EXPECTATIONS AND ASPIRATIONS - OVERVIEW A New Framework for Education in the Middle East and North Africa - Sipotra
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EXPECTATIONS AND ASPIRATIONS A New Framework for Education in the Middle East and North Africa OVERVIEW
Overview
Expectations and
Aspirations
A New Framework for Education in the
Middle East and North AfricaThis booklet contains the overview, as well as a list of contents, from Expectations and Aspirations: A New Framework for Education in the Middle East and North Africa, doi: 10.1596/978-1- 4648-1234-7. A PDF of the final, full-length book, once published, will be available at https:// openknowledge.worldbank.org/ and print copies can be ordered at http://Amazon.com. Please use the final version of the book for citation, reproduction, and adaptation purposes. © 2019 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org Some rights reserved This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Nothing herein shall constitute or be considered to be a limitation upon or waiver of the privileges and immunities of The World Bank, all of which are specifically reserved. Rights and Permissions This work is available under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO license (CC BY 3.0 IGO) http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo. Under the Creative Commons Attribution license, you are free to copy, distribute, transmit, and adapt this work, including for commercial purposes, under the following conditions: Attribution—Please cite the work as follows: World Bank. 2019. “Expectations and Aspirations: A New Framework for Education in the Middle East and North Africa.” Overview booklet. World Bank, Washington, DC. License: Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 3.0 IGO Translations—If you create a translation of this work, please add the following disclaimer along with the attribution: This translation was not created by The World Bank and should not be considered an official World Bank translation. The World Bank shall not be liable for any content or error in this translation. Adaptations—If you create an adaptation of this work, please add the following disclaimer along with the attribution: This is an adaptation of an original work by The World Bank. Views and opinions expressed in the adaptation are the sole responsibility of the author or authors of the adaptation and are not endorsed by The World Bank. Third-party content—The World Bank does not necessarily own each component of the content contained within the work. The World Bank therefore does not warrant that the use of any third- party-owned individual component or part contained in the work will not infringe on the rights of those third parties. The risk of claims resulting from such infringement rests solely with you. If you wish to re-use a component of the work, it is your responsibility to determine whether permission is needed for that re-use and to obtain permission from the copyright owner. Examples of components can include, but are not limited to, tables, figures, or images. All queries on rights and licenses should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. Cover design: Aya Krisht. The Arabic calligraphy on the cover is composed of the words, “knowledge, education, learning.” Background image by Kjpargeter/Freepik.com. Used with permission; further permission required for reuse. Interior image credits: The following images are by individual artists from thenounproject.com: Figure ES.1 / Figure 1: “Rope” by Pedro Baños Cancer. Figure ES.2 / Figure 7: “Handshake” by Gregor Cresnar; “Climbing” by IYIKON; “Man Pushing Big Ball” by Gan Khoon Lay; “Pull” by Pavel, N. Figure 2 / Figure 17: “Diploma” by Ben Davis; “Brain” by Max Hancock. Figure 21: “Handshake” by Gregor Cresnar; “People” by Anastasia Latysheva; “Idea” by Ben Markoch.
Contents
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Executive summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Education has large untapped potential for the Middle East and North Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Much has changed in MENA—and the world—but education in MENA remains stuck . . . . . 2
Four tensions are holding back education in MENA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
A new framework is needed to realize education’s potential in MENA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Push for learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Pull for skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Recognize that context matters for learning and skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
A new education pact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Unleashing the potential of education is attainable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Boxes
1 Conflict put a large toll on education in MENA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 World Development Report 2018: Learning to Realize Education’s Promise . . . . . . . . . . 13
3 Prioritizing early childhood education in the United Arab Emirates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4 Attracting the best students to teaching depends on the right policies and programs . . . . . . . 20
5 School principals also must act as instructional leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6 Teaching at the right level benefits students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7 Improving foreign language instruction is important. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
8 Conflict in MENA is depriving many children of education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
iiii v C o n t e n t s
9 MENA’s gender paradox presents a dual challenge for human capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
10 EdTech offers opportunities to leapfrog learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
11 Signaling in education is communicating about skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
12 Reforming vocational education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
13 Finland and the Republic of Korea rely on different successful models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
14 In Rwanda, education has played a role in building peace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
15 Peru has found success in aligning interests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
16 Egypt’s education sector uses technology to ensure accountability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Figures
ES.1 Four tensions are holding back education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
ES.2 “Push, pull, and pact” offers a new framework for education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
1 Four tensions are holding back education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 MENA is stuck in a credentialist equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3 MENA students are more likely to be asked to memorize. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4 Obedience plays a central role in children’s education in MENA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5 Teachers in MENA have less autonomy than teachers in OECD countries . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6 Substantial time is devoted to religious education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7 “Push, pull, and pact” offers a new framework for education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
8 What matters for growth is skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
9 When adjusted for learning, the number of years of effective schooling in MENA
drops substantially. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
10 Preprimary enrollments in MENA are lower than in many other regions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
11 Large differences in preprimary enrollment rates are found across MENA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
12 The required working hours for teachers in MENA are well below those of the
top-performing countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
13 Teacher absenteeism is prevalent throughout MENA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
14 MENA has the biggest gaps in student achievement between top and
bottom performers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
15 MENA has the largest gender gaps in test scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
16 Computers are available in MENA’s schools, though coverage varies considerably. . . . . . . . 35
17 MENA needs a skills equilibrium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
18 A personal connection (wasta) is critical to securing work in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
19 School principals in MENA have less authority than those in OECD countries . . . . . . . . 40
20 Tolerance is associated with education, but intolerance is high even among
the educated in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
21 Learning is a collective responsibility, and everyone is accountable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Tables
1 MENA countries have some of the lowest results in student assessments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2 National and international large-scale assessments have surged in MENA since 2007. . . . . 28
3 MENA’s student achievement gaps have both narrowed and widened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32Foreword
In 1963, a country in the Middle East and policies and the need for urgent and deep
North Africa region (MENA), Tunisia, made reforms. The report comes on the heels of the
history when it convinced the World Bank to release, in October 2018, of the Human
help it finance, develop, and promote its edu- Capital Index, which measures how countries
cation system. Other countries followed and are preparing their citizens for a productive
the Bank took the lead in investing in educa- future and is revealing large gaps for coun-
tion across the world. tries in MENA. The Index confirms that edu-
Fifty-five years later, in 2018, when it came cation is pivotal to building MENA’s human
to standing up and being counted, nine coun- capacity and to unleashing its human wealth.
tries in MENA came forward and chose to be The facts are telling and they call for our
early adopters of the Human Capital Project. attention. The youth in MENA have achieved
Many others followed. much higher education levels than their par-
These countries took this step in recogni- ents, more than any region in the world. But,
tion of a difficult reality: that they were part unlike in other regions, this has yet to trans-
of a region lagging behind in clever and effi- late into better opportunities and higher
cient investments in its most precious asset— income.
its people and in its youth. These countries MENA has the highest intergenerational
also stood up with the determination to do mobility in education in the world, but its
better, work faster, and take on the formida- intergenerational mobility in income is low.
ble challenge of acting decisively to alter the The region’s average spending on education is
course of history—and to offer a new, posi- above the world average. In spite of that, its
tive, forward-looking, and bold vision for learning outcomes are among the lowest.
their region, their countries, their youth. Girls are by far outperforming boys in
This book on the comprehensive reforms learning outcomes—with the highest gender
awaiting MENA’s education systems arrives gap among all countries. Yet the region has
at a time of profound thought on the region, the lowest female labor force participation
its potential, its future, and its place in a fast- rates in the world. MENA has the highest
changing and fast-paced world. It feeds into a youth unemployment rates in the world and
dialogue opened by the World Bank and oth- these rates are mostly among the educated,
ers with MENA countries on their education especially women.
vv i F o r e w o r d
All this makes for a huge loss of productiv- bespoke solutions for our partner countries.
ity for MENA economies. And all this makes We need to point at the weaknesses and
for the many paradoxes of MENA at large. help to address them. This is where our
In recent years, the region has wit- effort and energy will go, for we firmly
nessed the devastating effects of the unmet believe that the MENA countries and econ-
expectations and unrealized aspirations of its omies need to set a far-reaching goal for
population, especially youth and women. We themselves—not only close the gap in
ought to learn from those, still current, trou- human capital but leapfrog to a prosperous,
bled times—learn and act. peaceful, and stable future that meets the
There is today an immediate need for a expectations and aspirations of their young
compact with the youth, one in which the people.
World Bank will have to play an active and
dynamic role. Above and beyond the diag- Ferid Belhaj
nostics that any report can provide, and this Vice President
one is a case in point, we need more innova- Middle East and North Africa Region
tive, leading-edge, creative, ambitious, and The World BankAcknowledgments
This report was prepared by Safaa El Tayeb Sekkarie, Jee Peng Tan, Simon Thacker,
El-Kogali, Education Global Practice Ayesha Vawda, and Mohamed Yassine. We
Manager, Middle East and North Africa also appreciate the contributions from St.
region (MENA), at the World Bank. The Catherine University research assistants
report draws on contributions by a team led Kapono Asuncion, Zea Branson, Taylor Flak,
by Lianqin Wang and Caroline Krafft and Lyndsay Kast, Caitlyn Keo, and Johanna
composed of Mariam Nusrat Adil, Tatlow. Colleagues from across the MENA
Mohammed Audah, May Bend, Maja Education Global Practice and other units
Capek, Angela Demas, Laura Gregory, Igor contributed valuable information.
Kheyfets, Almedina Music, Robert Prouty, Various drafts of the report benefited from
Manal Quota, Jamil Salmi, Elisabeth the excellent comments and suggestions by
Sedmik, Samira Nikaein Towfighian, Ragui Assaad, Benu Bidan, Kamel Braham,
Venkatesh Sundararaman, and Noah Michael Crawford, Luis Crouch, Amit Dar,
Yarrow. Overall guidance for preparation of Sameh El-Saharty, Mourad Ezzine, Tazeen
the report was provided by Hafez Ghanem, Fasih, Deon Filmer, Poonam Gupta, Amer
Regional Vice President; Shantayanan Hasan, Raja Bentaouet Kattan, Xiaoyan
Devarajan, Senior Director; Jaime Saavedra, Liang, Lili Mottaghi, Halsey Rogers, and
Senior Director; Rabah Arezki, Chief Sajjad Shah. We would also like to thank the
Economist; Daniel Lederman, Deputy Chief members of the MENA Regional
Economist; Luis Benveniste, Director; and Management Team for their feedback.
Keiko Miwa, Director. This report benefited greatly from the feed-
We appreciate the contributions by our back received during regional and in-country
colleagues, including Husein Abdul-Hamid, consultations. In particular, we are grateful
Fadila Caillaud, Michael Drabble, Jiayue Fan, for the invaluable feedback received at
Kasra Farivari, Katherina Hruskovec regional consultation events held in December
Gonzalez, Samira Halabi, Yue-Yi Hwa, Pierre 2017 in Amman, Jordan, and Beirut,
Kamano, Thomas Michael Kaye, Amira Lebanon. Comments, insights, and sugges-
Kazem, Lisa Lahalih, Jee Yoon Lee, Juan tions were received during the event from
Manuel Moreno, Harriet Nannyonjo, H. E. Dr. Omar Razzaz, Prime Minister and
Shahram Paksima, Karine Pezzani, Samia former Minister of Education of Jordan;
viiv i i i A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s
H. E. Dr. Tarek Shawki, Minister of Education collaboration with Maja Capek, Emma
of the Arab Republic of Egypt; and H. E. Fadi Etori, and Elisabeth Sedmik from the MENA
Yarak, Secretary General, Ministry of education unit. Aya Krisht developed the
Education, Lebanon. We also appreciate the cover design. Patricia da Camara, Karolina
valuable feedback received from representa- Ordon, and Ashraf Saad Allah Al-Saeed
tives of governments, academia, nongovern- provided guidance and support on commu-
mental organizations, civil society nications and dissemination. Elisabeth
organizations, and international development Mekonnen provided overall administrative
organizations from across MENA. support.
Our special thanks go to everyone who The report draws on literature and docu-
supported the publication, dissemination, ments by researchers and specialists from
and communication efforts for this report. across the world and on the authors’ own
They include Sabra Ledent, the principal experiences and interactions with many dedi-
editor of the report, and Jewel McFadden, cated educators, administrators, policy mak-
who coordinated the publication process in ers, and students in MENA.Executive summary
Education has a large untapped potential to the Arab Spring (World Bank 2015a), youth
contribute to human capital, well-being, and unemployment rates have risen, and the
wealth in the Middle East and North Africa quality of public services has deteriorated
region (MENA).1 In fact, it has been at the (Brixi, Lust, and Woolcock 2015; World
heart of the region’s history and civilizations Bank 2013a). Even in relatively stable coun-
for centuries. In the 20th century, education tries, labor market outcomes for the edu-
was central to countries’ struggles for inde- cated have worsened (El-Araby 2013; Krafft
pendence, to building modern states and 2013; Rizk 2016; Salehi-Isfahani, Tunali,
economies, and to defining national identi- and Assaad 2009; Tzannatos, Diwan, and
ties. Today, MENA has the lowest share of Ahad 2016). Exacerbating these challenges
human capital in total wealth globally was the substantial downturn in the global
(Lange, Wodon, and Carey 2018). While the oil market, which has placed more pressure
region’s young people have attained higher on resource-rich countries (IMF 2017) and
educational levels than their parents, they created an even more urgent need to push
were not able to translate their educational for human capital development across
attainment to greater income opportunities MENA.
(Narayan et al. 2018). That is, while MENA Despite large investments in education
has the highest absolute intergenerational over the last 50 years, impressive growth in
education mobility compared to other enrollment rates, and gender parity at almost
regions in the world, it also has low inter- all levels of education, MENA has not been
generational income mobility. In most other able to fully reap the personal, social, and
regions, educational attainment and income economic benefits of education. During these
mobility are well correlated (Narayan et al. same 50 years, the Republic of Korea also
2018). invested in its human capital and succeeded in
The 435 million residents of MENA are moving from a developing country in the
enduring a period of pronounced hardship. early 1960s to one of the top 20 economies in
Ongoing threats to peace and economic sta- the world today. Korea established a world-
bility are contributing to challenges across class education system, and its students con-
numerous sectors. Economic growth has sistently rank among the top in international
remained persistently low in the aftermath of learning assessments. By contrast, MENA
ixx E x e c u t i v e s u m m a r y
students have consistently ranked among the Four tensions
lowest on such assessments.
Although much has changed politically, The education process consists of a complex
economically, and socially in MENA, its edu- set of factors and actors at multiple levels.
cation systems have largely remained Factors outside the education system—
unchanged. Over the last decade, new tech- political, economic, and social—formally
nologies have emerged and spread globally, and informally interact with the education
disrupting the lives of billions and changing system and shape its outcomes. Behavioral
the nature of work. Consequently, the kinds norms and ideological polarization among
of skills needed to succeed in the labor market governments, interest groups, and citizens
are changing as well (World Bank 2019). The can hold countries back from delivering pub-
role of technology as a demand shaper in the lic goods (World Bank 2016b). Education in
future of work is certain, but its role as a MENA has been held back by these behav-
delivery catalyst holds great potential that the ioral norms and ideological polarization,
region has not yet tapped. Indeed, technology which are embodied in four sets of tensions
is changing how today’s students are being (figure ES.1): (1) credentials and skills; (2)
prepared to enter the future workforce—that discipline and inquiry; (3) control and auton-
is, it is influencing not only the ends of educa- omy; and (4) tradition and modernity. These
tion but also the means. Technology presents tensions have held education back from
a unique opportunity to help deliver high- evolving to deliver learning that prepares
quality education in a more efficient and students for their future. The four tensions
effective manner. are deeply embedded in the region’s history,
MENA has the capacity and resources to culture, and political economy, but exist to
leverage technology to create education sys- varying degrees in each country, and they
tems that will build its human capital. The largely define social and political relations.
region has the tools and the opportunities to They have informed and shaped education
leapfrog and create prosperous and peaceful policy in MENA countries since indepen-
societies. However, the power of education to dence, and they are at the heart of the cur-
build human capital and to create change rent national discourses on education
depends on its quality, its access to comple- reforms.
mentary economic and social environments, Schools and classrooms are the platforms
and its ability to leverage technology smartly. where these tensions are exercised through
curricula, pedagogy, and the norms that
define interactions among principals, teach-
FIGURE ES.1 Four tensions are holding back education in MENA ers, parents, and students. These tensions ulti-
mately shape the educational outcomes for
Tradition young people in MENA and affect their lives,
as well as the economies and societies in
Credentials Discipline which they live. In an increasingly connected
world, the effects of these tensions can reach
beyond the region’s borders. Unless they are
Classroom School Society addressed, MENA will not be able to reap the
Control Education Autonomy full benefits of education, no matter how
much money is invested.
Credentials and skills. A credential in the
form of a degree, diploma, or certificate is
Inquiry Skills
usually associated with acquiring a specific set
Modernity
of skills. In the labor market, credentials sig-
nal productivity based on the assumption that
Source: World Bank. more years of education are associated withE x e c u t i v e s u m m a r y xi
higher productivity. Throughout MENA, MENA is aligning the development needs of
public sector employment was historically a modern world and the moral imperatives
guaranteed to anyone with a sufficient educa- of a religious society. The result is tension
tion credential. Thus checking the credential between modernity, or the forces of change,
box became more valued than acquiring and tradition (Cook 2000). This tension can
skills. As a result, in MENA there is little or lead to conflicts within education processes
no link between education credentials and (Massialas and Jarrar 1987). In MENA,
skills. Countries are stuck in a “credentialist modernity is frequently associated with
equilibrium,” in which a weak demand for Western models and approaches and is used
skills and a strong demand for credentials in by opponents of change to halt reforms.
the labor market induce families to demand However, modernity is the process of renew-
credentials from the education system more ing social norms, and there are multiple
than skills (Salehi-Isfahani 2012). The educa- “modernities.” The issue is not replacing tra-
tion system in turn responds to their demands dition with modernity. Rather, it is allowing
by providing credentials. review of the traditional practices and norms
Discipline and inquiry. In societies in that hold back the potential of education
which social norms are strong, discipline and engaging in a process of renewal that
ensures adherence to those norms. Concepts prepares students to better relate to a chang-
of discipline and inquiry are closely linked to ing world.
pedagogy and curricula, as well as to the day-
to-day interactions in schools and classrooms
among principals, teachers, and students. Push, pull, and pact: A new
Overemphasis on discipline leads to memori-
zation and passive learning. Across MENA,
framework for education
curricula depend heavily on rote memoriza- To realize the potential of education, MENA
tion, leaving little time for the development of needs to tackle the four tensions and estab-
critical thinking skills. Although discipline is lish an education system that prepares all
important, too much may constrict students’ students for a productive and successful
ability to learn, think, explore ideas, or ques- future. Such a system would be modern
tion concepts. Inquiry, by contrast, allows and flexible and would nurture a culture of
students to understand their surroundings, excellence and creativity in learning. It also
contextualize concepts through questions and would leverage disruptive technologies and
experimentation, and build the skills they adopt modern approaches so it can offer
need to learn throughout life. young people the skills they need to define
Control and autonomy. The tension their trajectories in life and adapt to local,
between control and autonomy is embodied national, and global changes. Finally, it
in the ongoing debate about the decentraliza- would be a system that would be based on
tion of education services delivery and the a shared national vision and would connect
balance of power among central ministries, with the overall development goals of the
regional offices, and schools. Several MENA country. All of society would be responsible
countries have experimented with aspects of for ensuring its success. To establish such a
education decentralization, autonomy, and system, MENA needs to adopt a new frame-
accountability. The success of these efforts work for education—one that includes a
has varied. In some instances, a decentralized concerted push for learning, a wide-reaching
model was rolled out, devolving decision- pull for skills, and new pact for education.
making power but without the capacity or (figure ES.2).
resources to implement it at the local and The potential of education is achieved only
school level. when it confers the skills and knowledge that
Tradition and modernity. According to constitute human capital. It is in fact the skills
some scholars, the greatest challenge facing conferred through learning that determinex i i E x e c u t i v e summary
FIGURE ES.2 “Push, pull, and pact” offers a new religion, and national identity makes it dif-
framework for education in MENA ficult to make a regional recommendation.
Even though this phenomenon is a regional
A stronger pull
for skills one, it manifests itself in many different
ways in different countries. Hence, it needs
A new pact to be addressed with a very specific for-
for education
mula in each country.
5. Applying learning assessments that regu-
A stronger push
larly monitor student progress to ensure
for learning that students are learning.
6. Giving all children, regardless of gender,
Source: World Bank.
race, background or ability, an opportu-
nity to learn—a requirement for raising
education’s contribution to economic learning outcomes at the national level.
growth—not the years of schooling (Barro 7. Leveraging technology to enhance the
and Lee 2013; Hanushek and Woessmann delivery of education and promote learn-
2008; World Bank 2018e). MENA has suc- ing among students and educators and
ceeded in providing schooling; now it needs preparing students for an increasingly
to achieve learning. The number of actual digital world.
years of schooling has increased across
MENA, with several countries reaching an To reap the benefits of education, MENA
average that is close to a full cycle of primary must align its push for learning with a pull for
and secondary education. However, when the skills. Without a realignment of the labor
number of actual years of schooling is market that increases the demand for skills,
adjusted for learning, the effective years of the contribution of the education sector to the
schooling in MENA are on average 2.9 less economy will not be fully realized. A con-
than the number of actual years of schooling. certed push for learning can lead to some
In other words, the poor quality of education progress, but it is not enough to realize the
in MENA is equivalent to approximately full potential of education. Such a push would
three lost years of education (World Bank move education closer to fulfilling its poten-
2018e). tial, but it would be a second-best approach
To pursue a push for learning, countries that would leave most of that potential
must focus on seven areas: untapped (Rodrik 2008). A first-best
approach involves multisystem reforms that
1. Building the foundational skills—from align the push for learning with a pull for
early childhood through the early grades skills. It includes economic reforms to bring
of school—needed for future learning and the skills required in the labor market in line
success. with those conferred by education and sought
2. Ensuring that teachers and school leaders, by parents and students, as well as efforts to
who are the most important inputs to the address distortions in the education sector
learning process, are qualified, well selected, and beyond. Employers would shift from
effectively utilized, and incentivized to con- focusing on credentials to demanding skills.
tinue to develop professionally. Parents and students could then demand skills
3. Modernizing pedagogy and instructional from the education system, which would help
practices to promote inquiry, creativity, MENA move away from a credentialist equi-
and innovation. librium to a skills equilibrium. But achieving
4. Addressing the language of instruction this shift will depend on employers doing a
challenge given the gap between spoken better job of signaling the skills they need. It
Arabic and modern standard Arabic. The will also depend on policy makers addressing
close connection among language, rigid labor policies that discourage employersE x e c u t i v e s u m m a r y xiii from seeking open, transparent ways of hiring society from reforms, can help shift the social for skills. A pull for skills will depend as well mindset. However, such an effort must be on civil service reforms that support hiring, based on credible evidence not linked to any motivating, and empowering the best teachers ideological or political rhetoric, and it must and placing them where they are most needed. focus on real, substantial reforms and not Finally, a pull for skills will depend on cur- minor changes in policies (Khemani 2017). ricula that reflect the skills that prepare stu- Changing laws can also lead to a shift in dents for social and economic life. Curricula norms. However, enactment of laws alone is reforms must, then, ensure alignment of what not sufficient; they must be strictly imple- students learn with the skills they need. In mented and compliance encouraged. A behav- fact, curricula should serve as the nexus for ioral response to incentives in the short run the multiple spheres of society, the labor mar- can lead to longer-term shifts in behavior and ket, and the education system. Meanwhile, social norms (World Bank 2015d). the shift from a credentialist equilibrium to a A pact for education. Improving education skills equilibrium should be evident in curri- is not the responsibility of educators alone; it cula. Systems are aligned when official curri- must involve all members of society— cula reflect the skills demanded by society and politicians, businesspeople, and community the labor market. Conversely, when official and religious leaders, as well as parents, curricula are outdated and disconnected from teachers, school principals, and the students real life, the result is a mismatch between themselves. Education can potentially play what students acquire and what society and many roles in an economy and society, but employers require. there are tensions among stakeholders’ goals. Context matters. Education reforms in By far the most difficult are often-opposing MENA through a push for learning and a views, strongly held convictions, and diver- pull for skills will not achieve the same results gent interests. The dissonance across different in all contexts. There are multiple models for stakeholders’ goals for education is a substan- transforming education. Finland and Korea tial obstacle. were both top scorers in the 2015 Programme Establishing a new pact for education is for International Student Assessment (PISA), therefore critical. The interests of a wide vari- a sign of strong learning. And yet the two ety of stakeholders—including teachers, princi- education systems that produced this learning pals, inspectors, politicians, communities, are quite different. MENA countries need to employers, and students—need to be aligned roll out reform efforts based on what is feasi- by building a powerful alliance. This requires a ble in education, economic, and social unified vision that takes into account the four reform—that is, successful education reforms tensions holding back education, the local con- will depend on understanding the existing text, and the social norms that define the ten- constraints (Rodrik 2008). How reforms are sions. It also requires strong leadership to align designed, introduced, approved, and imple- interests and rally support around common mented within a specific country also deter- national goals to which education must con- mines their success. The effectiveness of tribute. A new pact also will depend on a com- different policy options often depends on mon sense that everyone is responsible and whether complementary conditions are in everyone is accountable in the provision of place and whether sufficient resources are education—that is, accountability needs to go available. beyond the education system. Finally, a new Making any substantial changes in educa- pact requires reconciling investments and tion calls for tackling inefficient social norms resources with the vision’s priorities. High- that inhibit reform. Changing social norms is performing education systems—such as those not easy, but it can be done. Raising aware- in Japan, Korea, and Singapore—are good ness about the costs or inefficiencies of certain examples of strong education pacts across norms, or the benefits that would accrue to stakeholders. These countries have adopted a
x i v E x e c u t i v e summary
unified vision for education and have consis- Note
tently and coherently instituted reforms to
1. The World Bank defines MENA as includ-
achieve human capital–driven economic
ing these countries and economies: Algeria,
growth (Wong 2017).
Bahrain, Djibouti, Arab Republic of
MENA has the history, culture, and Egypt, Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Jordan,
resources to leapfrog into a future founded on Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco,
a learned society and a knowledge economy. Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syrian Arab
The region has great expectations and aspira- Republic, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates,
tions. Unleashing the potential of education is West Bank and Gaza, and Republic of
attainable, but it will take a commitment by all Yemen. This report excludes Malta from the
to make education not only a national priority analysis as it has little in common with the
but also a national emergency. rest of the region.Abbreviations
AREF Académies régionales d’éducation et de formation
CAL computer-assisted learning
ECD early childhood development
ECE early childhood education
EGMA Early Grade Mathematics Assessment
EGRA Early Grade Reading Assessment
ICT information and communications technology
IDP internally displaced person
LOI language of instruction
MENA Middle East and North Africa
MICS Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey
MOOC massive open online course
MSA Modern Standard Arabic
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
PBB performance-based budgeting
PIRLS Progress in International Reading Literacy Study
PISA Programme for International Student Assessment
TIMSS Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
USAID U.S. Agency for International Development
xvOverview
ان رصيد أي امة متﻘدمة ھﻮ أﺑناؤھا الﻤتعلﻤﻮن وان ﺗﻘدم الﺸعﻮب واﻷمم انﻤا يﻘاس ﺑﻤستﻮى التعليم وانتﺸاره – ﺷيﺦ زايد ال نهيان
The credit of any developed nation is its educated children, and the advancement of people
and nations is measured by the status and reach of their education.
—Shaykh Zayed Alnahyan
Education has large untapped returns to education in the labor market are
among the lowest in the world (Patrinos
potential for the Middle East and 2016). Beyond the labor market, education
North Africa in MENA is only weakly associated with
social outcomes such as civic engagement
Young people in the Middle East and North
and participation in community issues,
Africa region (MENA) 1 today have more
unlike in other regions (Diwan 2016).
educational opportunities and have attained
MENA also has the lowest share of human
higher educational levels than their parents.
capital in total wealth globally (Lange,
Among the world’s regions, MENA ranks
Wodon, and Carey 2018). The contribution
highest in terms of absolute intergenera-
of education to human capital, economic
tional education mobility (Narayan
growth, and social outcomes is well docu-
et al. 2018). However, its high levels of edu-
mented (Becker 1962; Lochner and Moretti
cational attainment have not translated
2004; Milligan, Moretti, and Oreopoulos
into greater income opportunities.
2004; Mincer 1974; OECD 2014; Sala-i-
Intergenerational income mobility in MENA
Martin, Doppelhofer, and Miller 2004).
is low. Educational attainment and income
Education has a large, untapped potential to
mobility are strongly correlated in most
contribute to the human capital, well-being,
other regions and within the world’s high-
and wealth of MENA (Lange, Wodon, and
income countries, but not in MENA
Carey 2018). It has been at the heart of the
(Narayan et al. 2018). Families and individ-
region’s history and civilizations for centuries.
uals invest in education in the hopes of ben-
In the 20th century, education was central to
efiting from good work opportunities in the
countries’ struggles for independence, to
labor market, but in MENA the private
12 E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations
building modern states and economies, and to despite significant investments over the last
defining national identities. five decades? More important, what can
MENA has made large investments in edu- MENA countries do to emerge from this
cation over the last 50 years and have impasse and retake their position as leaders in
achieved impressive growth in enrollment education and innovation? How can they
rates and gender parity at almost all educa- unleash the potential of their human capital
tion levels. And yet all MENA countries— to create prosperous and peaceful societies?
regardless of their geography, demography, MENA countries have an opportunity to
economy, or society—have not been able to realize the untapped potential of education
fully reap the personal, social, and economic and fulfill the expectations and aspirations of
benefits of education. During these same 50 their young citizens and future generations.
years, the Republic of Korea also invested in But some hurdles must be overcome. This
its human capital and succeeded in moving report identifies four sets of tensions that are
from a developing country in the early 1960s holding back MENA’s education potential:
to one of the top 20 economies in the world (1) credentials and skills; (2) discipline and
today. Korea established a world-class educa- inquiry; (3) control and autonomy; and
tion system, and its students consistently rank (4) tradition and modernity. These tensions
among the top in international learning are found within countries, societies, commu-
assessments. By contrast, MENA students nities, and households, and are manifested
have consistently ranked among the lowest on and reinforced in schools and classrooms.
such assessments. Unless they are addressed, no amount of
When asked in a 2017 World Bank MENA investment in education can reap the full ben-
Facebook poll whether they thought educa- efits. The report proposes a new framework
tion improves their chances in the job market that calls for a concerted push for learning,
in their country, 92 percent of respondents a stronger pull for skills, and a new pact for
said “No,” and “A thousand ‘no’s” as one education. Despite challenging regional geo-
respondent said.2 “What is taught in schools politics, socioeconomic pressures, and global
and universities has no relationship with trends, MENA has the capacity and resources
work life or reality—time wasted in a failed to create education systems that will build its
system,” wrote one respondent. “Education human capital.
in our country is just to get a credential, and
one ends up on a couch or in cafes with no
work and a lost future for all students,” wrote Much has changed in MENA—
another. Thousands more expressed similar and the world—but education in
dissatisfaction with education in their coun-
tries. The frustration expressed by the
MENA remains stuck
Facebook poll respondents is not merely a Today, the 435 million residents of MENA
perception but in fact the reality faced by mil- are enduring a period of pronounced hard-
lions of young people in MENA today. This ship. Ongoing threats to peace and economic
can and should change. stability are contributing to challenges across
Why has MENA not been able to realize many sectors. Economic growth has
the potential of education? How did the remained persistently low in the aftermath of
region whose educational excellence over five the Arab Spring (World Bank 2015a); youth
centuries drove innovation in science and unemployment rates have risen; and the
social development and the region that quality of public services has deteriorated
became a catalyst for the European (Brixi, Lust, and Woolcock 2015; World
Renaissance and scientific revolution Bank 2013a). Even in relatively stable coun-
(Overbye 2001) become one of the worst per- tries, labor market outcomes for the edu-
formers in educational outcomes today? And cated have worsened (El-Araby 2013; Krafft
why has the region not been able to improve 2013; Rizk 2016; Salehi-Isfahani, Tunali,O v e r v i e w 3 and Assaad 2009; Tzannatos, Diwan, and reforms have paid insufficient attention to Ahad 2016). Exacerbating these challenges how the education sector interacts with other was the substantial downturn in the global sectors, broader socioeconomic and political oil market, which has placed more pressure trends, and the behavioral norms and inter- on resource-rich countries (IMF 2017) and ests of various groups. has created an even more urgent need to In the 10 years since The Road Not push for human capital development across Traveled, much has changed in the region and MENA. the world, but MENA’s education systems Although MENA countries vary substan- remain stuck, “engineering” to meet the high tially in their economic development, as well demand of a large and growing school-age as in the nature of the social and political population with the same delivery mecha- issues they face, they share many characteris- nisms of previous decades. During this tics and challenges. The Arab countries that decade, MENA countries have spent an aver- form the larger part of MENA share a com- age of 4.5 percent of their national income on mon language and much of their history and education, and over 15 million additional culture. Many countries in the region have boys and girls have enrolled in schooling at parallel education histories, which include all levels.3 At the same time, the political some of the earliest universities in the world economy landscape has changed drastically. and substantial historical contributions to From the 2011 Arab Spring arose a public human knowledge and development (Abi- outcry for better basic services and equal Mershed 2010; Rugh 2002). More recently, opportunities that changed long-standing dic- as a result of similar postindependence trajec- tatorships in the Arab Republic of Egypt, tories, there has been a substantial overlap in Libya, and Tunisia; amended constitutions in pedagogical methods and labor market issues. Jordan and Morocco; and altered the status And throughout the region, education quality quo in almost every county in the region. The and learning outcomes have faced many of Syrian Arab Republic and Republic of Yemen the same challenges. continue to struggle with civil war (see box A decade ago, the World Bank addressed 1), which has generated one of the worst refu- the crisis in education quality in MENA in gee crises of all time. It has inflicted great suf- The Road Not Traveled: Education Reform fering on millions of refugees across the in the Middle East and North Africa (World region and the world and imposed serious Bank 2008). It noted that MENA countries constraints on host communities (Brussels had succeeded in engineering an education Conference 2018; UNHCR 2018a). system focused mainly on inputs, such as The past 10 years have also been marked building schools, but they had not done much by remarkable technological advances. At the to change the incentives and behavior of edu- time of The Road Not Traveled report, the cators. The report proposed a new road iPhone was one year old, Twitter was just tak- toward education systems built on improving ing off, and Facebook users numbered around incentives and public accountability, on the 145 million (Guardian 2014). By 2016, there one hand, and achieving an equilibrium in the were 107 mobile subscriptions per 100 per- labor market between the supply of educated sons in MENA countries,4 and by 2017 there individuals and labor demand, on the other. were almost 100 million active social media MENA countries have indeed embarked on users (Radcliffe and Lam 2018). Of the numerous reforms in their education sectors, 2.1 billion current Facebook users, over but with little or no success. In some instances, 100 million are in MENA. The social network the reforms have been piecemeal or uncoordi- WhatsApp, which was launched in 2009, has nated, or have failed to tackle the fundamen- 1.5 billion users globally. Today, over two- tal issues. In others, they have not been thirds of young Arabs use Facebook and sufficiently funded or communicated to stake- WhatsApp. Furthermore, YouTube, which holders. Meanwhile, too often education was three years old in 2008, currently has
4 E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations
BOX 1
Conflict put a large toll on education in MENA
MENA has been rattled by violent conflict and pro- origin. Refugees also may not have the requisite docu-
tracted crises for years, forcing millions of people mentation, or the receiving countries may not be able to
to leave their homes in search of safety and security. verify the authenticity of their documents (ESU 2017).
Although MENA is home to just 6 percent of the At the tertiary level, fewer than 5 percent of
world’s population, it hosts 35 percent of the world’s Syrians aged 18–24 in Jordan, Lebanon, and Turkey
refugees and 30 percent of the world’s conflict-related are enrolled in higher education (European Com-
internally displaced persons (IDPs).a This situation has mission 2015). Because tertiary education is not a
put great pressure on the host countries’ education priority in emergency assistance programs, funding
systems. For example, in 2017–18 Lebanon absorbed remains a major roadblock (European Commission
almost 214,000 non-Lebanese students in public 2017; Nakweya 2017).
schools, the majority of whom were accommodated by The education infrastructure and services in
opening second shifts in 349 public schools across the conflict countries have been heavily affected. For
country (Ministry of Education and Higher Education, example, in the 16 cities that suffered heavy fighting
Lebanon 2018). Jordan also operates 209 public dou- during the war in Iraq, only 38 percent of the total
ble-shift schools and provides nonformal education ser- school infrastructure remains intact, and 18 percent
vices run jointly by international organizations and the (190 facilities) was destroyed (World Bank 2018b).
Ministry of Education (Government of Jordan 2018). Two-thirds of schools in the Republic of Yemen need
In addition to schools, host countries face other chal- repairs (UNICEF 2018). In Syria, about one-third of
lenges in providing suitable education services for IDPs. school buildings have been damaged, destroyed, are
For example, host countries often lack information occupied by parties to the conflict, or are being used
about the education systems in refugees’ countries of to shelter IDPs (Brussels Conference 2017).
a. See IDMC (2018); UNHCR (2018a, 2018b); UNRWA (2017); World Bank, World Development Indicators database.
1.5 billion users globally, and Saudi Arabia is certain, but its role as a delivery catalyst is an
its biggest market in per capita consumption. opportunity that needs to be leveraged.
Young Saudis age 15–24 spend on average 74 That will require investment in human capi-
minutes a day watching online videos tal, education, and new skill sets in MENA.
(Radcliffe and Lam 2018). At the same time, Although much has changed politically,
the world and the region have seen a sharp economically, and socially in MENA over the
increase in EdTech—information and com- last decade, their education systems to a large
munications technology (ICT) applications extent have remained the same. Education
aimed at improving education—investments, has the potential to fuel important economic
which reached a record US$9.5 billion in 2017 and social contributions, but its power to cre-
(Shulman 2018). Khan Academy, which ate change depends not only on its quality but
opened its doors in 2008, uses YouTube to also on complementary economic and social
provide lessons to millions. environments and the ability to leverage tech-
Meanwhile, technological advances, auto- nology smartly.
mation, and innovation are increasingly shap-
ing new jobs and changing the nature of work.
Although manual manufacturing jobs are Four tensions are holding back
being automated, technology has the potential
to create new jobs and increase productivity
education in MENA
(World Bank 2019). The role of technology as The education process consists of a complex
a demand shaper for the future of work is set of factors and actors at multiple levels.O v e r v i e w 5
Factors outside the education system— FIGURE 1 Four tensions are holding back education in MENA
political, economic, and social—formally
and informally interact with the education Tradition
system and shape its outcomes. Behavioral
Credentials Discipline
norms and ideological polarization among
governments, interest groups, and citizens
can hold countries back from delivering pub-
lic goods (World Bank 2016b). In MENA, Classroom School Society
Control Education Autonomy
education has been held back by these com-
plex interactions, behavioral norms, and
ideological polarization, which can be cap-
tured in four sets of tensions: credentials and Inquiry Skills
skills, discipline and inquiry, control and
autonomy, and tradition and modernity Modernity
(figure 1).
Source: World Bank.
These tensions are deeply embedded in the
region’s history, culture, and political econ-
omy. They are reflected to varying degrees in autonomy could also be associated with dis-
all the countries in the region, and to a large cipline and inquiry or tradition and moder-
extent they define social and political rela- nity. Third, the tensions are neither unique
tions. They have informed and shaped educa- to MENA nor time-specific. Throughout his-
tion policy in MENA countries since tory, countries across the world have strug-
independence, and they are at the heart of the gled with these tensions in defining their
current national discourses on education goals and policies. Fourth, no one position
reforms. These tensions have held education applies to every country or region. Each
systems from evolving and delivering the country, based on its national development
skills that prepare students for their future. goals and vision, needs to decide where it
Schools and classrooms are the platforms wants to place its education system within
where these tensions are exercised through these tensions.
curricula, pedagogy, and the norms that
define interactions among principals, teach-
Credentials and skills
ers, parents, and students. These tensions ulti-
mately shape the educational outcomes for The tension between credentials and skills
the young people in MENA and affect their has been a source of debate for almost
lives, as well as the economies and societies in 50 years. Since the 1970s, economists and
which they live. In an increasingly connected sociologists have argued about the links
world, the effects of these tensions can reach between education, skills, and the labor mar-
beyond the region’s borders. Unless they are ket, using numerous theories and models,
addressed, MENA will not be able to reap the such as Becker’s human capital theory
full benefits of education, no matter how (Becker 1962), Collins’s credentialist theory
much money is invested. (Collins 1979), and Spence’s signaling model
Four features of these tensions are note- (Spence 1973). A credential in the form of a
worthy. First, they are not mutually exclu- degree, diploma, or certificate is usually
sive and they coexist along a continuum. The associated with acquiring a specific set of
challenge for countries is to determine where skills or knowledge. In the labor market,
they want to be on the continuum and what credentials signal productivity, based on the
balance would be optimal to deliver the assumption that more years of education
desired outcomes. Second, the four tensions are associated with higher productivity (Page
overlap in some areas and can reinforce each 2010). Credentials also bestow a certain sta-
other. For example, notions of control and tus in society, where a higher degree is6 E x p e c t a t i o n s and Aspir ations
associated with higher status and figures in In addition to higher wages, the desire for
such matters as marriage. public employment is motivated by greater
The history of education as a tool to gener- prestige, more generous benefits, and a better
ate bureaucrats for the public sector shaped work environment, particularly for women
the current structure of the education system (Barsoum 2015). Expectations of the public
and labor market in MENA. Public sector sector are also high because employment
employment was typically guaranteed for opportunities are often treated as a right, fur-
anyone who had a sufficient education cre- ther disconnecting these opportunities from
dential—diploma or degree. The requirement education. Several regional constitutions
was more for the credential—the diploma or include the “right to work,” engendering a
certificate—than for the skills. As a result, common attitude that employment should be
MENA countries have become societies in provided by the government and not by the
which there is little or no link between educa- private sector (Barsoum 2015). That attitude
tion credentials and skills (Assaad, Krafft, is a legacy of the government employment
and Salehi-Isfahani 2017). In the meantime, guarantees that were part of the region’s
little pressure has been placed on educational social contract (Assaad 1997, 2014). The
institutions to ensure that credentials mean high wages and outsized role of government
that the graduate possesses the relevant skills. employment in MENA crowd out the private
Although the size of the public sector as an sector (Behar and Mok 2013; Nabli 2007),
employer has declined in many MENA coun- and government strategies to increase high-
tries, its legacy continues in the form of a quality private sector employment have
“credentialist equilibrium” (Salehi-Isfahani largely failed, resulting in poor or limited
2012). In such an equilibrium, public sector opportunities for new graduates (Dahi 2012;
employers communicate a strong demand for Salehi-Isfahani 2012; Springborg 2011) and
credentials, and the private sector’s signals for reducing the demand for skills.
skills are weak. Responding to market sig- The notion of reducing public sector
nals, students and families focus more on the employment, a key aspect of a new Arab
credential (degree or diploma) and less on the social contract, has gained little traction in
skills and competencies that these credentials the region (Devarajan and Ianchovichina
would ideally represent (see figure 2). 2017). Since the Arab Spring, calls for a new
The credentialist equilibrium in MENA social contract have not yielded meaningful
countries has been created in part by imbal- change in the role of the public sector. In fact,
ances in the labor market, where the public Egypt, Jordan, and Tunisia have all raised
sector is large and is the preferred employer public salaries to stem further protests
(Barsoum 2015; World Bank 2013a). (Capital Economics 2017). Although placat-
ing social discontent and temporarily sup-
porting the economy, this approach merely
FIGURE 2 MENA is stuck in a credentialist equilibrium reinforces the notion that public sector
employment is the only path to high salaries,
Education career growth, and status within society—and
system Strong supply
of credentials so it will keep the region stuck in a credential-
Strong demand
for credentials ist equilibrium.
Weak demand Private Discipline and inquiry
for skills employers
The terms discipline and inquiry have multi-
Youth and
Strong demand Public ple meanings and uses. Here, discipline is
families employers defined as “the practice of training people to
for credentials
obey rules or a code of behavior” (Oxford)
Source: Adapted from Assaad, Krafft, and Salehi-Isfahani (2017). or “training that corrects, molds, or perfectsYou can also read
