are left with no choice considerable variation across countries but to leave their children without adult (Figure 1) (ILO, 2020a). This relative decline in supervision while they go to work. The United employment is greater for women than for men Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) estimates in all countries, with only a few exceptions (such that 35 million children under five years old are as France, Israel, and Mexico). This gap is partly sometimes left alone or under the supervision because more women are exiting the labour force of another child younger than 10 years old— to care for children and partly because women a decision that “can weigh heavily on parents, make up a larger share of workers in the who are aware of the risks but are presented with sectors of the economy hardest hit by COVID-19: an impossible choice of nurturing their child or accommodation and food services; real estate, earning money” (Gromada et al., 2020, p. 4). business, and administrative activities; COVID-19 is exacerbating pre-existing gender manufacturing; and retail (ILO, 2020b). Women labour force participation and earning gaps, as also represent a greater share of informal women take on the bulk of increased childcare workers in these sectors—42 percent for women responsibilities on top of their paid work (UN compared to 32 percent for men (ILO, 2020b)— Women, 2020a). In India, the LinkedIn Workforce meaning their employment was less secure Confidence Index, a survey of 2,254 professionals to begin with. conducted in July and August 2020, finds that With women exiting the labour force in such 31 percent of working mothers surveyed are large numbers, there is a risk that many will currently providing full-time childcare, compared never return. Research out of the United States to just 17 percent of working fathers (Basu, 2020). finds that the negative effects of COVID-19 Unable to rely on their usual childcare support childcare closures on the unemployment rate of networks due to lockdowns and social distancing mothers do not disappear once centres reopen, requirements, 44 percent of working mothers consistent with previous research suggesting that surveyed report working outside their normal it takes significant time to reintegrate women in business hours and 47 percent report the labour force once out of work (Russell & Sun, experiencing increased levels of stress and 2020). Indeed, early on in the pandemic, UN anxiety. Similarly, Facebook’s Survey on Gender Women warned that “the impacts of the COVID-19 Equality at Home, which reached roughly half global recession will result in a prolonged dip in a million people across 208 countries and women’s incomes and labour force participation” territories in July 2020, indicates that working (UN Women, 2020a). mothers are facing significant setbacks to work Women business leaders have also been as a result of increased care burdens during more adversely affected by the COVID-19-induced COVID-19 (Cookson et al., 2020). care burden than their male counterparts. This Some families have had to make tough is according to the Future of Business Survey of decisions about which parent will keep their over 25,000 small and medium business owners, job and which will exit the labour force in order managers, and employees in more than 50 to stay home with children (Dugarova, 2020). countries by Facebook, the Organisation for Because they tend to be the lower income Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), earners, it is predominantly women who are and the World Bank. In the final round of the sacrificing their careers and being squeezed survey, in October 2020, 18 percent of women out of the labour force. Data from ILO labour business leaders reported spending six or more force surveys reveals a significant decline in hours on care work compared to 10 percent employment in the second quarter of 2020 of male business leaders (Facebook/OECD/ compared with the previous year, though with World Bank, 2020). › 13
EVIDENCE REVIEW OF THE GLOBAL CHILDCARE CRISIS AND
THE ROAD FOR POST-COVID-19 RECOVERY AND RESILIENCE
Emerging evidence (continued)
› This disproportionate responsibility for care School closures have widened pre-existing
has reduced the time available for women to gender disparities in access to education.
concentrate on their businesses: 25 percent Adolescent girls who are out of school are
of women business leaders reported that providing a larger amount of childcare for
homeschooling affected their ability to focus on younger siblings. For example, in East Africa,
work compared to 19 percent of male business childcare provider Kidogo estimates that about
leaders, with a similar picture for household 60 percent of families who were previously
chores (41 percent versus 27 percent) and for using Kidogo centres for childcare have now
looking after children (31 percent versus 24 shifted this responsibility to adolescent girls,
percent). The survey also found that women- some as young as eight or nine years old
led businesses were more likely to have closed (Miller et al., 2020). This increased burden of
since the start of the pandemic. Similar findings childcare affects girls’ time available to study
are reported from a survey of women-owned and to participate in homeschooling or remote
businesses in rural India (N=2,083), where 43 learning opportunities. Where remote learning
percent of the respondents said their unpaid is being facilitated virtually, existing gender
care work increased and almost 60 percent said norms around access to technology have
their time spent on running and managing their also disadvantaged girls (Amaro et al., 2020).
businesses decreased (Narasimhan et al., Concerns have been raised that girls may
2020). The same study found that one in two be at greater risk of not returning to school
permanently closed enterprises had no intention post-COVID-19 as a result of rising poverty
of starting a new business at the time of the levels, premature entry into the labour force,
survey. Lessons from the Ebola epidemic or increased rates of early marriage and
in West Africa also suggest that many women- pregnancy, as was the case following the Ebola
led businesses will never fully recover post- epidemic (Fry & Lei, 2020). In highly disrupted
crisis (West Africa Network for Peacebuilding, villages in Sierra Leone, the Ebola crisis led
2020). younger girls to spend significantly more time
with men, out-of-wedlock pregnancies rose,
Child education and early learning and, as a result, they experienced a persistent
Since March 2020, almost 90 percent of the 16 percentage point drop in school enrolment
world’s countries have closed their schools in post-crisis (Bandiera et al., 2018). Some poorer
efforts to slow the transmission of COVID-19, families needed out-of-school children to
affecting the education of 1.5 billion school-age contribute economically, and the number
children (UNESCO, 2020). An additional 40 of girls aged 12 to 17 engaged in income-
million children worldwide have missed out on generating activities increased by 19 percent,
early childhood education in their critical pre- many of whom were either unable or not
school year as COVID-19 shut down childcare encouraged to return to schools once they
and early education facilities (Gromada et al., reopened (Bandiera et al., 2018). Using
2020). There is also a large body of evidence longitudinal data from the Ebola outbreak,
documenting the impacts of school and early Malala Fund estimates that an additional 20
education closures on child protection, health, million secondary school-aged girls in LMICs
and nutrition, including, for example, the loss will be out of school post-COVID-19 (Fry & Lei,
of access to school feeding and immunisation 2020). Not only will this impact girls’ educational
programmes (Headey et al., 2020; UNESCO, attainment, but it will also have long-term
2020; Upadhyay et al., 2020; World Food consequences for their ability to obtain
Programme, 2020). decent employment. ›
14EVIDENCE REVIEW OF THE GLOBAL CHILDCARE CRISIS AND THE ROAD FOR POST-COVID-19 RECOVERY AND RESILIENCE Emerging evidence (continued) › The childcare sector of childcare services by parents. At present, The global childcare sector—which includes the childcare sector in many countries risks nurseries, daycare centres, crèches, and early collapsing due to the economic impacts of child development (ECD) centres—is suffering COVID-19 unless government support and under COVID-19. Demand for childcare services guidance is made available. The widespread has decreased since the start of the pandemic shutdown of childcare facilities will result in due to lockdowns, rising poverty levels (resulting the reduced supply of quality and affordable in parents’ inability to pay for childcare services), childcare services, leading to long-term and fears of exposure to the virus. As a result, gaps in access post-pandemic. childcare centres have had their prices and revenues reduced significantly, while, at the The conditions of childcare workers same time, their operating costs have increased The global childcare workforce, which is in order to abide by COVID-19 health and safety predominantly female, is being highly impacted protocols. In the United States, operating costs by the COVID-19 pandemic. This includes both have increased by as much as 47 percent centre-based childcare workers in formal and (Workman & Jessen-Howard, 2020). Measures informal settings and domestic workers p like purchasing sanitation and cleaning supplies, roviding childcare to private households. providing personal protective equipment for staff, The government-mandated closure of childcare and splitting classes to meet social distancing facilities has resulted in many months of lost guidelines account for the rise in operating costs. incomes for centre-based childcare workers in A recent case study of South Africa’s childcare countries around the world. In LMICs, these are sector demonstrates the detrimental impact of often informal or self-employed workers with no COVID-19 on ECD centres: 96 percent of social protection. Many centre-based childcare operators surveyed reported that their income workers have lost their jobs and face barriers was not sufficient to cover operating costs; 83 seeking employment elsewhere due to their percent reported that they would not be able to limited educational background and qualifications pay the full salaries of their staff going forward; and lack of opportunities in the job market during and 68 percent reported that they ran the risk COVID-19. Those who continue to work face of permanent closure (BRIDGE, 2020). heavier workloads, difficulties commuting to There is less data available on the childcare workplaces in context of lockdowns, and limited sector in LMICs (the size of the sector, the range protection from the virus. Workers in informal of providers, etc.) and on the impact of COVID-19, settings are more vulnerable to poverty in the likely due to the higher proportion of centres case of reduced work hours or job loss because operating informally. However, anecdotal they are not eligible for unemployment insurance evidence from countries including India and or other forms of income support. In India, for Kenya suggests that large numbers of childcare instance, this includes more than 2 million centres have closed due to lower demand, women who are providing child development decreased ability of clients to pay for services, services through the government’s Integrated and centres’ inability to cover costs (Miller et al., Child Development Services (ICDS) programme 2020). Operators are seeking guidance from as volunteers working on a meagre honorarium governments on how to reopen safely after with no actual salaries or social protection several months of closures. Clear guidelines, (Dasgupta, 2020). standards, and protocols on sanitation and In richer households in high-, middle-, and distancing are imperative for the childcare sector low-income countries alike, a substantial amount to reopen safely and encourage the uptake of childcare is performed by domestic workers, › 15
EVIDENCE REVIEW OF THE GLOBAL CHILDCARE CRISIS AND THE ROAD FOR POST-COVID-19 RECOVERY AND RESILIENCE Emerging evidence (continued) › often migrants, many of whom have been Research conducted by the International negatively impacted by COVID-19. The ILO (2020c) Domestic Workers Federation (IDWF) finds estimates that 55 million domestic workers that domestic workers’ workloads have (nearly 75 percent globally) have lost their jobs exponentially increased during the pandemic, or had their work hours significantly reduced often uncompensated, due largely to school due to fear, lockdowns, and social distancing and childcare closures (Seghaier, 2020). requirements imposed because of COVID-19. Live-in domestic workers have been forced Domestic workers in Northern, Southern, and into confinement with their employers due to Western Europe have been less impacted than quarantine measures, increasing their those in Africa, the Americas, and in Asia and vulnerability to violence and sexual exploitation the Pacific in part because these regions have (Aoun, 2020). Some have been denied their higher numbers of domestic workers in informal earnings due to “a belief that domestic workers employment (ILO, 2020c). Some domestic did not need their salaries anyway, since they workers have lost their homes because they could not go out” (ILO, 2020c, p. 3). Others have worked as live-in caregivers and are now been denied personal protective equipment, unemployed. Migrant domestic workers who healthcare services, and access to information have lost their jobs are unable to send financial about working safely during COVID-19 (Seghaier, support to their families back home and face 2020). Experiences of xenophobia and racism the added risk of deportation. This circumstance against migrant domestic workers have also has a ripple effect on the “global care chain,” intensified, especially towards Asian populations, including the displacement of women, usually and some have been unfairly dismissed by from even lower economic and social status, employers for fear of catching the “foreign who have been taking care of migrant domestic virus” or the “Chinese virus” (Seghaier, 2020, workers’ children in countries of origin. p. 3). At the same time, airport closures and Domestic workers who remain employed restrictions on international mobility have have also faced increased exploitation, prevented some migrant domestic workers discrimination, and abuse. from returning home to their families. ● 16
EVIDENCE REVIEW OF THE GLOBAL CHILDCARE CRISIS AND
THE ROAD FOR POST-COVID-19 RECOVERY AND RESILIENCE
What can be done to address the childcare crisis?
This section outlines policy options and recommendations, particular attention is paid
measures available for addressing the COVID-19 to providing evidence, examples, and promising
exacerbated childcare crisis. It is geared towards practices that illustrate the feasibility of various
policymakers and other public and private actors policy options and measures for LMICs, where
who are committed to addressing this issue as they are available.
part of both their immediate COVID-19 response
and longer-term recovery efforts. Given the RECOGNISE, REDUCE, AND
very different social, economic, and political REDISTRIBUTE UNPAID CARE WORK
circumstances of countries, compounded by the Invest in gender-responsive public services
recognition that there is no singular approach Civil society organisations have long called for
that would apply in all contexts, a broad range of increased government investment in gender-
policy options and measures are recommended responsive public services—such as piped water,
and should be explored based on context and sanitation, electricity, and transport—to reduce
feasibility. They are informed by the ILO’s “5Rs the burden of women’s unpaid care work,
of care” framework: recognise, reduce, and including childcare (e.g., ActionAid, 2020). Under
redistribute unpaid care work; reward paid care COVID-19, these calls have become even more
work by promoting more and decent work for urgent as households, and especially women
care workers; and guarantee care workers’ and girls, struggle to cope with the impacts of
representation with employers and the state increased childcare loads. Improving access to
(ILO, 2018) (Figure 2). gender-responsive public services will require
Many of the recommendations identified significant government investment over the long
here are not new but have become even more term. However, in the immediate term, to ensure
important in the context of the current pandemic. populations maintain access to critical public
They are also mutually reinforcing and should services during COVID-19, some governments
ideally be adopted holistically. In laying out the have introduced waivers or deferrals for ›
Figure 2: Recommendations to address the COVID-19 exacerbated childcare crisis
Recognize, reduce and Reward paid care work Guarantee care workers’
redistribute unpaid care work by promoting more decent representation with
work for care workers employers and the state
• Invest in gender-responsive public services • Improve public and • Promote social dialogue
• Reopen schools and childcare facilities safely private financing for with children workers
the childcare sector • Strenghten the right to
• Increase childcare support for households
• Improve support to collective action and
• Shift social norms around childcare
centre-based childcare bargaining in the
• Introduce or expand family and workers childcare sector
health-related leave policies
• Improve support to
• Increase employer adoption of family friendly domestic workers
workplace arrangements and policies
• Collect more and better data on childcare
Care policies Macroeconomic Social protection Labour Migration
policies policies policies policies
Based on the ILO’s “5Rs of care” framework (ILO, 2018)
17EVIDENCE REVIEW OF THE GLOBAL CHILDCARE CRISIS AND
THE ROAD FOR POST-COVID-19 RECOVERY AND RESILIENCE
What can be done to address the childcare crisis? (continued)
› household utilities bills, while others have In Africa, the governments of
provided free or subsidised water and electricity. Burkina Faso, Chad, Cote d’Ivoire
In Africa, for example, the governments of
Democratic Republic of the Congo,
Burkina Faso, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, Democratic
Republic of the Congo, Ghana, Mali, Mauritania, Ghana, Mali, Mauritania, Namibia,
Namibia, Senegal, and Togo have either Senegal and Togo have either
subsidised or fully covered the cost of electricity subsidised or fully covered the
and water bills for vulnerable and low-income cost of electricity and water
households through a combination of state bills for vunerable and low-
funding and development assistance. In Latin
America, the governments of Argentina, Bolivia,
income households.
El Salvador, and Venezuela have prohibited
basic services from being cut off owing to non- during COVID-19 school closures; however, this
payment. Bolivia has also temporarily reduced is not possible in many LMICs, where less than
electricity, gas, and water fees. These types of half of households have internet access (Bhula &
measures provide much-needed short-term Floretta, 2020). Reopening schools and childcare
financial relief to families and help to reduce facilities safely for in-person learning is critical
the burden of daily domestic work required for child education, health, and development
to care for children. › outcomes, and for relieving households’
childcare burdens. In order for facilities to reopen
Reopen schools and childcare facilities safely safely, measures put in place should include:
In many high-income countries, schools have reasonable physical distancing; reducing the
shifted to online learning as a stop-gap measure number of children in a classroom by splitting ›
Box 1:
Select examples from high-income countries
for reopening schools and childcare centres safely
In Canada, the provincial government of Ontario Students are made to wash their hands every two
permitted childcare centres to reopen following hours, although face masks are not mandatory.
strict health protocols to ensure the safety of In Japan, schools mandate parents to check
staff and children. These include: putting their child’s temperature every morning and
children and staff in cohorts of ten, mandatory enter the results in a health report which is
screening of all entrants to the childcare verified by teachers in the classroom. Students
setting, keeping records to allow contact tracing, also attend school on alternate days to ensure
ensuring proper sanitation and cleanliness social distancing. All students and teachers
of premises, and restricting entry of parents are required to wear masks at all times,
and visitors in the facility. except while eating.
Schools in Denmark operate in “protective Belgium has implemented a color-coded
bubbles” with students being sectioned off scheme for how schools will operate under four
into small groups of 12 students. Groups are different scenarios, based on the severity of the
assigned staggered schedules, each one eating COVID-19 outbreak. Teachers and students above
lunch separately and having a designated play the age of 12 years are required to wear masks
area. Classrooms have been rearranged to and observe basic hygiene measures, including
maintain physical distancing and teaching hand washing and maintaining proper room
materials are sanitised twice a day. ventilation and air circulation.
18EVIDENCE REVIEW OF THE GLOBAL CHILDCARE CRISIS AND
THE ROAD FOR POST-COVID-19 RECOVERY AND RESILIENCE
What can be done to address the childcare crisis? (continued)
› them into groups and staggering schedules; In Argentina, a new cash transfer
preventing parents from entering the school programme– the Ingreso Familiar
during child drop-offs and pick-ups; maintaining
de Emergencia– is expected to reach
good hygiene by mandating that students and
teachers wear masks and wash their hands 3.6 million families of informal, self-
frequently; sanitising the school premises employed, and domestic workers
daily; adequately ventilating classrooms; and impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic.
implementing robust testing and contact tracing
of any new COVID-19 cases (Mallapaty, 2020). additional, often temporary, forms of childcare
Delivering on these measures will require support to households. In Poland, if a child’s
substantial technical and financial assistance nursery, children’s club, kindergarten, or school
from governments and specifically education is closed due to COVID-19, parents are entitled to
ministries. 14 additional days of childcare allowance. Other
At the time of writing, governments in many countries have introduced social assistance
LMICs—India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, schemes for households with children in the
Kenya, and Uganda, for example—have opted to form of childcare allowances, cash transfers,
keep schools and childcare facilities closed. While vouchers, and “cash-for-care” programmes,
some best practices for reopening emerge from including the Cook Islands, Czechia, Germany,
the experiences of developed countries (see Box Italy, Malta, and Spain.
1), there is a need to find innovative and cost- For LMICs, extending social assistance and
effective approaches that work in LMIC contexts. other forms of social protection to single-parent
One strategy adopted by some LMICs, including households, essential workers, and informal
Afghanistan, Brazil, Liberia, the Philippines, and workers should be top priority during COVID-19.
Senegal, has been to simplify school curricula In Argentina, a new cash transfer programme–the
and adjust academic calendars by shortening Ingreso Familiar de Emergencia–is expected to
vacation periods to enable continuity in learning. reach 3.6 million families of informal, self-
Others, such as Albania and Egypt, have cancelled employed, and domestic workers impacted by
less important examinations to reduce physical the COVID-19 pandemic. Benefit levels are set
contact among students and teachers. at ARS 10,000 pesos (about USD $132), which
In countries where schools remain closed and is roughly equivalent to 75 percent of the
remote learning is in effect, providing information national minimum wage. See Box 2 for
and support to parents can help them manage additional examples of gender-responsive
this additional childcare task. Research conducted social protection programmes targeting
by the Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab childcare during COVID-19.
finds that LMICs in Asia, Africa, and the Americas
have adopted SMS, phone calls, and other widely Shift social norms around childcare
accessible, affordable, and low-technology methods The current pandemic presents a window of
of information delivery to help engage and support opportunity to encourage a lasting shift in social
parents in supervising their children’s remote norms towards a more equitable division of
learning activities (Bhula & Floretta, 2020). household childcare responsibilities. In their
review of unpaid care work under COVID-19,
Increase childcare support for households Dugarova (2020) points to several studies which
To support families, and especially women, demonstrate a positive trend towards more
in managing increased childcare loads due to egalitarian household care arrangements,
COVID-19, some governments are providing at least in the short term, where fathers are ›
19You can also read
