EVIDENCE REVIEW OF WOMEN'S GROUPS AND COVID-19: IMPACTS, CHALLENGES, AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR SAVINGS GROUPS IN AFRICA
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EVIDENCE REVIEW OF WOMEN’S GROUPS AND COVID-19: IMPACTS, CHALLENGES, AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR SAVINGS GROUPS IN AFRICA
EVIDENCE REVIEW OF WOMEN’S GROUPS AND COVID-19:
IMPACTS, CHALLENGES, AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR
SAVINGS GROUPS IN AFRICA
Contributors Acknowledgements
A member of the mothers’ support group
smiles for a portrait in Yamaltu Deba,
We would like to thank Chloe Bass and Martina
Gombe, Nigeria on November 16, 2016. Crailsheim at World Vision, Katherine Hay and
Through the group women learn banking
and financial literacy. This group is Aishwarya Lakshmi Ratan at the Bill & Melinda
supported by the State Accountability
for Quality Improvement Project (SAQIP)
Gates Foundation, Will Kendall at HOPE International,
which is focused on improving maternal, Drs. Marlous de Milliano and David Seidenfeld at
neonatal and child health outcomes in
northeast Nigeria, where maternal and American Institutes for Research, Francesca Moneti
child mortality rates are especially high.
at Tostan, Virginia Nkwanzi at IPSOS, Eva Noble
Photo credit: Andrew Esiebo
at Women for Women International, Uloma Ogba
Authors: and Friederike Strub at MarketShare Associates,
Africa Centre for Systematic Reviews at Ashutosh Raina at the World Bank, and Dr. Fatma
Makerere University
Eve Namisango Zennou at CARE for their insights and feedback
during the development of this brief.
American Institutes for Research
Thomas de Hoop
Chinmaya Holla
Garima Siwach
Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation
Sybil Chidiac
Shubha Jayaram
BRAC
Jenna Grzeslo
Munshi Sulaiman
CARE
Emily Janoch
Grace Majara
EPAR Evans School of Public Policy
and Governance
Olayinka Adegbite
Leigh Anderson
Rebecca Walcott
Global Center for Gender Equality at
Stanford University
Krishna Jafa
Population Council
Sapna Desai
Osasuyi Dirisu
School of Women and Gender Studies at
Makerere University
Tabitha Mulyampiti
MarketShare Associates
Julia Hakspiel
© 2021, Evidence Review of Women’s Groups and COVID-19:
SEEP Network Impacts, Challenges, and Policy Implications for Savings
David Panetta Groups in Africa
02EVIDENCE REVIEW OF WOMEN’S GROUPS AND COVID-19: IMPACTS, CHALLENGES, AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR SAVINGS GROUPS IN AFRICA Contents Executive summary 05 Introduction 07 Methodology 10 How is COVID-19 affecting women’s groups? 12 › Economic shocks and social protection 12 › Social distancing 15 › Partners in community response 16 Policy and programmatic implications and research recommendations 18 › Policy and programmatic implications for governments 18 › Policy and programmatic implications for organizations working directly with women’s groups 18 › Policy and programmatic implications for donors 19 › Research recommendations 19 References 21 03
EVIDENCE REVIEW OF WOMEN’S GROUPS AND COVID-19:
IMPACTS, CHALLENGES, AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR
SAVINGS GROUPS IN AFRICA
Boxes & Figures Acronyms & Key Terms
Box 1: Lockdowns and gradual relaxation of Acronyms
restrictions in Nigeria and Uganda CRS Catholic Relief Services
Box 2: Data sources LSMS-ISA Living Standards Measurement Study-
Box 3: Social protection responses in Nigeria Integrated Surveys on Agriculture
and Uganda MIS Management Information Systems
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
Fig 1: How group functioning may change in SILC Savings and Internal Lending
response to COVID-19 Communities
Fig 2: Access to savings and credit after COVID-19 VSLA Village Savings and Loan Associations
Key Terms
Social The norms and networks that facilitate
Capital collective action for mutual benefit
(Woolcock, 1998).
Covariate Shocks that occur at the community
Shocks or macro-level (e.g., natural disasters,
disease outbreaks, conflict, and
economic crises) and may affect
many households simultaneously
(Walcott et al., 2021).
Credit The provision of money, goods, or
services before payment.
Microfinance Financial services, typically in the
form of savings, or credit provided
usually to lower-income individuals,
households, and small businesses.
Savings Groups of 15 to 30 people, usually
Groups women, who meet regularly to
contribute to a common fund that is
then used to support loans to group
members as needed (Gash & Odell,
2013, p. 11).
Women’s An umbrella term commonly used to
Groups refer to different models of economic,
health, and community groups with
a primarily female membership
(Anderson et al., 2019).
04EVIDENCE REVIEW OF WOMEN’S GROUPS AND COVID-19:
IMPACTS, CHALLENGES, AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR
SAVINGS GROUPS IN AFRICA
Executive summary
It has been more than a year since COVID-19 For example, households with a female sav-
lockdowns began, and economic recovery is a top ings group member in Nigeria were less likely
priority for governments, donors, and international to experience food insecurity and more likely
financial institutions (IFIs) worldwide, including to have savings, which was critical to face the
in sub-Saharan Africa. Targeted investments that COVID-19 crisis.
increase community resilience and spur economic
2. Women’s savings groups have shown the
growth will mitigate some of the negative economic
potential for resilience during the pandemic.
consequences of this crisis. Investment in women’s
Due to digitization, access to mobile money, and
economic resilience and social support is para-
other adaptations, savings groups have been
mount, considering that the crisis may reverse
able to continue operating during the pandemic.
recent progress in gender equality.
Many pivoted from traditional activities, adapted
Around the world, women’s groups, such as self-
their skill sets, and created new market oppor-
help groups, savings groups, and health groups, play
tunities to generate needed income. They made
an important role in communities; evidence shows
and distributed personal protective equipment
promise in their role in promoting women’s empow-
(PPE), built handwashing stations, and created
erment and economic outcomes. They encompass
community action plans to prevent the spread
many models, but all bring women together around
of COVID-19.
a shared purpose, such as financial inclusion, live-
lihoods, health, and women’s rights. 3. Savings groups contributed to community
This brief focuses on one specific type of wom- responses and provided women a platform for
en’s group in sub-Saharan Africa: savings groups. leadership. They have provided opportunities for
Savings groups are a common form of women’s women to take on both formal and informal com-
group and serve as a reliable mechanism for peo- munity leadership roles in response to the crisis.
ple in sub-Saharan Africa to save money. Members They have also served as networks to communi-
of savings groups pool small weekly savings into cate about how to limit the spread of COVID-19,
a common fund, which members can then borrow including the importance of social distancing,
against, creating opportunities for investments hygiene, and safety measures. They also shared
and women’s empowerment. Savings groups show information across communities on issues that
mixed, but promising, results in improving eco- emerged during lockdowns, such as child mar-
nomic and social outcomes. riage, child labor, the importance of sustaining
This brief, written by a consortium of research- girls’ education, and violence against women
ers and practitioners, presents emerging evi- and children.
dence from studies in diverse African contexts—
Broadly, our analysis shows that savings groups
with a deep dive into Nigeria and Uganda—on how
have contributed to resilience in the face of eco-
COVID-19 has affected savings groups and how
nomic challenges related to COVID-19, but groups
these groups have helped mitigate the pandemic’s
encountered financial challenges.
negative consequences in sub-Saharan Africa.
While evidence indicates that savings groups
Three key findings emerged from this review:
in sub-Saharan Africa have supported household
1. Households with a female member in a savings resilience during the COVID-19 crisis, savings
group in Nigeria and Uganda have coped with the groups face challenges and limited resources that
crisis better than those not in savings groups. threaten their sustainability and effectiveness ›
05EVIDENCE REVIEW OF WOMEN’S GROUPS AND COVID-19:
IMPACTS, CHALLENGES, AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR
SAVINGS GROUPS IN AFRICA
Executive summary (continued)
› over time. Due to increased disbursements to supported by African governments would gener-
members and non-members in need of cash during ate additional evidence for decision-making.
the crisis, savings group funds have been depleted
in some cases. The economic crisis has disrupted Key actions for donors, partners, and researchers:
the accumulation of new savings because of reduced • Prioritize women’s leadership in the commu-
employment opportunities and income, and, while nity response to COVID-19 while ensuring social
the use of digital meetings and mobile money has distancing and access to personal protective
helped those with access, the shift to digitization equipment.
has created barriers for the most marginalized
• Leverage the learning and insights coming
women. Paying close attention to the economic
from the SEEP peer learning group on savings
and social challenges savings groups face moving
groups, women, and COVID-19 could enable
forward is crucial.
donors, governments, and practitioners to
This brief presents various recommendations for
guide COVID-19 response and recovery efforts
policymakers who aim to strengthen savings and
related to savings groups.
other women’s groups with the objective of achiev-
ing improvements in women’s empowerment and • Partner with and support governments by
economic outcomes based on evidence to date. investing in national tracking systems of
women’s groups.
Key actions for governments:
• Conduct research on group savings and other
• In the short term, African governments could
vulnerability indicators and how these link to
support savings group members who faced
COVID-19 policy responses, at different stages
sharp reductions in income and savings due to
of the pandemic.
COVID-19 with targeted cash transfers, vouch-
ers and/or food transfers through a dedicated • Continue research on long-term resilience and
public fund in order to preserve the viability of the role of women’s groups.
savings groups. • Conduct experimental and quasi-experimental
• In the long term, integrating savings groups research to determine the relative effectiveness
into social protection programs could have and cost-effectiveness of virtual and in-person
broad, longstanding benefits, especially in training in improving women’s empowerment
emergency settings. and economic outcomes.
• Higher quality data and more frequent and/or • Conduct qualitative research on group processes
routine data collection on women’s groups with a view to inform future programming. ●
06EVIDENCE REVIEW OF WOMEN’S GROUPS AND COVID-19:
IMPACTS, CHALLENGES, AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR
SAVINGS GROUPS IN AFRICA
Introduction
The COVID-19 pandemic and some of the associ- in various contexts to respond to the adverse con-
ated policy responses have resulted in significant sequences that the pandemic and some of the asso-
gendered impacts that may reverse recent prog- ciated policy responses have imposed on women
ress in gender equality, including in sub-Saharan and marginalized groups (Box 1 depicts examples
Africa. Although mortality rates from COVID-19 are of policy responses to COVID-19 in Nigeria and
higher for men, women and girls are disproportion- Uganda). This brief focuses primarily on savings
ately affected by the pandemic among other health, groups, in which members come together to pool
economic, social, and educational dimensions, with savings, lend their savings to each other with inter-
potentially long-term effects (Burki, 2020; Buvinic est, and share the profits (SEEP, 2010). ›
et al., 2020; Wenham et al., 2020). For example,
women-owned firms and female workers are dis- Box 1:
proportionately concentrated in informal sectors,
which may lack basic social protections in times Lockdowns and gradual relaxation of restrictions
of economic crisis, as well as in the hospitality and in Nigeria and Uganda
tourism sectors, which were hit hard by the lock- Nigeria
down (Copley et al., 2020; Rochelle Parry & Gordon, • Short-term, state-level lockdowns in March 2020;
2020). Women are also heavily concentrated in federal travel restrictions and social distancing
high-risk occupations such as the frontline health measures, including a ban on interstate travel and
the limiting of market activities to specific days
care workforce (Wenham et al., 2020). In addition,
of the week (Reuters, 2020)
various studies suggest that COVID-19 lockdowns
• Gradual reopening with “precision” lockdown
may have contributed to increases in gender-based measures in areas that reported rapid increases
violence (Agene & Onyishi, 2020; Agüero, 2020; in COVID-19 cases in May 2020 (Reuters, 2020)
Peterman et al., 2020) and in women’s burden of • Second phase state-led response, followed by
unpaid care (Wenham et al., 2020). increased gradual relaxation of lockdown such as
This brief presents emerging evidence from stud- lifting bans on interstate travel; ending a national
ies in diverse African contexts—with a deep dive into curfew; and gradually re-opening schools and
Nigeria and Uganda—on how COVID-19 has affected places of worship with mandatory mask use,
hand-washing stations, and physical distancing
women’s groups and how these groups have helped between worshippers since June 2020 (Adepoju,
mitigate the pandemic’s negative consequences 2020; Andam et al., 2020)
in sub-Saharan Africa. “Women’s groups” is an Uganda
umbrella term commonly used to refer to different
• Extended lockdown with prolonged closures of
models of economic, health, and community groups schools and universities; a ban on public transpor-
with a primarily female membership. Groups vary tation; a prohibition of travel; the closure of salons,
widely in their design and implementation and in garages, and lodges; and a freeze on private car
their purpose, governance, and financing (Anderson use until May 2020 (Anguyo & Storer, 2020)
et al., 2019). In many African countries, governments • Gradual reopening of different economic sectors
and a broad range of non-governmental organi- in June 2020 (“Museveni,” 2020)
zations (NGOs) support various types of women’s • Partial reopening of schools, colleges, and universi-
groups, many of which deliver economic, social, ties requiring social distancing of two meters or more;
wearing face masks; and access to handwashing
and health interventions in a group-based setting. stations (“Education Ministry,” 2020)
Over the past year, women’s groups have adapted
07EVIDENCE REVIEW OF WOMEN’S GROUPS AND COVID-19: IMPACTS, CHALLENGES, AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR SAVINGS GROUPS IN AFRICA Introduction (continued) › Most publicly available documentation of women’s Consortium on Women’s Groups identified three groups’ adaptations in response to COVID-19 focuses ways in which COVID-19 may affect the initial func- on savings groups supported by NGOs. During the tioning and effectiveness of groups, in addition to pandemic, the lockdown, and its gradual relaxation, generating important adaptations in their response many NGOs established or expanded social safety to COVID-19 [de Hoop et al., 2020 (see Figure 1)]: nets and provided education on COVID-19 through savings groups. Along with serving as informal 1. Economic shocks may reduce income and via- financial institutions, savings groups aim to gener- ble livelihood opportunities for groups and ate social capital and stimulate women’s leadership their members, which may ultimately result in as well as facilitate social and economic develop- group dissolution due to a lack of financial cap- ment at the community level (SEEP, 2010). ital or investments. On the other hand, groups Governments across Africa adapted some of their may increase the resilience of their members large-scale women’s group programs, such as the through existing savings and group support, Uganda Development Response to Displacement that can serve as insurance, social protection, Impacts Project, which supports the livelihood and a source of business capital. activities of refugees and host communities using 2. Social distancing requires groups to change a federated structure to support savings and live- how they function, for example, by limiting phys- lihoods groups. Another example is the recently ical meetings, meeting in smaller numbers, or launched Nigeria for Women Project, which focuses holding virtual meetings as well as using differ- on the development of Women’s Affinity Groups ent means of communication and/or electronic to strengthen social and financial capital for payment technologies. improved livelihoods. 3. Governments and NGOs can provide social However, formal, publicly available documenta- safety nets and new or extended partnerships tion and research on how governments have adapted with groups to manufacture protective equip- these programs in response to the pandemic, ment, which may increase income opportunities the lockdown, and the subsequent gradual relax- for group members. Providing social safety nets ation of the lockdown remains limited.1 For this and other services through groups could also reason, this brief primarily focuses on evidence create opportunities for women to build lead- related to savings groups that are supported by ership skills. Women in savings groups may in international NGOs. turn provide an important voice in guiding local Women’s groups with primarily economic objec- responses to COVID-19 and informing the strat- tives, such as savings groups and self-help groups, egies and actions of governments and NGOs show mixed but promising evidence on improv- (Janoch, 2020). ing women’s empowerment and economic out- comes (e.g., Barooah et al., 2019; Brody et al., This brief ends with recommendations for vari- 2017). However, COVID-19 creates new challenges ous stakeholders supporting women’s groups based and opportunities that change the ways in which on evidence to date, including emerging insights women’s groups can deliver benefits. The Evidence from the pandemic as well as past evidence on › 1 Several governments are preparing surveys to examine the functioning of government-supported women’s groups after COVID-19, but data from these surveys are not yet available. For this reason, we currently do not have more detailed information on how government-supported women’s group programs were adapted because of the pandemic. 08
EVIDENCE REVIEW OF WOMEN’S GROUPS AND COVID-19: IMPACTS, CHALLENGES, AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR SAVINGS GROUPS IN AFRICA Introduction (continued) › how women’s groups show promise for achiev- Figure 1: How group functioning may change in response ing positive effects on women’s empowerment to COVID-19 and economic outcomes (e.g., Barooah et al., 2019; Brody et al., 2017). The recommendations also Group Functioning and COVID-19 assume that policymakers aim to strengthen wom- en’s groups to achieve improvements in women’s empowerment and economic outcomes both during and after the COVID-19 pandemic, but we recognize that policymakers may have to consider resource constraints and potential trade-offs with other investments with similar (or potentially different) Economic Shocks and Social Distancing Partners in Community objectives. The brief includes evidence-based policy Social Protection Responses and programming implications to improve savings group programming in sub-Saharan Africa based on current evidence and provides research recom- new evidence becomes available. In the latter case, mendations where no current evidence exists. In ensuring that research can inform policy through the former case, it is important to recognize that timely evidence will likely require researchers to recommendations are based on the currently lim- engage closely with policymakers in designing the ited evidence and may need to be updated when research and the associated timeline. ● 09
EVIDENCE REVIEW OF WOMEN’S GROUPS AND COVID-19:
IMPACTS, CHALLENGES, AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR
SAVINGS GROUPS IN AFRICA
Methodology
We synthesized the findings of various studies Box 2:
on COVID-19 and women’s groups (summarized
in Box 2) based on the conceptual framework Data sources
described in the previous section. We started the • An evidence synthesis of groups’ responses to acute
synthesis by examining the validity of the con- covariate shocks and their ability to mitigate the
consequences of these shocks before COVID-19
ceptual framework using the findings of a rapid
(for more details about the study design, analysis,
review of the literature on women’s groups and and results, see Walcott et al., 2021);
acute covariate shocks that may have had similar
• Analyses of phone-based surveys on the functioning
(yet less widespread) consequences as COVID-19. of savings groups in Malawi, Nigeria, and Uganda
This review studied both how these shocks affect during the pandemic (CARE, 2020a, 2020b, 2020c;
women’s groups, as well as their ability to miti- Crailsheim & Reynolds, 2020);
gate the effects of shocks for their members and • An analysis of longitudinal in-person (before the
communities (Walcott et al., 2021). We combined pandemic) and four rounds of phone-based LSMS-
results from this synthesis with evidence about ISA survey data (after the start of the pandemic)
collected in Nigeria [(a more detailed description of
the functioning of savings groups after COVID-19 the study design, analysis, and detailed results will
using findings from phone-based surveys on how come out in the second quarter of 2021) (World Bank,
Village Savings and Loan Associations (VSLAs) 2020a; World Bank, n.d.)];
and Savings and Internal Lending Communities • An analysis of one round of phone-based LSMS-ISA
(SILCs)—prominent forms of savings-led microfi- survey data [(after the start of the pandemic) col-
nance groups in Africa—and other savings groups lected in Uganda [(a more detailed description of the
study design, analysis, and results will come out in
coped with the consequences of COVID-19 across
the second quarter of 2021) (World Bank, 2020a;
various settings in sub-Saharan Africa (Allen, 2020; World Bank, n.d.)];
CARE, 2020a, 2020b, 2020c, 2020d; Crailsheim &
• An analysis of data from a different phone-based
Reynolds, 2020; World Vision, 2020). We triangu- survey in Uganda (Kansiime et al., 2020);
lated these findings with qualitative research on • A rapid assessment of the effects of COVID-19 on
how women’s groups coped with the consequences individuals, households, communities, groups, and
of COVID-19 and the associated lockdown in Mali, medium and small enterprises in eight countries
Niger, Nigeria, and Uganda (Agene & Onyishi, 2020; in sub-Saharan Africa; the Democratic Republic of
Arasio et al., 2020; Bernardo Andrés & Dawalak, Congo, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Tanzania,
Uganda, and Zambia (World Vision, 2020);
2020; CARE, 2020a, 2020b, 2020d; Laouan, 2020).
• A survey among refugee and host community savings
To examine the economic resilience of women’s
group members in West Nile, Uganda (Crailsheim &
group members, we used the results from a data Reynolds, 2020);
analysis on the association between savings group
• A survey among 433 Catholic Relief Services-
membership and food security, savings, and credit supported (CRS-supported) savings group represen-
in Nigeria and Uganda (Kansiime et al., 2020; tatives in Burkina Faso, Chad, the Gambia, Ghana,
World Bank, 2020a). Kenya, Madagascar, Mali, Niger, Senegal, Sierra
We examined the evidence in light of the Leone, and Tanzania (Allen, 2020); and
in-country social protection responses. Many • Qualitative data on saving groups functioning and
countries in sub-Saharan Africa instituted new or resilience in Mali, Niger, Nigeria, and Uganda (Agene
& Onyishi, 2020; Arasio et al., 2020; Bernardo Andrés
refined existing social protection programs since & Dawalak, 2020; CARE, 2020b; Laouan, 2020).
the onset of the pandemic (see examples from ›
10EVIDENCE REVIEW OF WOMEN’S GROUPS AND COVID-19:
IMPACTS, CHALLENGES, AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR
SAVINGS GROUPS IN AFRICA
Methodology (continued)
› Nigeria and Uganda in Box 3). These social pro- creation (Babatunde & Olagunju, 2020; Dixit et al.,
tection programs include cash transfers and pro- 2020; Kazeem, 2020; United Nations Development
grams focused on food assistance as well as job Programme, 2020). ●
Box 3:
Social protection responses in Nigeria and Uganda
Nigeria
• Economic sustainability plan to guide the country’s economic policy response, including a $605 million stimulus
plan passed on June 24, 2020.
• Special public works program to create temporary jobs for 774,000 Nigerians (“Federal Govt,” 2020).
• Cash transfers of $52 to 2.6 million poor and vulnerable households registered with the National Social Register
starting in April 2020 (Babatunde & Olagunju, 2020; Dixit et al., 2020).
• Food rations to vulnerable households in the lockdown-affected states of Lagos, FCT, and Ogun in April 2020
(Dixit et al., 2020).
• Economic sustainability plan to stimulate job creation through infrastructural investments as social protection
(KPMG, 2020).
Uganda
• New social protection interventions in the form of cash transfers and food distribution to cope with lockdowns
since April 2020.
• Delivery of food packages to 1.5 million individuals in Kampala, Wakiso, and Mukono districts.
• Expanded jobs under the Urban Cash for Work Program reaching approximately 500,000 individuals.
• Distribution of agricultural inputs in 124 districts.
• Relaxed national security fund contribution requirements by businesses and employers.
11EVIDENCE REVIEW OF WOMEN’S GROUPS AND COVID-19:
IMPACTS, CHALLENGES, AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR
SAVINGS GROUPS IN AFRICA
How is COVID-19 affecting women’s groups?
Economic shocks and social protection among CRS-supported savings group represen-
tatives in 11 African countries indicated that the
KEY MESSAGES support was required not only because of reduced
Households with a female member in a savings group earnings from non-farm livelihoods activities,
were less likely to experience food insecurity than but also because lockdowns reduced prices for
households without members and were more likely small businesses (because of lower demand)
to have savings, which are critical to weathering covari- and increased the prices of necessities [because
ate shocks, such as epidemics and natural disasters.
of lower supply (Allen, 2020)]. Savings groups in
Moreover, savings groups have contributed to the
dissemination of information about child marriage, Karamoja, Uganda also faced major challenges.
child labor, the importance of girls’ education, and A rapid assessment of COVID-19’s impacts on
violence against children during COVID-19. these savings groups found that members took
loans from their groups to cater to basic needs
An evidence synthesis of the effects of past acute with the hope of repaying loans when the situation
covariate shocks suggested consistent negative normalizes (Arasio et al., 2020). This finding is con-
impacts on the resources and activities of wom- sistent with a survey among 433 CRS-supported
en’s groups, including those in sub-Saharan Africa savings groups in 11 countries in sub-Saharan
(Walcott et al., 2021). Shocks often resulted in the Africa, which indicates that 75 percent of savings
depletion of savings groups’ resources because of groups experienced decreased and/or less regular
reduced savings and loan repayment capacity of savings (Allen, 2020). The depletion of group assets
members, coupled with a greater demand for group in these settings raises concerns about the sus-
funds (Walcott et al., 2021). For example, in Sierra tainability of these groups.
Leone, the burden of the Ebola shock decreased Although groups face challenges, access to past
members’ ability and propensity to contribute sav- savings and credit has likely contributed to the
ings, which, in turn, put pressure on the group’s resilience of group members during COVID-19.
social fund (Androsik, 2020). However, group membership was only able to mit-
We found evidence of similar dynamics during igate a small proportion of COVID-19’s negative
COVID-19; however, most findings to date are economic consequences. Evidence from nation-
based on relatively small and likely unrepresen- ally representative longitudinal panel data based
tative samples. Although most savings groups on in-person (before COVID-19) and phone-based
resumed physical meetings after the initial lock- (after COVID-19) surveys in Nigeria showed that
down, groups faced challenges related to the food insecurity in April, June, and August 2020
depletion of their funds. Many groups disbursed increased significantly in all survey rounds relative
all their funds to help group members and other to the in-person LSMS-ISA survey in 2018 (46 per-
households in the community meet their imme- centage points in April 2020; 55 percentage points
diate needs. Among the groups sampled by CARE in June 2020; and 51 percentage points in August
in Nigeria, 42 percent used their social funds to 2020 after controlling for various demographic
support members who need help, and 15 percent characteristics and savings group membership).
used social funds to purchase hygiene supplies, These same phone-based surveys indicated that
while 69 percent reported volunteering to help households with a female member in a savings
others or participating in groups that organized to group were less likely to experience food insecurity
protect against COVID-19 (CARE, 2020d). A survey than households without members in April, June, ›
12EVIDENCE REVIEW OF WOMEN’S GROUPS AND COVID-19:
IMPACTS, CHALLENGES, AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR
SAVINGS GROUPS IN AFRICA
How is COVID-19 affecting women’s groups? (continued)
› and August 2020. During this period, Figure 2: Access to savings and credit after COVID-19
households with female savings group
members were, on average, 3.7 percent- Savings and Loans
age points less likely2 to report that they
faced any food security challenges than At least one female in household has savings
non-members after controlling for var-
ious baseline and demographic charac- Obtained a loan since mid-March
teristics (from in-person data collected
before the start of the phone-based Loan coming from women’s group
surveys). In August 2020, households
with female savings group members Loan coming from other source
were six percentage points less likely to
report that they had been unable to eat At least one loan provided to female household member
their preferred food in the last 30 days,
6.7 percentage points less likely to 0 10 20 30
Association in percentage points
report that they ate less variety of food Note 1: Values on the x-axis indicate the association between having a female savings group member in the household
and the outcomes on the y-axis.
in the last 30 days, 6.4 percentage Note 2: The length of the bar indicates the magnitude of the association. The capped spikes indicate the 95% confidence interval.
Note 3: If the capped spike crosses 0, it indicates that the coefficient is not statistically significant.
points less likely to report that they ran Data Source: World Bank High-Frequency Phone Surveys Nigeria, August 2020
out of food in the last 30 days, 6.3 per-
centage points less likely to report that
they went a whole day without food in findings, which are based on regression models
the last 30 days, and 4.2 percentage points less using longitudinal data in which we control for
likely to report that they had skipped meals in the various demographic characteristics.
last 30 days after controlling for various in-person A different study in Uganda also suggests mem-
baseline and demographic characteristics. bership in savings groups was associated with a
Access to savings and credit may have contrib- lower likelihood of suffering income shocks and a
uted to the association between savings group lower likelihood of a reduction in food consumption;
membership and food security in Nigeria. Phone- however, the findings are likely not representative
based surveys showed that households with a for Uganda considering the sample was mostly
female savings group member were 24.5 percent- drawn from social media (Kansiime et al., 2020).
age points more likely to have a female household The results are consistent with evidence on
member with savings in August 2020, 10.8 percent- how women’s groups contributed to past acute
age points more likely to have obtained a loan since covariate shocks. The evidence synthesis showed
March 2020, and 7.6 percentage points more likely that compulsory savings and flexible credit condi-
to have female household members who had a tions contribute to the ability of groups to mitigate
loan since March 2020. Figure 2 summarizes these the negative economic consequences of shocks ›
2 This point estimate is an average across the three rounds of phone-based survey data from April, June, and August 2020 that included measures of food
security and based on five survey questions that were included in all phone-based surveys (World Bank, 2020a). One phone-based survey in July 2020
did not include questions about food security. The five survey questions asked about the ability of households to eat their preferred food, the variety of
food consumed by households, whether households ran out of food, whether households went a whole day without food, and whether households had
skipped meals (all in the last 30 days).
13EVIDENCE REVIEW OF WOMEN’S GROUPS AND COVID-19: IMPACTS, CHALLENGES, AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR SAVINGS GROUPS IN AFRICA How is COVID-19 affecting women’s groups? (continued) › (Walcott et al., 2021). Regular savings ensure that still issuing loans (Allen, 2020). In addition, savings members have greater accumulated savings to groups supported by HOPE extended grace periods mitigate the consequences of shocks, while access and rescheduled loan terms for affected clients to information about crop diversification strategies (Green et al., 2020). and labor opportunities allow members to smooth Savings group members may be able to rely on income during shocks (Demont, 2013, 2020; Karlan previous savings in the short term, but accumu- et al., 2017). lating new savings is likely to be disrupted during However, phone-based surveys from the World COVID-19, though this may differ by population. Bank in Nigeria and Uganda suggested that only a For example, in Uganda, only one percent of sav- small percentage of the population obtained credit ings group members of a VisionFund program in from their group between March and August 2020. refugee host communities were able to save the Among the respondents in Nigeria surveyed in same amount as before the pandemic, compared August 2020, 19.5 percent received any credit in with 31 percent of refugee members of savings August 2020. The loans were predominantly infor- groups of the same VisionFund program. Although mal, with over 55 percent of the loans coming from difficult to explain, this may indicate that refugee friends or relatives, nine percent of the loans com- groups were better able to adapt to newly estab- ing from banks and microfinance institutions, and lished meeting guidelines (Crailsheim & Reynolds, 16 percent from cooperatives and savings groups 2020). The same study showed that the average (World Bank, 2020b). The World Bank (2020b) share-out amount of VSLA funds in the West Nile reports that these results suggest that Nigerian in Uganda increased even at the start of COVID-19 households may face barriers to obtaining formal (Crailsheim & Reynolds, 2020). loans in the face of a crisis. Among the respon- Only limited in-depth or quantitative research is dents surveyed in Uganda in August 2020 in light available on how women’s groups may have con- of the COVID-19 emergency, 22.7 percent reported tributed to women’s social empowerment. However, receiving any credit, 6.9 percent reported receiving qualitative evidence from Ghana, Mozambique, credit from a VSLA, 4.8 percent reported receiv- and Uganda indicates that pairing savings groups ing credit from another savings group, 2.7 per- with child protection interventions may contribute cent reported receiving credit from any other type to the effective dissemination of information about of formal credit, and 9.8 percent received credit child marriage, child labor, the importance of girls’ from a friend or family member (World Bank, education, and violence against children during 2020a). Rural households and the poorest were COVID-19 (World Vision, 2020). more likely to borrow from savings groups (World Various savings groups have also continued to Bank, 2020c). In addition, a large share of the pursue regular activities during the relaxation households who borrowed to face the COVID-19 of the lockdown. Data from CARE suggests that emergency had to borrow because they could not 83 percent of the groups in Malawi and 70 percent get assistance from family or neighbors (World of the groups in the Yobe, Jigawa, and Bauchi states Bank, 2020c). of Nigeria were still saving during the lockdown. However, most of the CRS-supported savings Although access to loans was lower, 46 percent of groups continued to issue loans to their members. the CARE VSLAs in Nigeria and 50 percent of the Of the 433 savings groups that were included in CARE VSLAs in Malawi still offered loans (CARE, the survey in 11 African countries, 74 percent were 2020b, 2020c, 2020d). › 14
EVIDENCE REVIEW OF WOMEN’S GROUPS AND COVID-19:
IMPACTS, CHALLENGES, AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR
SAVINGS GROUPS IN AFRICA
How is COVID-19 affecting women’s groups? (continued)
› Social distancing that their groups needed to get ready for share-out,
and 35 percent listed other reasons (Allen, 2020).
KEY MESSAGES A survey of 5,000 savings groups implemented by
Women’s groups were strong partners in responding HOPE also indicated that 85 percent of the groups
to and sharing information about the importance of continued meeting, though many with adaptations
social distancing and necessary adaptations to promote to abide by social distancing guidelines (Green
hygiene and safety. They have also modeled strict et al., 2020).
adherence to the government’s operating procedures
In Malawi, Nigeria, and Uganda, savings groups
and encouraged uptake of digital technologies such
as mobile money, though lack of access to technology and other women’s groups increased the frequency
and other social barriers could result in the exclusion of meetings after the gradual relaxation of the
of marginalized women. lockdown. For example, CARE reports that savings
groups in Uganda started meeting again with strict
At the beginning of the pandemic, savings groups adherence to government standard operating pro-
supported by CARE in Uganda suspended their cedures. In Nigeria, 39 percent of CARE-supported
meetings and CARE encouraged groups with bank savings groups have adapted meetings, and in
accounts to use mobile money. This experience Malawi, the rate is 52 percent; however, caution
is similar to the evidence from past shocks, such is needed in interpreting these findings because
as the Ebola epidemic in Liberia, during which of the small sample size (CARE, 2020a, 2020c).
the financial activities of groups were disrupted Digitization also contributed to the ability of
(Langlay, 2014, p. 30). However, evidence from groups to continue meeting during the pandemic.
Uganda also shows variation in group responses For example, CARE saw an increase in the use of
across populations: in a VisionFund program in mobile money in urban VSLAs after they encour-
Uganda, 80 percent of groups in refugee settle- aged VSLAs with bank accounts to use mobile
ments continued to meet in small groups, while money to save and let members access their sav-
only 45 percent reported the same among the ings. Some groups are also updating their records
host communities (Crailsheim & Reynolds, 2020). via WhatsApp. However, limited evidence exists
Most savings groups supported by Catholic on the ability of digitized groups to achieve the
Relief Services and HOPE also continued meet- same results as groups meeting physically, espe-
ing during the pandemic. A survey among 433 rep- cially as they relate to outcomes such as leader-
resentatives of savings groups implemented by ship, solidarity, and women’s social empowerment
CRS in 11 African countries indicates that 81 per- or productivity and time savings through shared
cent of savings groups continued meeting with labor. It will be critical to examine the impact of
adaptations for safety and hygiene, nine percent the digitization of savings groups because of exist-
of savings groups stopped meeting without shar- ing gender disparities in ownership of and access
ing out savings, six percent shared out savings to digital devices and digital skills (de Hoop et al.,
and stopped meetings, and one percent contin- 2020). As information sharing moves online, lack
ued meeting without modifications (Allen, 2020). of access to technology and other social barriers
Of the groups that decided to continue meeting, could result in the exclusion of marginalized
47 percent reported that they considered the risk women (CARE, 2020c). For example, less than
acceptable, 39 percent needed to ensure that out- 25 percent of women in northern Uganda and less
standing loans were repaid, 35 percent reported than 40 percent of women in the northeast and ›
15EVIDENCE REVIEW OF WOMEN’S GROUPS AND COVID-19:
IMPACTS, CHALLENGES, AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR
SAVINGS GROUPS IN AFRICA
How is COVID-19 affecting women’s groups? (continued)
› northwest zones of Nigeria own mobile phones response. For example, CARE-supported savings
(UBOS & ICF, 2018; NPC & ICF, 2019). Findex groups in Benin, Mali, and Niger have contributed
data from 2014 further suggests that relatively to community-level decision making in response
low proportions of women (less than 20 percent) to COVID-19 (CARE, 2020e).
in Nigeria reported using a mobile phone or the Across sub-Saharan Africa, savings groups also
internet to conduct financial transactions or had contributed to collective action by building hand-
a mobile money account, compared with more washing stations, creating community action
than 50 percent of women in Uganda. plans to prevent COVID-19, and raising awareness
about COVID-19 and its prevention from April 2020
Partners in community response onwards (CARE, 2020e). For example, CARE pro-
vided remote trainings to community leaders and
KEY MESSAGES
program participants on COVID-19 prevention mea-
Savings groups helped increase women’s ability to sures, disease symptoms, and how to access health
obtain leadership positions in the response to COVID-19. care services in Nigeria (CARE, 2020a). Of the CRS-
Moreover, these groups adapted their skill sets and supported savings groups that continued to meet,
created new market opportunities to generate income
68 percent provided water and soap to their mem-
by developing personal protective equipment (PPE).
Finally, they served as change agents in distributing bers, 64 percent required members to wash their
PPE, building handwashing stations, creating com- hands at the beginning of the meeting, 52 percent
munity action plans to prevent and raise awareness at the end of the meetings, and 49 percent after
about COVID-19, and helping to respond to gender- handling money (Allen, 2020). In addition, savings
based violence.
group members in Cote d’Ivoire, Mali, and Niger
negotiated with private sector companies to obtain
Evidence from West Africa shows that savings more handwashing supplies to use during savings
groups and other women’s groups have enabled groups meetings (Bernardo Andrés & Dawalak,
women to obtain leadership positions in the 2020). The evidence is consistent with what is
response to COVID-19. However, the participa- known about the role of women’s groups during the
tion of women in community decisions remains community response to Ebola in the Democratic
subject to women’s time and availability outside of Republic of Congo (DRC), where the World Health
caregiving burden and domestic work. Members Organization trained women’s group representa-
of women’s savings groups in Mali organized to tives to spread awareness and share information
shift their income generating activities from busi- about vaccines, contact tracing, treatment, and the
nesses like selling food at schools—which were vulnerability of women and children to the disease
no longer open during COVID-19—to making and (World Health Organization, 2018). However, limited
selling masks, including selling to actors like the evidence is available on the population reach and
World Food Program. Change agents from Women effectiveness of information about COVID-19 dis-
for Women International-supported women’s seminated through women’s groups.
groups also shared recommendations on preven- Savings groups also contributed to COVID-19
tive behaviors such as physical distancing, hand- response efforts by producing masks and personal
washing, and using face masks in Nigeria (Agene & protective equipment (PPE) and by introducing
Onyishi, 2020). Women without formal leader- modified safety and hygiene procedures. Women
ship roles are still often active in the COVID-19 savings group members in the Democratic ›
16EVIDENCE REVIEW OF WOMEN’S GROUPS AND COVID-19: IMPACTS, CHALLENGES, AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR SAVINGS GROUPS IN AFRICA How is COVID-19 affecting women’s groups? (continued) › Republic of Congo, Mali, and Nigeria are all pro- Evidence from various settings also indicates ducing masks for the group members as well as that savings group members engaged in collec- the most vulnerable populations in their commu- tive action to support the community (Bernardo nities. Producing these masks could also help in Andrés & Dawalak, 2020). For example, qualitative generating additional income for individuals and findings from Nigeria indicate that women’s groups the group, considering that group members often may have helped to provide support to members in sell the masks they produce to obtain revenue and acute need, connecting women with new income make contributions to group social funds (Agene & opportunities and helping to reduce gender-based Onyishi, 2020; Laouan, 2020). violence (Agene & Onyishi, 2020). ● 17
EVIDENCE REVIEW OF WOMEN’S GROUPS AND COVID-19:
IMPACTS, CHALLENGES, AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR
SAVINGS GROUPS IN AFRICA
Policy and programmatic implications and research
recommendations
Several implications for policy and research • In the long term, integrating savings groups
emerge from the available evidence. Policymakers, into social protection programs could have
NGOs, donors, and researchers should review broad, longstanding benefits. Targeting sav-
their current efforts to support women’s groups ings groups would build the resilience of groups,
and identify areas where they could adapt or their members, and their communities to future
strengthen their engagement based on these emergencies. SEEP (2018) identified 20 social
recommendations. However, it will remain import- protection programs and policies in sub-Saharan
ant to examine resource constraints and trade- Africa with a savings group component; govern-
offs with other investments that aim to achieve ments could draw lessons from this study and
similar objectives. examine whether further integrating savings
groups into national safety nets could meet pro-
Policy and programmatic implications gram goals in a more effective and efficient way.
for governments
• Flexibility in external loan repayments for
• In the short term, combining savings groups those groups with access to formal credit
with cash assistance, voucher assistance, and during COVID-19 will help women and house-
food aid could help member households manage holds cope with the current crisis and possibly
the primary and secondary effects of the crisis, increase their resilience to future shocks. This
protect member assets, and recapitalize savings flexibility could help women and households
groups, which is vital to response and recovery with access to formal credit cope with the cur-
efforts. A dedicated public fund could target sav- rent crisis and possibly increase their resilience
ings group members who face sharp reductions to withstand future shocks as shown in Walcott
in income and fall below a vulnerability threshold et al. (2021).
due to COVID-19. Governments could determine • Higher quality data and more frequent data
this vulnerability threshold based on a combi- collection on women’s groups supported by
nation of real-time group financial data (such African governments could generate additional
as savings rates, loan disbursement/repayment evidence to guide decision making on govern-
behavior, or group liquidity, including data on ment-supported women’s groups. Current evi-
mobile money); mobility indicators (Google dence primarily focuses on NGO-supported
mobility data can be used as a proxy for social groups, and this evidence may not necessarily
distancing and livelihoods opportunities); and apply to groups supported by governments.
disaggregated data on food security. Ensuring
low-cost targeting will require the use of savings Policy and programmatic implications
groups MIS data and real-time data (i.e., mobile for organizations working directly with
money) for targeting. Regardless of the specific women’s groups
mechanism, which may differ depending on the • Prioritizing women’s leadership in the com-
context, combining savings groups with emer- munity response to COVID-19 while ensuring
gency public assistance will require clear com- social distancing and access to personal pro-
munications and community engagement in tective equipment could enable women to obtain
addition to effective targeting and the choice of leadership positions in the long term. Evidence
the right transfer mechanism (e.g., cash trans- already shows some examples of how women’s
fers, vouchers, or asset transfers). leadership contributes to community-level ›
18EVIDENCE REVIEW OF WOMEN’S GROUPS AND COVID-19:
IMPACTS, CHALLENGES, AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR
SAVINGS GROUPS IN AFRICA
Policy and programmatic implications and research recommendations (continued)
› decision making, which may in turn contribute response and recovery efforts through savings
to women’s empowerment in the long term. groups for a collaborative learning period of
• Pay group members for their services when about 18 months.
providing access to vital products, entitle- Research recommendations
ments, and information. This could, for exam-
ple, happen through public procurement of • Conduct research on group savings and other
such services. vulnerability indicators, and how these link to
COVID-19 policy responses, at different stages
Policy and programmatic implications for donors of the pandemic. Helping governments and
• Invest in national management information NGOs identify savings groups that require cash
systems (MIS) and the national mapping or or other support to continue functioning will
registration of groups in partnership with gov- require data that tracks collective savings and
ernments to support long-term monitoring and other vulnerability indicators during and after
build the capacity of governments to use MIS COVID-19. Analyzing such trends over time and
to guide decision-making. Such systems could across geographies, for example, by using MIS
help with the tracking of savings group MIS data data on savings group functioning and vulner-
on savings and other key vulnerability indica- ability of members, can provide insights into
tors for groups and group members for which variations across savings group functioning. For
it is currently not feasible to track data. Recent example, government agencies could set a vul-
advances in digital savings group applications, nerability threshold below which savings group
in-app and SMS messaging, and remote surveys members would receive either flexible credit,
have driven down data collection costs (SEEP cash, or asset transfers (depending on the con-
2019) and may allow donors and governments to text) with appropriate monitoring. Such thresh-
invest in lower cost solutions to generate data, olds may also enable researchers to estimate
including data based on MIS for savings groups. the impact of cash or asset transfers and credit
National maps, registries, or databases would using a regression discontinuity design.
also support coordination among stakeholders • Conduct research on how COVID-19 has changed
and enable governments to better support and women’s group members’ livelihood options in
engage women’s groups in emergency preven- ways that may endure, including the use of dig-
tion, response, and recovery efforts as well as ital savings, their role in emergency response
help group members monitor their group’s per- efforts, and the role of savings as insurance,
formance and needs. for example to guide decisions about livelihoods
• Leveraging the learning and insights coming interventions for women’s group members.
from the SEEP peer learning group on savings Women will continue to face economic chal-
groups, women, and COVID-19 could enable lenges in the aftermath of COVID-19 and access
donors, governments, and practitioners to guide to markets and other livelihoods options may
COVID-19 response and recovery efforts related help to mitigate some of these consequences.
to savings groups. The SEEP peer learning group • Continue research on long-term resilience.
will bring together a group of diverse public and We recommend conducting longitudinal research
private sector stakeholders directly involved in using individual-level and household-level
implementing gender intentional COVID-19 outcomes to understand how groups could ›
19EVIDENCE REVIEW OF WOMEN’S GROUPS AND COVID-19: IMPACTS, CHALLENGES, AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR SAVINGS GROUPS IN AFRICA Policy and programmatic implications and research recommendations (continued) › mitigate the effects of the pandemic and outcomes, while taking into consideration equity related government measures and policies concerns related to access to technology and (i.e., lockdowns) over time and across contexts. digital knowledge. Such impact evaluations We encourage researchers and evaluators to could guide decisions about the scale-up of analyze indicators on mediating factors and trainings in the aftermath of COVID-19, along potential outcomes into existing and upcoming with qualitative research on group implementa- evaluations of women’s groups. tion processes and their coping mechanisms. • Conduct experimental and quasi-experimental • Conduct qualitative research on group processes research to determine the relative effective- with a view to inform future programming. This ness and cost-effectiveness of virtual and can include research on how group members in-person training and other digital deliv- coped with COVID-19 relative to non-members, ery channels in generating positive effects and how COVID-19 influenced gender dynamics on women’s empowerment and economic in the household and community. ● 20
EVIDENCE REVIEW OF WOMEN’S GROUPS AND COVID-19:
IMPACTS, CHALLENGES, AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR
SAVINGS GROUPS IN AFRICA
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